Fermented and malted millet products in Africa: Expedition from traditional/ethnic foods to industrial value-added products

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 58, Issue 3, 2018, Pages 463-474

  Adebiyi, J A ^a   Obadina, A O ^a,b   Adebo, O A ^a   Kayitesi, E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG   (South Africa)

^b FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE   (Nigeria)

Author keywords

Africa; fermentation; food products; malting; Millet; processing

Indexed keywords

CROPS; FOOD PRODUCTS; FOOD SUPPLY; PROCESSING;

AFRICA; FOOD INSECURITY; FOOD SECURITY; MALTING; MILLET; NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITIONS; PARADIGM SHIFTS; VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS;

FERMENTATION;

AFRICA; CHILDBIRTH; CONSUMER; FERMENTATION; FOOD SECURITY; HUMAN; MALTING; MILLET; NONHUMAN; CHEMISTRY; FERMENTED PRODUCT; FOOD INDUSTRY; SEEDLING;

AFRICA; FERMENTED FOODS; FOOD INDUSTRY; HUMANS; MILLETS; SEEDLINGS;

EID: 85023206637     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: 15497852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1188056     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Abriouel, H., Ben Omar, N., Lopez, R. L., Martinez-Canamero, M., Keleke, S., and Galvez, A., (2006). Culture-independent analysis of the microbial composition of the African traditional fermented foods poto poto and dégué by using three different DNA extraction methods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 111:228–233.
2. Adebo, O. A., Njobeh, P. B., Gbashi, S., Nwinyi, O. C., and Mavumengwana, V., (2015). Review on microbial degradation of aflatoxins. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. In Press https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1106440 (Accessed 25December2015).
3. Adekunle, A. A., (2012). Agricultural Innovation in Sub-Saharan Africa: Experiences from Multiple Stakeholder Approaches. Forum for Agric.Res.Afr., Ghana.
4. Adinsi, L., Vieira-Dalode, G., Akissoe, N. H., Anihouvi, V., Mestres, C., Jacobs, A., Dlamini, N., Pallet, D., and Hounhouigan, J. D., (2014). Processing and Quality Attributes of Gowe: a Malted and Fermented Cereal-Based Beverage from Benin. Food Chain 4(2):171–183.
5. Ajiboye, T. O., Iliasu, G. A., Adeleye, A. O., Abdussalam, F. A., Akinpelu, S. A., Ogunbode, S. M., Jimoh, S. O., and Oloyede, O. B., (2014). Nutritional and antioxidant dispositions of sorghum/millet beverages indigenous to Nigeria. Food Sci. Nutr. 2(5):597–604.
6. Aka, S., Konan, G., Fokou, G., Dje, K. M., and Bassirou, B., (2014). Review on African traditional cereal beverages. Am. J. Res. Commun. 2(5):103–153.
7. Ali, M. A. M., El Tinay, A. H., Abdalla, A. H., (2003). Effect of fermentation on the in vitro protein digestibility of pearl millet. Food Chem. 80(1):51–54.
8. Akinhanmi, F. T., Arogundade, A. L., Tiamiyi, O. M., and Oloruntoba, E., (2008). Protein fractions of legumes and cereals consumed in Nigeria. Int. J. Agric. Sci. Environ. Technol. 7(1):54–62.
9. Amadou, I., Mahamadou, E. G., and Guo-Wei, L., (2013). Millets: nutritional composition, some health benefits and processing—A review. Emir. J. Food Agric. 25(7):501–508.
10. Amadou, I., Gounga, M. E., Shi, Y. H., and Le, G.W., (2014). Fermentation and heat moisture treatment induced changes on the physicochemical properties of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) flour. Food Bioprod. Process. 92:38–45.
11. Arici, M., and Daglioglu, O., (2002). Boza: A lactic acid fermented cereal beverage as a traditional Turkish food. Food Rev. Int. 18:39–48.
12. Ayernor, G. S., and Ocloo, F. C. K., (2007). Physico-chemical changes and dia-static activity associated with germinating paddy rice (PSB. Rc 34). Afr. J. Food Sci. 1:37–41.
13. Badau, M., Nkama, H. I., and Jideani, A. I., (2005). Phytic acid content and hydrochloric acid extractability of minerals in pearl millet as affected by germination time and cultivar. J. Food Chem. 92:425–435.
14. Badi, S. M., Bureng, P. L., and Monowar, L. Y., (1989). Commercial production: A breakthrough in kisra technology. In: ICC 4th Quadrennial Symposium on Sorghum and Millets, Lausanne, Switzerland. Dendy, D. A. V., Ed., International Association for Cereal Science and Technology, Vienna.
15. Bala-Ravi, S., (2004). Neglected millets that save the poor from starvation. Low External Input Sustain. Agric. India 6(1):34–36.
16. Blandino, A., Al-Aseeri, M. E., Pandiella, S. S., Cantero, D., and Webb, C., (2003). Cereal-based fermented foods and beverages. Food Res. Int. 36(6):527–543.
17. Bultosa, G., and Taylor, J. R. N., (2004). Teff. In: Encyclopedia of Grain Science, Wrigley, C., Corke, H., and Walker, C. E., Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam.
18. Bvochora J. M., Reed J. D., Read J. S., and Zvauya, R., (1999). Effect of fermentation processes on proanthocyanidins in sorghum during preparation of mahewu, a non-alcoholic beverage. Process Biochem. 35:21–25.
19. Chandrasekara, A., and Shahidi, F., (2011). Bioactivities and antiradical properties of millet grains and hulls. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59:9563–9571.
20. Chethan, S., Malleshi, N. G., (2007). Finger millet polyphenols: Optimization of extraction and the effect of pH on their stability. Food Chem. 105(2):862–870.
21. Chipo, C., (2013). Mahewu, a traditional African beverage. The African pot nutrition. http://theafricanpotnutrition.com/2013/10/01/mahewu-a-traditional-african-beverage/ (Accessed 13January2016).
22. Concy, A. J., (2009). Effect of roasting on the nutritional quality of finger millet. An MSc dissertation submitted to the school of graduate studies, Makerere University, Uganda.
23. Corsetti, A., and Settanni, L., (2007). Lactobacilli in sourdough fermentation: A review. Food Res. Int. 40:539–558.
24. Coulibaly, A., Kouakou, B., and Chen, J., (2012). Extruded adult breakfast based on milled and soybean: Nutritional and functional qualities, source of glycemic low food. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 2(7):1–9.
25. Dewar, J., Taylor, J. R. N., and Berjak, P., (1997). Determination of improved steeping conditions for sorghum malting. J. Cereal Sci. 26:129–136.
26. Dharmaraj, U., Parameswara, P., and Somashekar, R., (2014). Effect of processing on the microstructure of finger millet by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. J. Food Sci. Tech. 51(3):494–502.
27. Dirar, H. A., (1976). The art and science of Merissa fermentation. Sudan Notes and Rec. 57:115–129.
28. Dirar, H. A., (1992). Sudan's fermented food heritage. In: Applications of Biotechnology to Fermented Foods: Report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
29. Efiuvwevwere B. J., and Akona, O., (1995). The microbiology of ‘kunun-zaki’, a cereal beverage from Northern Nigeria, during the fermentation (production) process. World J. Microbiol. Biotech. 11(5):491–493.
30. Egwim, E., Musa, A., Abubakar, Y., and Mainuna, B., (2013). Nigerian indigenous fermented foods: processes and prospects. In: Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing Countries. Makun, H. A., Ed., InTech, Croatia.
31. El Hag, M. E., El Tinay, A. H., and Yousif, N. E., (2002). Effect of fermentation and dehulling on starch, total polyphenols, phytic acid and invitro digestibility of pearl millet. Food Chem. 77:193–196.
32. Eltayeb, M. M., Hassan, A. B., Sulieman, M. A., and Babiker, E. E., (2007). Effect of processing followed by fermentation on antinutritional factors content of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) cultivars. Pak. J. Nutr. 6:463–467.
33. Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (FAOSTAT) (2015). 2013 data for major commodities. http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor (Accessed 24November2015).
34. Filli, K. B., and Nkama, I., (2007). Hydration properties of extruded fura from millet and legumes. Br. Food J. 109:68–80.
35. Filli, K. B., Nkama, I., Abubakar, U. M., and Jideani, V. A., (2010). Influence of extrusion variables on some functional properties of extruded millet-soybean for the manufacture of fura: a Nigerian traditional food. Afr. J. Food Sci. 4:342–352.
36. Francakova, H., Liskova, M., Bojnanska, T., and Marecek, J., (2012). Germination index as an indicator of malting potential. Czech J. Food Sci. 30(4):377–384.
37. Franz, C. M. A. P., Huch, M., Mathara, J. M., Abriouel, H., Benomar, N., Reid, G., Galvez, A., and Holzapfel, W. H., (2014). African fermented foods and probiotics. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 190:84–96.
38. Frere, S., Phillips, P. J., and Yin, X. S., (2013). Method for improving yield in malting process. Patent no: WO2011127372. http://www.google.com/patents/WO2011127372A1?cl=en (Accessed 14January2016).
39. Gadaga, T. H., Mutakumira, A. N., Narvhus, J. A., and Ferusu, S. B., (1999). A review of traditional fermented foods and beverages in Zimbabwe. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 53:1–11.
40. Galati, A., Oguntotinbo, F. A., Moschetti, G., Crescimanno, M., and Settanni, L., (2014). The cereal market and the role of fermentation in cereal-based food production in Africa. Food Rev. Int. 30:317–337.
41. Gashe, B. A., Girma, M., and Bisrat, A., (1982). Teff fermentation. I. The role of microorganisms in fermentation and their effect on the nitrogen content of teff. SINET: Eth. J. Sci. 5:69–76.
42. Geervani, P., and Eggum, O., (1989). Nutrient composition and protein composition of minor millets. Plant Food Hum. Nutr. 39:201–208.
43. Gopalan, C., Rama Sastri, B. V., and Balasubramanian, S. C., (2009). Nutritive value of Indian foods. National institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India.
44. Guyot, J. P., Mouquet, C., Tou, E., Counil, E., Traore, A. S., and Treche, S., (2003). Study of the processing of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) into ben-saalga, a fermented gruel from Burkina Faso. 2nd International Workshop on Food based approaches for a healthy nutrition. http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers11-08/010036797.pdf (Accessed 15January2016).
45. Hama, F., Savadogo, A., Quattara, C. A. T., and Traore, A. S., (2009). Biochemical, microbial and processing study of dégué a fermented food from pearl millet dough from Burkina Faso. Pak. J. Nutr. 8:759–764.
46. Hegde, P. S., and Chandra, T. S., (2005). ESR spectroscopic study reveals higher free radical quenching potential in kodo millet (Paspalum Scrobiculatum) compared to other millets. Food Chem. 92:177–82.
47. Heinio, R. L., Oksman-Caldentey, K. M., Latva-Kala, K., Lehtinen, P., and Poutanen, K., (2001). Effects of drying treatment conditions on sensory profile of germinated oat. Cereal Chem. 78:707–714.
48. Hotz, C., and Gibson, R. S., (2007). Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets. J. Nutr. 37:1097–100.
49. Humblot, C., and Guyot, J. P., (2009). Pyrosequencing of tagged 16S rRNA gene amplicons for rapid deciphering of the microbiomes of fermented foods such as pearl millet slurries. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75:4354–4361.
50. Icard-Verniere, C., Ouattara, L., Avallone, S., Joseph, H., Kayode, P., Amoussa, W., and Fatoumata, B. H., (2010). Traditional recipes of millet-, sorghum- and maize-based dishes and related sauces frequently consumed by young children in Burkina Faso and Benin. https://www.google.co.za/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiBio7v3avKAhXIAxoKHfJWDZcQFgghMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.instapa.org%2Fdownloadattachment%2F2198%2F1687%2FInstapa_booklet_EN_webversion.pdf&usg=AFQjCNEJ4TsT_k69MH_MWnbUbwAXx-DqTA&sig2=-zIlmHHXxcPSx9ahEMMYuw (Accessed 15January2016).
51. Ilango, S., and Antony, U., (2013). Assessment of the microbiological quality of koozh a fermented millet beverage. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 8(3):308–312.
52. Inyang, C. U., and Zakari, U. M., (2008). Effect of germination and fermentation of pearl millet on proximate, chemical and sensory properties of instant “fura”- a Nigerian cereal food. Pak. J. Nutr. 7:9–12.
53. Jay, J. M., Loessner, M. J., and Golden, D. A., (2005). Modern Food Microbiology, 7th ed., Springer, Science and Business Media, Inc., New York.
54. Jayne, T. S., Meyer, F., and Traub, L. N., (2014). Africa's evolving food systems: drivers of change and the scope for influencing them. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/14637IIED.pdf (Accessed 13January2016).
55. Jideani, V. A., Nkama, I., Agbo, E. B., and Jideani, I. A., (2002). Modelling of visual shelf life of millet (Pennisetum glaucum) dough (fura) as affected by time-temperature and product packaging parameters. Cereal Chem. 79(5):710–714.
56. Joshi, A., Rawat, K., and Bhawana, K., (2008). Millet as “religious offering” for nutritional, ecological, and economical security. Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Safety 7:369–372.
57. Kohajdova, Z., and Karovicova, J., (2007). Fermentation of cereals for specific purpose. J. Food Nutr. Res. 46(2):51–57.
58. Kohajdova, Z., (2010). Fermented cereal products. In: Comprehensive Food Fermentation Biotechnology. Pandey, A., Soccol, C. R., Gnansounou, E., Larroche, C., Nigam, P. S., and Dussap, C. G., Eds., Asiatech Publishers Inc., New Dehli.
59. Kohajdova, Z., (2014). Fermented cereal products. In: Microorganisms and Fermentation of Traditional Foods. Ramesh, R. C., and Didier, M., Eds., CRC Press, London.
60. Kothari, S. L., Kumar, S., Vishnoi, R. K., Kothari, A., and Watanabe, K. N., (2005). Applications of biotechnology for improvement of millet crops: Review of progress and future prospects. Plant Biotech. 22(2):81–88.
61. Leder, I., (2004). Sorghum and millets. In: Cultivated Plants, Primary as Food Sources—Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, Fuleky, G., Ed., EOLSS Publishers, Oxford, UK.
62. Lei, V., and Jakobsen, M., (2004). Microbiological characterization and probiotic potential of koko and koko sour water, African spontaneously fermented millet porridge and drink. J. Appl. Microbiol. 96(2):384–397.
63. Lei, V., Frilis, H., and Michaelsen, K. F., (2006). Spontaneously fermented millet product as a natural probiotic treatment for diarrhea in young children: An intervention study in Northern Ghana. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 110(1):246–253.
64. Lestienne, I., Besancon, P., Caporiccio, B., Lullien-Pellerin, V., and Treche, S., (2005). Iron and zinc in vitro availability in pearl millet flours (Pennisetum glaucum) with varying phytate, tannin, and fiber contents. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53:3240–3247.
65. Liu, J., Tang, X., Zhang, Y., and Zhao, W., (2012). Determination of the volatile composition in brown millet, milled millet and millet bran by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Mol. 17:2271–82.
66. Lu, H., Yang, X., Ye, M., Liu, K. B., Xia, Z., and Ren, X., (2005). Millet noodles in late Neolithic China. Nature 437:13–14.
67. Lyumugabe, F., Gros, J., Nzungize, J., Bajyana, E., and Thonart, P., (2012). Characteristics of African traditional beers brewed with sorghum malt: A review. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 16:509–530.
68. Mal, B., Padulosi, S., and Ravi, S. B., (2010). Minor millets in South Asia: Learnings from IFAD-NUS Project in India and Nepal. Bioversity Intl., Maccarese, Rome, Italy, and M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India, 1–185.
69. Marsh, A. J., Hill, C., Ross, R. P., and Cotter, P. D., (2014). Fermented beverages with health-promoting potential: Past and future perspectives. Trends Food Sci. Tech. 38:113–124.
70. Mcmaster, L. D., Kokott, S. A., Reid, S. J., and Abratt, V. R., (2005). Use of traditional African fermented beverages as delivery vehicles for Bifidobacterium lactis DSM 10140. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 102(2):231–237.
71. Michael and Doria'sTravel Tales. (2007). Geek Corps Mali. http://thembsterstravels.blogspot.co.za/2007_01_01_archive.html (Accessed 13January2016).
72. Mridula, D., and Sharma, M., (2015). Development of non-dairy probiotic drink utilizing sprouted cereals, legume and soymilk. LWT— Food Sci. Technol. 62:482–487.
73. Mukisa, I. M., Nsiimire, D. G., Byaruhanga, Y. B., Muyanja, C. M. B. K., Langsrud, T., and Narvhus, J. A., (2010). Obushera: Descriptive sensory profiling and consumer acceptability. J. Sens. Stud. 25:190–214.
74. Muller, H. G., (1970). Traditional cereal processing in Nigeria and Ghana. Ghana J. Agric. Sci. 3:187–195.
75. Muthamilarasan, M., Dhaka, A., Yadav, R., and Prasad, M., (2016). Exploration of millet models for developing nutrient rich graminaceous crops. Plant Sci. 242:89–97.
76. Muyanga, C. M. B. K., Narvhus, J. A., Treimo, J., and Langsrud, T., (2003). Isolation, characterization and identification of lactic acid bacteria from Bushera: a Ugandan traditional fermented beverage. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 80:201–210.
77. Nkama, I., and Malleshi, N. G., (1998). Production and nutritional quality of traditional Masa form mixture of rice, pearl millet, cowpea and groundnut. Food Nutr. Bull. 19:336–373.
78. Nout, M. J. R., (2009). Rich nutrition for the poorest-Cereal fermentations in Africa and Asia. Food Microbiol. 26:685–692.
79. Njobeh, P. B., Dutton, M. F., and Makun, H. A., (2010). Mycotoxins and human health: significance, prevention and control. In: Smart Biomolecules in Medicine. Mishra, A. K., Tiwari, A., and Mishra, S. B., Eds., VBRI Press, India.
80. Nyanzi, R., and Jooste, P. J., (2012). Cereal based functional foods. In: Probiotics. Rigobelo, E.C., Ed., Intech, Rijeka.
81. Obadina, A. O., Oyewole, O. B., and Awojobi, T. M., (2008). Effect of steeping time of milled grains on the quality of kunnu-zaki (A Nigerian beverage). Afr. J. Food Sci. 2:33–36.
82. Oelke, E. A., Oplinger, E. S., Putnam, D. H., Durgan, B. R., Doll, J. D., and Undersander, D. J., (1990). Millets. https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/millet.html (Accessed 13January2016).
83. Oguntoyinbo, F. A., Tourlomousis, P., Gasson, M., and Narbad, A., (2011). Analysis of bacterial communities of traditional fermented West African cereal foods using culture independent methods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 145:205–210.
84. Oi, Y., and Kitabatake, N., (2003). Chemical composition of East African traditional beverage, togwa. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:7024–7028.
85. Okonkwo, S. L., and Ogbuneke, R. U., (2011). Application of chemistry in the development of Africa using local resources: Production of malt drink from millet. Res. J. Chem. Sci. 1(9):87–89.
86. Onweluzo, J. C., and Nwabugwu, C. C., (2009). Fermentation of millet (Pennisetum americanum) and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) seeds for flour production: Effects on composition and selected functional properties. Pak. J. Nutr. 8:737–744.
87. Onyango, C., Henle, T., Hofmann, T., and Bley, T., (2004). Production of high energy density fermented uji using a commercial alpha amylase or by single-screw extrusion. Lebensm. Wiss. Technol. 37:401–407.
88. Osman, M. A., (2004). Changes, in sorghum enzyme inhibitors, phytic acid, tannins, and invitro protein digestibility occurring during khamir (local bread) fermentation. Food Chem. 88:129–134.
89. Osman, M. A., (2011). Effect of traditional fermentation process on the nutrient and antinutrient contents of pearl millet during preparation of Lohoh. J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci. 10(1):1–6.
90. Owusu-Kwarteng, J., Tano-Debrah, K., Glover, R. L. K., and Akabanda, F., (2010). Process characteristics and microbiology of fura produced in Ghana. Nat. Sci. 8(8):41–51.
91. Patil, S. S., (2013). Consumer acceptance and marketing of ragi malt. Indian J. Appl. Res. 3(12):322–323.
92. Pugalenthi, M., and Vadivel, V., (2005). Nutritional evaluation and the effect of process sing methods on antinutritional factors of sword bean (Canavalia gladiata). J. Food Sci. Technol. 42:510–516.
93. Pyler, R. E., and Thomas, D. A., (2000). Malted cereals: their production and use. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Kulp, K., and Ponte, J. G., Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York.
94. Quin, P. J., (1959). Foods and the Feeding Habits of the Pedi. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg.
95. Ranasalva, N., and Visvanathan, R., (2014). Development of cookies and bread from cooked and fermented pearl millet flour. Afr. J. Food Sci. 8(6):330–336.
96. Ross, R. P., Morgan, S., and Hill, C., (2002). Preservation and fermentation: past, present and future. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 79:3–16.
97. Rubio-Tapia, A., Hill, I. D., Kelly, C. P., Calderwood, A. H., and Murray, J. A., (2013). Diagnosis and management of celiac disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 108:656–676.
98. Saleh, A. S. M., Zhang, Q., Chen, J., and Shen, Q., (2013). Millet Grains: Nutritional Quality, Processing, and Potential Health Benefits. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Safety 12:281–295.
99. Sangeetha, N., and Devi, P. M., (2012). Effect of dehydration on the quality characteristics of extruded pasta using millet milk powder. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 2(10):1–5.
100. Sasikumar, R., (2014). Fermentation technologies in food production. In: Progress in Biotechnology for Food Applications. Lai, W. F., Ed., OMICS Group, California, USA.
101. Schuppan, D., and Zimmer, K. P., (2013). The diagnosis and treatment of celiac disease. Dtsch Arztebl. Int. 110:835–846.
102. Shobana, S., and Malleshi N. G., (2007). Preparation and functional properties of decorticated finger millet (Eleusine coracana). J. Food Eng. 79:529–538.
103. Shobana, S., Krishnaswamy, K., Sudha, V., Malleshi, N. G., Anjana, R. M., Palaniappan, L., and Mohan, V., (2013). Finger millet (ragi, Eleusine coracana L): a review of its nutritional properties, processing, and plausible health benefits. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 69:1–39.
104. Simatende, P., Gadaga, T. H., Nkambule, S. J., and Siwela, M., (2015). Methods of preparation of Swazi traditional fermented foods. J. Ethn. Foods 2:119–125.
105. Singh, A. K., Rehal, J., Kaur, A., and Jyot, A., (2015). Enhancement of attributes of cereals aby germination and fermentation: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 55:1575–1589.
106. Srivastava, K., Sharma, A. K., (2012). Nutraceutical importance of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) for improved human health. The Eur. J. Plant Sci. Biotechnol., 1–4.
107. Swami, S. B., Thakor, N. J., and Gurav, H. S., (2013). Effect of soaking and malting on finger millet (Eleusine Coracana) grain. Agric. Eng. Int.: CGIR J. 15(1):194–200.
108. Tamang, J. P., (2010). Dietary cultures and antiquity of fermented foods and beverages. In: Fermented foods and beverages of the world. Hui, Y. H., Özgül Evranuz, E., and Samuel, D., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton.
109. Taylor, J. R. N., Noveille, L., and Liebenberg, N. W., (1985). Protein body degradation in the starchy endosperm of germinating sorghum. J. Exp. Biol. 36:1287–1295.
110. Taylor, J. R. N., and Dewar, J., (2001). Developments in sorghum food technologies. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 43:217–264.
111. Taylor, J. R. N., (2004). Foods and nonalcoholic beverages. In: Encyclopedia of Grain Science. Wrigley, C., Corke, H., and Walker, C. E., Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam.
112. Taylor, J. R. N., Schober, T. J., and Bean, R. S., (2006). Novel food and non-food uses for sorghum and millets. J. Cereal Sci. 44:252–271.
113. aylor, J. R. N., and Emmambux, M. N., (2008). Gluten-free cereal products and beverages. In: Gluten-Free Foods and Beverages from Millets. Arendt, E. K., and Bello, F. D., Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam.
114. Taylor, J. R. N., Barrion, S. C., and Rooney, L. W., (2010a). Pearl millet - new developments in ancient food chain. Cereal Foods World 55:16–19.
115. Taylor, J. R. N., (2010b). Sorghum malting: Introduction, objectives and scientific principles. International Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Support Program (INTSORMIL CRSP) Presentations, paper 21. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=intsormilpresent (Accessed 11January2016).
116. Taylor, J. R. N., and Duodu, K. G., (2015). Effects of processing sorghum and millets on their phenolic phytochemicals and the implications of this to the health-enhancing properties of sorghum and millet food and beverage products. J. Sci. Food Agric. 95:225–237.
117. Teniola, O. D., and Odunfa, S. A., (2001). The effects of processing methods on the levels of lysine, methionine and the general acceptability of ogi processed using starter cultures. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 63:1–9.
118. Tou, E. H., Guyot, J. P., Mouquet-Rivier, C., Rochette, I., Counil, E., Traore, A. S., and Treche, A. S., (2006). Study through surveys and fermentation kinetics of the traditional processing of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) into ‘‘ben—saalga,’’ a millet-based fermented gruel from Burkina Faso used as complementary food. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 106:52–60.
119. Tou, E. H., Moquet-River, C., Picq, C., Traore, A. S., Treche, S., and Guyot, J. P., (2007). Improving the nutritional quality of ben-saalga, a traditional fermented millet-based gruel, co-fermenting millet with groundnut and modifying the processing method. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 40:1561–1569.
120. Traoré, T., Mouquet, C., Icard-Vernière, C., Traoré, A., and Trèche, S., (2004). Changes in nutrient composition, phytate and cyanide contents and α-amylase activity during cereal malting in small production units in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Food Chem. 88:105–114.
121. Umaru, A. A., and Genwa, E. I., (2013). Proximate analysis and hydrolysis of malted millet (Panicum miliaceum) blended with maize and rice flour. Acad. J. Interdiscp. Stud. 2(12):2281–3993.
122. Uno, D., (2005). Farmer's selection of local and improved pearl millet varieties in Ovambo land, Northern Namibia. Afr. Study Monograph. 30:107–117.
123. Zhu, F., (2014). Structure, physicochemical properties, and uses of millet starch. Food Res. Int. 64:200–211.