Modified mediterranean diet for enrichment of short chain fatty acids: Potential adjunctive therapeutic to target immune and metabolic dysfunction in schizophrenia?

Frontiers in Neuroscience

Volumn 11, Issue MAR, 2017, Pages

  Joseph, Jamie ^a   Depp, Colin ^a,b   Shih, Pei An B ^a   Cadenhead, Kristen S ^a   Schmid Schönbein, Geert ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b VA SAN DIEGO HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Acetate; Butyrate; Cardiovascular disease; Gastrointestinal; Inflammation; Propionate; Psychosis; Type II diabetes

Indexed keywords

ACETIC ACID; BUTYRIC ACID; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PROPIONIC ACID; SHORT CHAIN FATTY ACID;

ARTICLE; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; COMORBIDITY; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIETARY INTAKE; GLUTEN FREE DIET; HIGH FIBER DIET; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INTESTINE FLORA; KETOGENIC DIET; LIFESPAN; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LOW FAT DIET; MEDITERRANEAN DIET; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MORTALITY; NERVOUS SYSTEM INFLAMMATION; NEUROBIOLOGY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SODIUM RESTRICTION; UNHEALTHY DIET;

EID: 85017138450     PISSN: 16624548     EISSN: 1662453X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00155     Document Type: Article

References (224)

1. Adkison, K., and Shen, D. D. (1996). Uptake of valproic acid into rat brain is mediated by a medium-chain fatty acid transporter. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 276, 1189-1200
2. Albert, M. A., Glynn, R. J., and Ridker, P. M. (2003). Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and the calculated Framingham Coronary Heart Disease Risk Score. Circulation 108, 161-165. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000080289.72166.CF
3. Aleman, A., Agrawal, N., Morgan, K. D., and David, A. S. (2006). Insight in psychosis and neuropsychological function. Br. J. Psychiatry 189, 204-212. doi: 10.1192/bjp.189.3.204
4. Amani, R. (2007). Is dietary pattern of schizophrenia patients different from healthy subjects? BMC Psychiatry 7:15. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-7-15
5. Andreasen, N. C., Arndt, S., Swayze, V., Cizadlo, T., Flaum, M., O'Leary, D., et al. (1994). Thalamic abnormalities in schizophrenia visualized through magnetic resonance image averaging. Science 266, 294-298. doi: 10.1126/science.7939669
6. Bachmann, C., Colombo, J. P., and Beruter, J. (1979). Short chain fatty acids in plasma and brain: quantitative determination by gas chromatography. Clin. Chim. Acta 92, 153-159. doi: 10.1016/0009-8981(79)90109-8
7. Banks, W. A., Kastin, A. J., and Broadwell, R. D. (1995). Passage of cytokines across the blood-brain barrier. Neuroimmunomodulation 2, 241-248. doi: 10.1159/000097202
8. Barzilay, R., Lobel, T., Krivoy, A., Shlosberg, D., Weizman, A., and Katz, N. (2016). Elevated C-reactive protein levels in schizophrenia inpatients is associated with aggressive behavior. Euro. Psychiatry 31, 8-12. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.09.461
9. Bayer, T. A., Buslei, R., Havas, L., and Falkai, P. (1999). Evidence for activation of microglia in patients with psychiatric illnesses. Neurosci. Lett. 271, 126-128. doi: 10.1016/S.0304-3940(99)00545-5
10. Berk, M., Malhi, G. S., Gray, L. J., and Dean, O. M. (2013). The promise of N-acetylcysteine in neuropsychiatry. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 34, 167-177. doi: 10.1016/j.tips.2013.01.001
11. Bloomfield, P. S., Selvaraj, S., Veronese, M., Rizzo, G., Bertoldo, A., Owen, D. R., et al. (2016). Microglial Activity in People at Ultra High Risk of Psychosis and in Schizophrenia: an [(11)C]PBR28 PET Brain Imaging Study. Am. J. Psychiatry 173, 44-52. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14101358
12. Blum, K., Liu, Y., Shriner, R., and Gold, M. S. (2011). Reward circuitry dopaminergic activation regulates food and drug craving behavior. Curr. Pharm. Des. 17, 1158-1167. doi: 10.2174/138161211795656819
13. Blumenthal, J. A., Babyak, M. A., Hinderliter, A., Watkins, L. L., Craighead, L., Lin, P. H., et al. (2010). Effects of the DASH diet alone and in combination with exercise and weight loss on blood pressure and cardiovascular biomarkers in men and women with high blood pressure: the ENCORE study. Arch. Intern. Med. 170, 126-135. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.470
14. Braff, D. L., and Geyer, M. A. (1990). Sensorimotor gating and schizophrenia: human and animal model studies. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 47, 181-188. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810140081011
15. Brown, A. J., Goldsworthy, S. M., Barnes, A. A., Eilert, M. M., Tcheang, L., Daniels, D., et al. (2003). The Orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 11312-11319. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M211609200
16. Brown, S., Birtwistle, J., Roe, L., and Thompson, C. (1999). The unhealthy lifestyle of people with schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 29, 697-701. doi: 10.1017/S0033291798008186
17. Buchanan, J. (1995). Social support and schizophrenia: a review of the literature. Arch. Psychiatr. Nurs. 9, 68-76. doi: 10.1016/S0883-9417(95)80003-4
18. Cannon, M., Jones, P. B., and Murray, R. M. (2002). Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: historical and meta-analytic review. Am. J. Psychiatry 159, 1080-1092. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1080
19. Cantor-Graae, E., and Selten, J.-P. (2005). Schizophrenia and migration: a meta-analysis and review. Am. J. Psychiatry 162, 12-24. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.1.12
20. Cao, D., Kevala, K., Kim, J., Moon, H. S., Jun, S. B., Lovinger, D., et al. (2009). Docosahexaenoic acid promotes hippocampal neuronal development and synaptic function. J. Neurochem. 111, 510-521. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06335.x
21. Carliner, H., Collins, P. Y., Cabassa, L. J., McNallen, A., Joestl, S. S., and Lewis-Fernandez, R. (2014). Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors among racial and ethnic minorities with schizophrenia spectrum and bipolar disorders: a critical literature review. Compr. Psychiatry 55, 233-247. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.09.009
22. Cascella, N. G., Kryszak, D., Bhatti, B., Gregory, P., Kelly, D. L., Mc Evoy, J. P., et al. (2009). Prevalence of celiac disease and gluten sensitivity in the United States clinical antipsychotic trials of intervention effectiveness study population. Schizophr. Bull. 37, 94-100. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp055
23. Cascella, N. G., Santora, D., Gregory, P., Kelly, D. L., Fasano, A., and Eaton, W. W. (2013). Increased prevalence of transglutaminase 6 antibodies in sera from schizophrenia patients. Schizophr. Bull. 39, 867-871. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbs064
24. Chambers, R. A., Krystal, J. H., and Self, D. W. (2001). A neurobiological basis for substance abuse comorbidity in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 50, 71-83. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01134-9
25. Chaudhry, I. B., Husain, N., Drake, R., Dunn, G., Husain, M. O., Kazmi, A., et al. (2014). Add-on clinical effects of simvastatin and ondansetron in patients with schizophrenia stabilized on antipsychotic treatment: pilot study. Ther. Adv. Psychopharmacol. 4, 110-116. doi: 10.1177/2045125313511487
26. Chen, A. T., Chibnall, J. T., and Nasrallah, H. A. (2015). A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials of omega-3 fatty acid augmentation in schizophrenia: Possible stage-specific effects. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 27, 289-296
27. Chong, H. Y., Teoh, S. L., Wu, D. B., Kotirum, S., Chiou, C. F., and Chaiyakunapruk, N. (2016). Global economic burden of schizophrenia: a systematic review. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 12, 357-373. doi: 10.2147/ndt.s96649
28. Corlett, P. R., Murray, G. K., Honey, G. D., Aitken, M. R., Shanks, D. R., Robbins, T. W., et al. (2007). Disrupted prediction-error signal in psychosis: evidence for an associative account of delusions. Brain 130, 2387-2400. doi: 10.1093/brain/awm173
29. Correll, C. U., Robinson, D. G., Schooler, N. R., Brunette, M. F., Mueser, K. T., Rosenheck, R. A., et al. (2014). Cardiometabolic risk in patients with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders: baseline results from the RAISE-ETP study. JAMA Psychiatry 71, 1350-1363. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.1314
30. Cummings, J. H., Pomare, E. W., Branch, W. J., Naylor, C. P., and Macfarlane, G. T. (1987). Short chain fatty acids in human large intestine, portal, hepatic and venous blood. Gut 28, 1221-1227. doi: 10.1136/gut.28.10.1221
31. Dealberto, M. J. (2007). Why are immigrants at increased risk for psychosis? Vitamin D insufficiency, epigenetic mechanisms, or both? Med. Hypoth. 68, 259-267. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.07.040
32. De Hert, M. A., van Winkel, R., Van Eyck, D., Hanssens, L., Wampers, M., Scheen, A., et al. (2006). Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia treated with antipsychotic medication. Schizophr. Res. 83, 87-93. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2005.12.855
33. De Hert, M., Dockx, L., Bernagie, C., Peuskens, B., Sweers, K., Leucht, S., et al. (2011). Prevalence and severity of antipsychotic related constipation in patients with schizophrenia: a retrospective descriptive study. BMC Gastroenterol. 11:17. doi: 10.1186/1471-230X-11-17
34. de Nijs, J., and Pet, M. A. (2016). Metabolic syndrome in schizophrenia patients associated with poor premorbid school performance in early adolescence. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 133, 289-297. doi: 10.1111/acps.12528
35. De Palma, G., Nadal, I., Collado, M. C., and Sanz, Y. (2009). Effects of a gluten-free diet on gut microbiota and immune function in healthy adult human subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 102, 1154-1160. doi: 10.1017/S0007114509371767
36. De Santis, A., Addolorato, G., Romito, A., Caputo, S., Giordano, A., Gambassi, G., et al. (1997). Schizophrenic symptoms and SPECT abnormalities in a coeliac patient: regression after a gluten-free diet. J. Intern. Med. 242, 421-423. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.00200.x
37. Dickerson, F., Origoni, A., Schroeder, J., Schweinfurth, L. A., Stallings, C., Savage, C. L., et al. (2016). Mortality in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: clinical and serological predictors. Schizophr. Res. 170, 177-183. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.11.010
38. Dickerson, F., Stallings, C., Origoni, A., Vaughan, C., Khushalani, S., Yang, S., et al. (2013). C-reactive protein is elevated in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 143, 198-202. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.10.041
39. Dieset, I., Hope, S., Ueland, T., Bjella, T., Agartz, I., Melle, I., et al. (2012). Cardiovascular risk factors during second generation antipsychotic treatment are associated with increased C-reactive protein. Schizophr. Res. 140, 169-174. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.06.040
40. Dimitrov, D. H., Lee, S., Yantis, J., Honaker, C., Braida, N., and Walss-Bass, C. (2016). Elevated serum levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive proteins are associated with severe delusional symptoms in a subgroup of patients with schizophrenia. J. Clin. Psychiatry 77, 131-132. doi: 10.4088/JCP.15l09833
41. Dixon, L., Weiden, P., Delahanty, J., Goldberg, R., Postrado, L., Lucksted, A., et al. (2000). Prevalence and correlates of diabetes in national schizophrenia samples. Schizophr. Bull. 26, 903-912. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033504
42. Dohan, F. C., and Grasberger, J. C. (1973). Relapsed schizophrenics: earlier discharge from the hospital after cereal-free, milk-free diet. Am. J. Psychiatry 130, 685-688. doi: 10.1176/ajp.130.6.685
43. Doorduin, J., De Vries, E. F., Willemsen, A. T., De Groot, J. C., Dierckx, R. A., and Klein, H. C. (2009). Neuroinflammation in schizophrenia-related psychosis: a PET study. J. Nuclear Med. 50, 1801-1807. doi: 10.2967/jnumed.109.066647
44. Dyall, S. C. (2015). Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and the brain: a review of the independent and shared effects of EPA, DPA and DHA. Front. Aging Neurosci. 7:52. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00052
45. Dyall, S. C., Michael, G. J., Whelpton, R., Scott, A. G., and Michael-Titus, A. T. (2007). Dietary enrichment with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reverses age-related decreases in the GluR2 and NR2B glutamate receptor subunits in rat forebrain. Neurobiol. Aging 28, 424-439. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.01.002
46. Earls, H. A., Curran, T., and Mittal, V. (2016). A meta-analytic review of auditory event-related potential components as endophenotypes for schizophrenia: perspectives from first-degree relatives. Schizophr. Bull. 42, 1504-1516. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw047
47. Eaton, W. W., Byrne, M., Ewald, H., Mors, O., Chen, C. Y., Agerbo, E., et al. (2006). Association of schizophrenia and autoimmune diseases: linkage of Danish national registers. Am. J. Psychiatry 163, 521-528. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.521
48. Elhayany, A., Lustman, A., Abel, R., Attal-Singer, J., and Vinker, S. (2010). A low carbohydrate Mediterranean diet improves cardiovascular risk factors and diabetes control among overweight patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a 1-year prospective randomized intervention study. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 12, 204-209. doi: 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2009.01151.x
49. Elman, I., Borsook, D., and Lukas, S. E. (2006). Food intake and reward mechanisms in patients with schizophrenia: implications for metabolic disturbances and treatment with second-generation antipsychotic agents. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 2091-2120. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301051
50. Emsley, R., Myburgh, C., Oosthuizen, P., and van Rensburg, S. J. (2002). Randomized, placebo-controlled study of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid as supplemental treatment in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 159, 1596-1598. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1596
51. Estruch, R., Ros, E., Salas-Salvado, J., Covas, M. I., Corella, D., Aros, F., et al. (2013). Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. N. Engl. J. Med. 368, 1279-1290. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1200303
52. Fan, X., Goff, D. C., and Henderson, D. C. (2007). Inflammation and schizophrenia. Expert Rev. Neurother. 7, 789-796. doi: 10.1586/14737175.7.7.789
53. Fernandes, B. S., Steiner, J., Bernstein, H. G., Dodd, S., Pasco, J. A., Dean, O. M., et al. (2016). C-reactive protein is increased in schizophrenia but is not altered by antipsychotics: meta-analysis and implications. Mol. Psychiatry 21, 554-564. doi: 10.1038/mp.2015.87
54. Fernandez-Egea, E., Bernardo, M., Donner, T., Conget, I., Parellada, E., Justicia, A., et al. (2009). Metabolic profile of antipsychotic-naive individuals with non-affective psychosis. Br. J. Psychiatry 194, 434-438. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.108.052605
55. Fett, A. K., Viechtbauer, W., Dominguez, M. D., Penn, D. L., van Os, J., and Krabbendam, L. (2011). The relationship between neurocognition and social cognition with functional outcomes in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35, 573-588. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.001
56. Feyh, A., Bracero, L., Lakhani, H. V., Santhanam, P., Shapiro, J. I., Khitan, Z., et al. (2016). Role of dietary components in modulating hypertension. J. Clin. Exper. Cardiol. 7:433. doi: 10.4172/2155-9880.1000433
57. Fioravanti, M., Carlone, O., Vitale, B., Cinti, M. E., and Clare, L. (2005). A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in adults with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychol. Rev. 15, 73-95. doi: 10.1007/s11065-005-6254-9
58. Foster, G. D., Wyatt, H. R., Hill, J. O., McGuckin, B. G., Brill, C., Mohammed, B. S., et al. (2003). A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 348, 2082-2090. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa022207
59. Gao, X. M., Sakai, K., Roberts, R. C., Conley, R. R., Dean, B., and Tamminga, C. A. (2000). Ionotropic glutamate receptors and expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits in subregions of human hippocampus: effects of schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 157, 1141-1149. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.7.1141
60. Garrido-Mesa, N., Zarzuelo, A., and Galvez, J. (2013). What is behind the non-antibiotic properties of minocycline? Pharmacol. Res. 67, 18-30. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.10.006
61. Goff, D. C., Sullivan, L. M., McEvoy, J. P., Meyer, J. M., Nasrallah, H. A., Daumit, G. L., et al. (2005). A comparison of ten-year cardiac risk estimates in schizophrenia patients from the CATIE study and matched controls. Schizophr. Res. 80, 45-53. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2005.08.010
62. Gold, J. M., Carpenter, C., Randolph, C., Goldberg, T. E., and Weinberger, D. R. (1997). Auditory working memory and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 54, 159-165. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830140071013
63. Gold, J. M., Waltz, J. A., Matveeva, T. M., Kasanova, Z., Strauss, G. P., Herbener, E. S., et al. (2012). Negative symptoms and the failure to represent the expected reward value of actions: behavioral and computational modeling evidence. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 69, 129-138. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1269
64. Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1994). Working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 6, 348-357. doi: 10.1176/jnp.6.4.348
65. Goughari, A. S., Mazhari, S., Pourrahimi, A. M., Sadeghi, M. M., and Nakhaee, N. (2015). Associations between components of metabolic syndrome and cognition in patients with schizophrenia. J. Psychiatr. Pract. 21, 190-197. doi: 10.1097/PRA.0000000000000065
66. Grunder, G., Heinze, M., Cordes, J., Muhlbauer, B., Juckel, G., Schulz, C., et al. (2016). Effects of first-generation antipsychotics versus second-generation antipsychotics on quality of life in schizophrenia: a double-blind, randomised study. Lancet Psychiatry 3, 717-729. doi: 10.1016/s2215-0366(16)00085-7
67. Gur, R. E., Gur, R. C., Skolnick, B. E., Caroff, S., Obrist, W. D., Resnick, S., et al. (1985). Brain function in psychiatric disorders: III. Regional cerebral blood flow in unmedicated schizophrenics. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 42, 329-334. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790270015001
68. Gutierrez-Diaz, I., Fernandez-Navarro, T., Sanchez, B., Margolles, A., and Gonzalez, S. (2016). Mediterranean diet and faecal microbiota: a transversal study. Food Funct. 7, 2347-2356. doi: 10.1039/C6FO00105J
69. Harris, W. S., Miller, M., Tighe, A. P., Davidson, M. H., and Schaefer, E. J. (2008). Omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk: clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis 197, 12-24. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.11.008
70. Hazlett, E. A., Rothstein, E. G., Ferreira, R., Silverman, J. M., Siever, L. J., and Olincy, A. (2015). Sensory gating disturbances in the spectrum: similarities and differences in schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 161, 283-290. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.11.020
71. Heald, A., Sein, K., Anderson, S., Pendlebury, J., Guy, M., Narayan, V., et al. (2015). Diet, exercise and the metabolic syndrome in schizophrenia: a cross-sectional study. Schizophr. Res. 169, 494-495. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.10.043
72. Hemmings, G. (2004). Schizophrenia. Lancet 364, 1312-1313. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(04)17181-x
73. Hemmings, G. P. (1990). Is schizophrenia a G-I disease. Br. J. Psychiatry 156, 448. doi: 10.1192/bjp.156.3.448b
74. Henderson, D. C., Borba, C. P., Daley, T. B., Boxill, R., Nguyen, D. D., Culhane, M. A., et al. (2006). Dietary intake profile of patients with schizophrenia. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 18, 99-105. doi: 10.1080/10401230600614538
75. Hennekens, C. H., Hennekens, A. R., Hollar, D., and Casey, D. E. (2005). Schizophrenia and increased risks of cardiovascular disease. Am. Heart J. 150, 1115-1121. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.02.007
76. Ho, B.-C., Andreasen, N. C., Nopoulos, P., Arndt, S., Magnotta, V., and Flaum, M. (2003). Progressive structural brain abnormalities and their relationship to clinical outcome: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study early in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60, 585-594. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.60.6.585
77. Hoffer, L. J. (2008). Vitamin therapy in schizophrenia. Isr. J. Psychiatry Relat. Sci. 45, 3-10
78. Hong, H., Kim, B. S., and Im, H. I. (2016). Pathophysiological role of neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases and psychiatric disorders. Int. Neurourol. J. 20, S2-S7. doi: 10.5213/inj.1632604.302
79. Hotamisligil, G. S. (2006). Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature 444, 860-867. doi: 10.1038/nature05485
80. Howes, O. D., and Kapur, S. (2009). The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: version III-the final common pathway. Schizophr. Bull. 35, 549-562. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp006
81. Hsiao, C. C., Ree, S. C., Chiang, Y. L., Yeh, S. S., and Chen, C. K. (2004). Obesity in schizophrenic outpatients receiving antipsychotics in Taiwan. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 58, 403-409. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2004.01275.x
82. Hudson, Z. D., and Miller, B. J. (2016). Meta-analysis of cytokine and chemokine genes in schizophrenia. Clin. Schizophr. Relat. Psychoses. doi: 10.3371/CSRP.HUMI.070516. [Epub ahead of print]
83. Hutton, S. B., Puri, B. K., Duncan, L. J., Robbins, T. W., Barnes, T. R., and Joyce, E. M. (1998). Executive function in first-episode schizophrenia. Psychol. Med. 28, 463-473. doi: 10.1017/S0033291797006041
84. Huuskonen, J., Suuronen, T., Nuutinen, T., Kyrylenko, S., and Salminen, A. (2004). Regulation of microglial inflammatory response by sodium butyrate and short-chain fatty acids. Br. J. Pharmacol. 141, 874-880. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705682
85. Innis, S. M. (2008). Dietary omega 3 fatty acids and the developing brain. Brain Res. 1237, 35-43. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.08.078
86. Inta, D., Lang, U. E., Borgwardt, S., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., and Gass, P. (2016). Microglia activation and schizophrenia: lessons from the effects of minocycline on postnatal neurogenesis, neuronal survival and synaptic pruning. Schizophr. Bull. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw088. [Epub ahead of print]
87. Ito, H., Kumagai, T., Kimura, M., Koike, S., and Shimizu, T. (2015). Dietary intake in body mass index differences in community-based Japanese patients with Schizophrenia. Iran. J. Public Health 44, 639-645
88. Itoh, Y., Kawamata, Y., Harada, M., Kobayashi, M., Fujii, R., Fukusumi, S., et al. (2003). Free fatty acids regulate insulin secretion from pancreatic β cells through GPR40. Nature 422, 173-176. doi: 10.1038/nature01478
89. Jackson, J., Eaton, W., Cascella, N., Fasano, A., Santora, D., Sullivan, K., et al. (2014). Gluten sensitivity and relationship to psychiatric symptoms in people with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 159, 539-542. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.09.023
90. Jackson, J. R., Eaton, W. W., Cascella, N. G., Fasano, A., and Kelly, D. L. (2012). Neurologic and psychiatric manifestations of celiac disease and gluten sensitivity. Psychiatr. Q. 83, 91-102. doi: 10.1007/s11126-011-9186-y
91. Jarskog, L. F., Hamer, R. M., Catellier, D. J., Stewart, D. D., Lavange, L., Ray, N., et al. (2013). Metformin for weight loss and metabolic control in overweight outpatients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 170, 1032-1040. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12010127
92. Ji, E., Weickert, C. S., Lenroot, R., Kindler, J., Skilleter, A. J., Vercammen, A., et al. (2016). Adjunctive selective estrogen receptor modulator increases neural activity in the hippocampus and inferior frontal gyrus during emotional face recognition in schizophrenia. Transl. Psychiatry 6:e795. doi: 10.1038/tp.2016.59
93. Jin, H., Folsom, D., Sasaki, A., Mudaliar, S., Henry, R., Torres, M., et al. (2011). Increased Framingham 10-year risk of coronary heart disease in middle-aged and older patients with psychotic symptoms. Schizophr. Res. 125, 295-299. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2010.10.029
94. Jones, P. B., Bebbington, P., Foerster, A., Lewis, S. W., Murray, R. M., Russell, A., et al. (1993). Premorbid social underachievement in schizophrenia. Results from the Camberwell Collaborative Psychosis Study. Br. J. Psychiatry 162, 65-71. doi: 10.1192/bjp.162.1.65
95. Joseph, J., Depp, C., Martin, A. S., Daly, R. E., Glorioso, D. K., Palmer, B. W., et al. (2015). Associations of high sensitivity C-reactive protein levels in schizophrenia and comparison groups. Schizophr. Res. 168, 456-460. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.08.019
96. Juckel, G., Schlagenhauf, F., Koslowski, M., Wustenberg, T., Villringer, A., Knutson, B., et al. (2006). Dysfunction of ventral striatal reward prediction in schizophrenia. NeuroImage 29, 409-416. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.051
97. Judge, M. P., Casavant, S. G., Dias, J. A., and McGrath, J. M. (2016). Reduced DHA transfer in diabetic pregnancies: mechanistic basis and long-term neurodevelopmental implications. Nutr. Rev. 74, 411-420. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuw006
98. Kalaydjian, A. E., Eaton, W., Cascella, N., and Fasano, A. (2006). The gluten connection: the association between schizophrenia and celiac disease. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 113, 82-90. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00687.x
99. Kale, A., Naphade, N., Sapkale, S., Kamaraju, M., Pillai, A., Joshi, S., et al. (2010). Reduced folic acid, vitamin B12 and docosahexaenoic acid and increased homocysteine and cortisol in never-medicated schizophrenia patients: implications for altered one-carbon metabolism. Psychiatry Res. 175, 47-53. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2009.01.013
100. Kapur, S. (2003). Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 160, 13-23. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.13
101. Kianimehr, G., Fatehi, F., Hashempoor, S., Khodaei-Ardakani, M. R., Rezaei, F., Nazari, A., et al. (2014). Raloxifene adjunctive therapy for postmenopausal women suffering from chronic schizophrenia: a randomized double-blind and placebo controlled trial. Daru 22:55. doi: 10.1186/2008-2231-22-55
102. Kim, C. H., Park, J., and Kim, M. (2014). Gut microbiota-derived short-chain Fatty acids, T cells, and inflammation. Immune Netw. 14, 277-288. doi: 10.4110/in.2014.14.6.277
103. Kinsman, S. L., Vining, E. P., Quaskey, S. A., Mellits, D., and Freeman, J. M. (1992). Efficacy of the ketogenic diet for intractable seizure disorders: review of 58 cases. Epilepsia 33, 1132-1136. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1992.tb01770.x
104. Koloverou, E., Panagiotakos, D. B., Pitsavos, C., Chrysohoou, C., Georgousopoulou, E. N., Grekas, A., et al. (2016). Adherence to Mediterranean diet and 10-year incidence (2002-2012) of diabetes: correlations with inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers in the ATTICA cohort study. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 32, 73-81. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.2672
105. Kou, W., Luchtman, D., and Song, C. (2008). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) increases cell viability and expression of neurotrophin receptors in retinoic acid and brain-derived neurotrophic factor differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Eur. J. Nutr. 47, 104-113. doi: 10.1007/s00394-008-0703-1
106. Kraeuter, A. K., Loxton, H., Lima, B. C., Rudd, D., and Sarnyai, Z. (2015). Ketogenic diet reverses behavioral abnormalities in an acute NMDA receptor hypofunction model of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 169, 491-493. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.10.041
107. Kraft, B. D., and Westman, E. C. (2009). Schizophrenia, gluten, and low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diets: a case report and review of the literature. Nutr. Metab. (Lond). 6:10. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-6-10
108. Kulkarni, J., Gavrilidis, E., Gwini, S. M., Worsley, R., Grigg, J., Warren, A., et al. (2016). Effect of adjunctive raloxifene therapy on severity of refractory Schizophrenia in women: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 73, 947-954. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.1383
109. Kwiterovich, P. O. Jr., Vining, E. P., Pyzik, P., Skolasky, R. Jr., and Freeman, J. M. (2003). Effect of a high-fat ketogenic diet on plasma levels of lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins in children. JAMA 290, 912-920. doi: 10.1001/jama.290.7.912
110. Lakoski, S. G., Greenland, P., Wong, N. D., Schreiner, P. J., Herrington, D. M., Kronmal, R. A., et al. (2007). Coronary artery calcium scores and risk for cardiovascular events in women classified as "low risk" based on Framingham risk score: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Arch. Intern. Med. 167, 2437-2442. doi: 10.1001/archinte.167.22.2437
111. Larsson, S. C., Wallin, A., and Wolk, A. (2016). Dietary approaches to stop hypertension diet and incidence of stroke: results from 2 prospective cohorts. Stroke 47, 986-990. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.012675
112. Le Poul, E., Loison, C., Struyf, S., Springael, J. Y., Lannoy, V., Decobecq, M. E., et al. (2003). Functional characterization of human receptors for short chain fatty acids and their role in polymorphonuclear cell activation. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 25481-25489. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M301403200
113. Lewis, D. A., and Levitt, P. (2002). Schizophrenia as a disorder of neurodevelopment. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 25, 409-432. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142754
114. Li, H. P., Chen, X., and Li, M. Q. (2013). Butyrate alleviates metabolic impairments and protects pancreatic β cell function in pregnant mice with obesity. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol. 6, 1574-1584
115. Lindenmayer, J. P., Khan, A., Kaushik, S., Thanju, A., Praveen, R., Hoffman, L., et al. (2012). Relationship between metabolic syndrome and cognition in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 142, 171-176. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.09.019
116. Lionetti, E., Leonardi, S., Franzonello, C., Mancardi, M., Ruggieri, M., and Catassi, C. (2015). Gluten psychosis: confirmation of a new clinical entity. Nutrients 7, 5532-5539. doi: 10.3390/nu7075235
117. Ma, Y., Griffith, J. A., Chasan-Taber, L., Olendzki, B. C., Jackson, E., Stanek, E. J. III, et al. (2006). Association between dietary fiber and serum C-reactive protein. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83, 760-766
118. Manoach, D. S. (2003). Prefrontal cortex dysfunction during working memory performance in schizophrenia: reconciling discrepant findings. Schizophr. Res. 60, 285-298. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(02)00294-3
119. Mathew, A. V., Seymour, E. M., Byun, J., Pennathur, S., and Hummel, S. L. (2015). Altered metabolic profile with sodium-restricted dietary approaches to stop hypertension diet in hypertensive heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. J. Card. Fail. 21, 963-967. doi: 10.1016/j.cardfail.2015.10.003
120. McCreadie, R. G. (2003). Diet, smoking and cardiovascular risk in people with schizophrenia: descriptive study. Br. J. Psychiatry 183, 534-539. doi: 10.1192/bjp.183.6.534
121. McCreadie, R., Macdonald, E., Blacklock, C., Tilak-Singh, D., Wiles, D., Halliday, J., et al. (1998). Dietary intake of schizophrenic patients in Nithsdale, Scotland: case-control study. BMJ 317, 784-785. doi: 10.1136/bmj.317.7161.784
122. McEvoy, J. P., Meyer, J. M., Goff, D. C., Nasrallah, H. A., Davis, S. M., Sullivan, L., et al. (2005). Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: baseline results from the Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) schizophrenia trial and comparison with national estimates from NHANES III. Schizophr. Res. 80, 19-32. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2005.07.014
123. McNamara, R. K., Jandacek, R., Rider, T., Tso, P., Hahn, C. G., Richtand, N. M., et al. (2007). Abnormalities in the fatty acid composition of the postmortem orbitofrontal cortex of schizophrenic patients: gender differences and partial normalization with antipsychotic medications. Schizophr. Res. 91, 37-50. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.11.027
124. Meijer, K., de Vos, P., and Priebe, M. G. (2010). Butyrate and other short-chain fatty acids as modulators of immunity: what relevance for health? Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 13, 715-721. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0b013e32833eebe5
125. Meyer, U. (2013). Developmental neuroinflammation and schizophrenia. Progr. Neuro Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 42, 20-34. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.11.003
126. Micoulaud-Franchi, J. A., Vaillant, F., Lopez, R., Peri, P., Baillif, A., Brandejsky, L., et al. (2015). Sensory gating in adult with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: event-evoked potential and perceptual experience reports comparisons with schizophrenia. Biol. Psychol. 107, 16-23. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.03.002
127. Miller, B. J., Buckley, P., Seabolt, W., Mellor, A., and Kirkpatrick, B. (2011). Meta-analysis of cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: clinical status and antipsychotic effects. Biol. Psychiatry 70, 663-671. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.04.013
128. Miller, B. J., Culpepper, N., and Rapaport, M. H. (2014). C-reactive protein levels in schizophrenia: a review and meta-analysis. Clin. Schizophr. Relat. Psychoses 7, 223-230. doi: 10.3371/CSRP.MICU.020813
129. Miller, E. R. III, Erlinger, T. P., Young, D. R., Jehn, M., Charleston, J., Rhodes, D., et al. (2002). Results of the Diet, Exercise, and Weight Loss Intervention Trial (DEW-IT). Hypertension 40, 612-618. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000037217.96002.8E
130. Mitchell, A. J., Vancampfort, D., Sweers, K., van Winkel, R., Yu, W., and De Hert, M. (2013). Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and metabolic abnormalities in schizophrenia and related disorders-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr. Bull. 39, 306-318. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbr148
131. Monji, A., Kato, T. A., Mizoguchi, Y., Horikawa, H., Seki, Y., Kasai, M., et al. (2013). Neuroinflammation in schizophrenia especially focused on the role of microglia. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 42, 115-121. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.12.002
132. Morris, R., Griffiths, O., Le Pelley, M. E., and Weickert, T. W. (2012). Attention to irrelevant cues is related to positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 39, 575-582. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbr192
133. Mozaffarian, D., and Wu, J. H. (2011). Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 58, 2047-2067. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.06.063
134. Muller, N., Weidinger, E., Leitner, B., and Schwarz, M. J. (2015). The role of inflammation in schizophrenia. Front. Neurosci. 9:372. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00372
135. Murray, J. A. (1999). The widening spectrum of celiac disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69, 354-365
136. Na, K. S., Jung, H. Y., and Kim, Y. K. (2014). The role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the neuroinflammation and neurogenesis of schizophrenia. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 48, 277-286. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.10.022
137. Nasrallah, H. A., Meyer, J. M., Goff, D. C., McEvoy, J. P., Davis, S. M., Stroup, T. S., et al. (2006). Low rates of treatment for hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes in schizophrenia: data from the CATIE schizophrenia trial sample at baseline. Schizophr. Res. 86, 15-22. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.06.026
138. Neale, E. P., Batterham, M. J., and Tapsell, L. C. (2016). Consumption of a healthy dietary pattern results in significant reductions in C-reactive protein levels in adults: a meta-analysis. Nutr. Res. 36, 391-401. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2016.02.009
139. Nilsson, N. E., Kotarsky, K., Owman, C., and Olde, B. (2003). Identification of a free fatty acid receptor, FFA2R, expressed on leukocytes and activated by short-chain fatty acids. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 303, 1047-1052. doi: 10.1016/S0006-291X(03)00488-1
140. Niswander, G. D., Haslerud, G. M., and Mitchell, G. D. (1963). Effect of catatonia on schizophrenic mortality. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 9, 548-551. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1963.01720180020003
141. Nohr, M. K., Egerod, K. L., Christiansen, S. H., Gille, A., Offermanns, S., Schwartz, T. W., et al. (2015). Expression of the short chain fatty acid receptor GPR41/FFAR3 in autonomic and somatic sensory ganglia. Neuroscience 290, 126-137. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.01.040
142. Norden, D. M., Muccigrosso, M. M., and Godbout, J. P. (2015). Microglial priming and enhanced reactivity to secondary insult in aging, and traumatic CNS injury, and neurodegenerative disease. Neuropharmacology 96, 29-41. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.10.028
143. Norden, D. M., Trojanowski, P. J., Villanueva, E., Navarro, E., and Godbout, J. P. (2016). Sequential activation of microglia and astrocyte cytokine expression precedes increased iba-1 or GFAP immunoreactivity following systemic immune challenge. Glia 64, 300-316. doi: 10.1002/glia.22930
144. Norlelawati, A. T., Kartini, A., Ramli, M., Norsidah, K., Wan Azizi, W. S., and Tariq, A. R. (2012). Obesity in multiracial schizophrenia patients receiving outpatient treatment in a regional tertiary hospital in malaysia. East Asian Arch. Psychiatry 22, 49-56
145. Nsaiba, M. J., Lapointe, M., Mabrouk, H., Douki, W., Gaha, L., Perusse, L., et al. (2015). C3 polymorphism influences circulating levels of C3, ASP and lipids in schizophrenic patients. Neurochem. Res. 40, 906-914. doi: 10.1007/s11064-015-1543-z
146. Nuechterlein, K. H., Barch, D. M., Gold, J. M., Goldberg, T. E., Green, M. F., and Heaton, R. K. (2004). Identification of separable cognitive factors in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 72, 29-39. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.09.007
147. Nunes, D., Eskinazi, B., Camboim Rockett, F., Delgado, V. B., and Schweigert Perry, I. D. (2014). Nutritional status, food intake and cardiovascular disease risk in individuals with schizophrenia in southern Brazil: a case-control study. Rev. Psiquiatr. Salud Ment. 7, 72-79. doi: 10.1016/j.rpsm.2013.07.001
148. Oh, D. Y., Talukdar, S., Bae, E. J., Imamura, T., Morinaga, H., Fan, W., et al. (2010). GPR120 is an omega-3 fatty acid receptor mediating potent anti-inflammatory and insulin-sensitizing effects. Cell 142, 687-698. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.041
149. Okusaga, O., Yolken, R. H., Langenberg, P., Sleemi, A., Kelly, D. L., Vaswani, D., et al. (2013). Elevated gliadin antibody levels in individuals with schizophrenia. World J. Biol. Psychiatry 14, 509-515. doi: 10.3109/15622975.2012.747699
150. Oldendorf, W. H. (1973). Carrier-mediated blood-brain barrier transport of short-chain monocarboxylic organic acids. Am. J. Physiol. Legacy Content 224, 1450-1453
151. Olfson, M., Gerhard, T., Huang, C., Crystal, S., and Stroup, T. S. (2015). Premature mortality among adults with schizophrenia in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 1172-1181. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1737
152. Ozmen, B., Kirmaz, C., Aydin, K., Kafesciler, S. O., Guclu, F., and Hekimsoy, Z. (2007). Influence of the selective oestrogen receptor modulator (raloxifene hydrochloride) on IL-6, TNF-alpha, TGF-beta1 and bone turnover markers in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Eur. Cytokine Netw. 18, 148-153
153. Pacheco, A., Easterling, W. S., and Pryer, M. W. (1965). A pilot study of the ketogenic diet in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 121, 1110-1111. doi: 10.1176/ajp.121.11.1110
154. Peet, M. (2003). Nutrition and schizophrenia: an epidemiological and clinical perspective. Nutr. Health 17, 211-219. doi: 10.1177/026010600301700304
155. Peet, M. (2004). Diet, diabetes and schizophrenia: review and hypothesis. Br. J. Psychiatry 184, s102-s105. doi: 10.1192/bjp.184.47.s102
156. Peet, M. (2006). The metabolic syndrome, omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes in relation to schizophrenia. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 75, 323-327. doi: 10.1016/j.plefa.2006.07.013
157. Peet, M., Brind, J., Ramchand, C. N., Shah, S., and Vankar, G. K. (2001). Two double-blind placebo-controlled pilot studies of eicosapentaenoic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 49, 243-251. doi: 10.1016/S0920-9964(00)00083-9
158. Penn, A. H., and Schmid-Schonbein, G. W. (2008). The intestine as source of cytotoxic mediators in shock: free fatty acids and degradation of lipid-binding proteins. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 294, H1779-H1792. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.00902.2007
159. Pillinger, T., Beck, K., Gobjila, C., Donocik, J. G., Jauhar, S., and Howes, O. D. (2017). Impaired glucose homeostasis in first-episode schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 74, 261-269. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3803
160. Prasad, K. (2006). C-reactive protein (CRP)-lowering agents. Cardiovasc. Drug Rev. 24, 33-50. doi: 10.1111/j.1527-3466.2006.00033.x
161. Puglisi, M. J., and Fernandez, M. L. (2008). Modulation of C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and adiponectin by diet, exercise, and weight loss. J. Nutr. 138, 2293-2296. doi: 10.3945/jn.108.097188
162. Rabinowitz, J., Levine, S. Z., Garibaldi, G., Bugarski-Kirola, D., Berardo, C. G., and Kapur, S. (2012). Negative symptoms have greater impact on functioning than positive symptoms in schizophrenia: analysis of CATIE data. Schizophr. Res. 137, 147-150. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.015
163. Rahman, M., Muhammad, S., Khan, M. A., Chen, H., Ridder, D. A., Muller-Fielitz, H., et al. (2014). The beta-hydroxybutyrate receptor HCA2 activates a neuroprotective subset of macrophages. Nat. Commun. 5, 3944. doi: 10.1038/ncomms4944
164. Rao, J. S., Kim, H. W., Harry, G. J., Rapoport, S. I., and Reese, E. A. (2013). Increased neuroinflammatory and arachidonic acid cascade markers, and reduced synaptic proteins, in the postmortem frontal cortex from schizophrenia patients. Schizophr. Res. 147, 24-31. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.02.017
165. Ridker, P. M. (2001). High-sensitivity C-reactive protein: potential adjunct for global risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 103, 1813-1818. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.103.13.1813
166. Ripke, S., Neale, B. M., Corvin, A., Walters, J. T., Farh, K. H., Holmans, P. A., et al. (2014). Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature 511, 421. doi: 10.1038/nature13595
167. Roberfroid, M., Gibson, G. R., Hoyles, L., McCartney, A. L., Rastall, R., Rowland, I., et al. (2010). Prebiotic effects: metabolic and health benefits. Br. J. Nutr. 104 (Suppl. 2), S1-S63. doi: 10.1017/s0007114510003363
168. Rodriguez-Sanchez, J. M., Crespo-Facorro, B., Gonzalez-Blanch, C., Perez-Iglesias, R., and Vazquez-Barquero, J. L. (2007). Cognitive dysfunction in first-episode psychosis: the processing speed hypothesis. Br. J. Psychiatry Suppl. 51, s107-s110. doi: 10.1192/bjp.191.51.s107
169. Roth, T. L., Lubin, F. D., Sodhi, M., and Kleinman, J. E. (2009). Epigenetic mechanisms in schizophrenia. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1790, 869-877. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.06.009
170. Ryan, M. C., Collins, P., and Thakore, J. H. (2003). Impaired fasting glucose tolerance in first-episode, drug-naive patients with schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 160, 284-289. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.284
171. Sabbag, S., Twamley, E. W., Vella, L., Heaton, R. K., Patterson, T. L., and Harvey, P. D. (2012). Predictors of the accuracy of self assessment of everyday functioning in people with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 137, 190-195. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2012.02.002
172. Sacks, F. M., Svetkey, L. P., Vollmer, W. M., Appel, L. J., Bray, G. A., Harsha, D., et al. (2001). Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. New Engl. J. Med. 344, 3-10. doi: 10.1056/nejm200101043440101
173. Saha, S., Chant, D., and McGrath, J. (2007). A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia: is the differential mortality gap worsening over time? Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64, 1123-1131. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.64.10.1123
174. Schenkel, L. S., Spaulding, W. D., and Silverstein, S. M. (2005). Poor premorbid social functioning and theory of mind deficit in schizophrenia: evidence of reduced context processing? J. Psychiatr. Res. 39, 499-508. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.01.001
175. Schmid-Schonbein, G. W. (2006). Analysis of inflammation. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 8, 93-131. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bioeng.8.061505.095708
176. Seeman, M. V. (2007). An outcome measure in schizophrenia: mortality. Can. J. Psychiatry 52, 55-60. doi: 10.1177/070674370705200109
177. Sekar, A., Bialas, A. R., de Rivera, H., Davis, A., Hammond, T. R., Kamitaki, N., et al. (2016). Schizophrenia risk from complex variation of complement component 4. Nature 530, 177-183. doi: 10.1038/nature16549
178. Selkrig, J., Wong, P., Zhang, X., and Pettersson, S. (2014). Metabolic tinkering by the gut microbiome: implications for brain development and function. Gut. Microb. 5, 369-380. doi: 10.4161/gmic.28681
179. Severance, E. G., Gressitt, K. L., Halling, M., Stallings, C. R., Origoni, A. E., Vaughan, C., et al. (2012). Complement C1q formation of immune complexes with milk caseins and wheat glutens in schizophrenia. Neurobiol. Dis. 48, 447-453. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.07.005
180. Severance, E. G., Gressitt, K. L., Stallings, C. R., Katsafanas, E., Schweinfurth, L. A., Savage, C. L., et al. (2016a). Candida albicans exposures, sex specificity and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. NPJ Schizophr. 2, 16018. doi: 10.1038/npjschz.2016.18
181. Severance, E. G., Gressitt, K. L., Stallings, C. R., Origoni, A. E., Khushalani, S., Leweke, F. M., et al. (2013). Discordant patterns of bacterial translocation markers and implications for innate immune imbalances in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 148, 130-137. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.05.018
182. Severance, E. G., Xiao, J., Jones-Brando, L., Sabunciyan, S., Li, Y., Pletnikov, M., et al. (2016b). Toxoplasma gondii-A Gastrointestinal Pathogen Associated with Human Brain Diseases. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 131, 143-163. doi: 10.1016/bs.irn.2016.08.008
183. Shai, I., Schwarzfuchs, D., Henkin, Y., Shahar, D. R., Witkow, S., Greenberg, I., et al. (2008). Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 229-241. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0708681
184. Sharma, R. P., Grayson, D. R., and Gavin, D. P. (2008). Histone deactylase 1 expression is increased in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia subjects: analysis of the National Brain Databank microarray collection. Schizophr. Res. 98, 111-117. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2007.09.020
185. Sicras-Mainar, A., Rejas-Gutierrez, J., Navarro-Artieda, R., and Blanca-Tamayo, M. (2013). C-reactive protein as a marker of cardiovascular disease in patients with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder treated in routine medical practice. Eur. Psychiatry 28, 161-167. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.07.003
186. Sigthorsson, G., Tibble, J., Hayllar, J., Menzies, I., Macpherson, A., Moots, R., et al. (1998). Intestinal permeability and inflammation in patients on NSAIDs. Gut 43, 506-511. doi: 10.1136/gut.43.4.506
187. Simopoulos, A. P. (2002). The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed. Pharmacother. 56, 365-379. doi: 10.1016/S0753-3322(02)00253-6
188. Singh, M. M., and Kay, S. R. (1976). Wheat gluten as a pathogenic factor in schizophrenia. Science 191, 401-402. doi: 10.1126/science.1246624
189. Solberg, D. K., Bentsen, H., Refsum, H., and Andreassen, O. A. (2015). Association between serum lipids and membrane fatty acids and clinical characteristics in patients with schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 132, 293-300. doi: 10.1111/acps.12388
190. Soltani, S., Shirani, F., Chitsazi, M. J., and Salehi-Abargouei, A. (2016). The effect of dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet on weight and body composition in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Obes. Rev. 17, 442-454. doi: 10.1111/obr.12391
191. Sommer, I. E., van Westrhenen, R., Begemann, M. J., de Witte, L. D., Leucht, S., and Kahn, R. S. (2013). Efficacy of anti-inflammatory agents to improve symptoms in patients with schizophrenia: an update. Schizophr. Bull. 40, 181-191. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbt139
192. Song, X. Q., Lv, L. X., Li, W. Q., Hao, Y. H., and Zhao, J. P. (2009). The interaction of nuclear factor-kappa B and cytokines is associated with schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 65, 481-488. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.018
193. Stefanovic, V., Mihajlovic, G., Nenadovic, M., Dejanovic, S. D., Borovcanin, M., and Trajkovic, G. (2015). The effect of antipsychotic drugs on nonspecific inflammation markers in the first episode of schizophrenia. Vojnosanit. Pregl. 72, 1085-1092. doi: 10.2298/VSP140526016S
194. Stokes, C., and Peet, M. (2004). Dietary sugar and polyunsaturated fatty acid consumption as predictors of severity of schizophrenia symptoms. Nutr. Neurosci. 7, 247-249. doi: 10.1080/10284150400010012
195. Strassnig, M., Brar, J. S., and Ganguli, R. (2003). Nutritional assessment of patients with schizophrenia: a preliminary study. Schizophr. Bull. 29, 393. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007013
196. Strauss, G. P., Frank, M. J., Waltz, J. A., Kasanova, Z., Herbener, E. S., and Gold, J. M. (2011). Deficits in positive reinforcement learning and uncertainty-driven exploration are associated with distinct aspects of negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 69, 424-431. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.10.015
197. Subramaniam, M., Chong, S.-A., and Pek, E. (2003). Diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance in patients with schizophrenia. Can. J. Psychiatry 48, 345-347. doi: 10.1177/070674370304800512
198. Suddath, R. L., Christison, G. W., Torrey, E. F., Casanova, M. F., and Weinberger, D. R. (1990). Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. New Engl. J. Med. 322, 789-794. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199003223221201
199. Sugawara, N., Yasui-Furukori, N., Sato, Y., Saito, M., Furukori, H., Nakagami, T., et al. (2014). Dietary patterns are associated with obesity in Japanese patients with schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 14:184. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-14-184
200. Susce, M. T., Villanueva, N., Diaz, F. J., and de Leon, J. (2005). Obesity and associated complications in patients with severe mental illnesses: a cross-sectional survey. J. Clin. Psychiatry 66, 167-173. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v66n0203
201. Szkultecka-Debek, M., Miernik, K., Stelmachowski, J., Jakovljevic, M., Jukic, V., Aadamsoo, K., et al. (2016). Schizophrenia causes significant burden to patients' and caregivers' lives. Psychiatr. Danub. 28, 104-110
202. Teasdale, S. B., Ward, P. B., Rosenbaum, S., Watkins, A., Curtis, J., Kalucy, M., et al. (2016). A nutrition intervention is effective in improving dietary components linked to cardiometabolic risk in youth with first-episode psychosis. Br. J. Nutr. 115, 1987-1993. doi: 10.1017/S0007114516001033
203. Tedelind, S., Westberg, F., Kjerrulf, M., and Vidal, A. (2007). Anti-inflammatory properties of the short-chain fatty acids acetate and propionate: a study with relevance to inflammatory bowel disease. World J. Gastroenterol. 13, 2826-2832
204. Tregellas, J. R., Smucny, J., Legget, K. T., and Stevens, K. E. (2015). Effects of a ketogenic diet on auditory gating in DBA/2 mice: a proof-of-concept study. Schizophr. Res. 169, 351-354. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.09.022
205. Tsai, G., Passani, L. A., Slusher, B. S., Carter, R., Baer, L., Kleinman, J. E., et al. (1995). Abnormal excitatory neurotransmitter metabolism in schizophrenic brains. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 829-836. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950220039008
206. Urpi-Sarda, M., Casas, R., Chiva-Blanch, G., Romero-Mamani, E. S., Valderas-Martinez, P., Salas-Salvado, J., et al. (2012). The Mediterranean diet pattern and its main components are associated with lower plasma concentrations of tumor necrosis factor receptor 60 in patients at high risk for cardiovascular disease. J. Nutr. 142, 1019-1025. doi: 10.3945/jn.111.148726
207. Usall, J., Huerta-Ramos, E., Labad, J., Cobo, J., Nunez, C., Creus, M., et al. (2016). Raloxifene as an Adjunctive Treatment for Postmenopausal Women With Schizophrenia: a 24-Week Double-Blind, Randomized, Parallel, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Schizophr. Bull. 42, 309-317. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbv149
208. Vane, J. R., and Botting, R. M. (1998). Mechanism of action of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Am. J. Med. 104, 2S-8S. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00203-9
209. Verkhratsky, A., Steardo, L., Peng, L., and Parpura, V. (2016). Astroglia, glutamatergic transmission and psychiatric diseases. Adv. Neurobiol. 13, 307-326. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-45096-4_12
210. Vincenzi, B., Stock, S., Borba, C. P., Cleary, S. M., Oppenheim, C. E., Petruzzi, L. J., et al. (2014). A randomized placebo-controlled pilot study of pravastatin as an adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia patients: effect on inflammation, psychopathology, cognition and lipid metabolism. Schizophr. Res. 159, 395-403. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.08.021
211. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Tomasi, D., and Baler, R. (2012). Food and drug reward: overlapping circuits in human obesity and addiction. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 11, 1-24. doi: 10.1007/7854_2011_169
212. von Schacky, C., Fischer, S., and Weber, P. C. (1985). Long-term effects of dietary marine omega-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. J. Clin. Invest. 76, 1626-1631. doi: 10.1172/JCI112147
213. Vucetic, Z., and Reyes, T. M. (2010). Central dopaminergic circuitry controlling food intake and reward: implications for the regulation of obesity. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Syst. Biol. Med. 2, 577-593. doi: 10.1002/wsbm.77
214. Wagner, A., Aizenstein, H., Venkatraman, V. K., Fudge, J., May, J. C., Mazurkewicz, L., et al. (2007). Altered reward processing in women recovered from anorexia nervosa. Am. J. Psychiatry 164, 1842-1849. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07040575
215. Weickert, C. S., Ligons, D. L., Romanczyk, T., Ungaro, G., Hyde, T. M., Herman, M. M., et al. (2005). Reductions in neurotrophin receptor mRNAs in the prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiatry 10, 637-650. doi: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001678
216. Weickert, T. W., Weinberg, D., Lenroot, R., Catts, S. V., Wells, R., Vercammen, A., et al. (2015). Adjunctive raloxifene treatment improves attention and memory in men and women with schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiatry 20, 685-694. doi: 10.1038/mp.2015.11
217. Werner, S., Malaspina, D., and Rabinowitz, J. (2007). Socioeconomic status at birth is associated with risk of schizophrenia: population-based multilevel study. Schizophr. Bull. 33, 1373-1378. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbm032
218. Wing, R. R., Vazquez, J. A., and Ryan, C. M. (1995). Cognitive effects of ketogenic weight-reducing diets. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 19, 811-816
219. Wolever, T. M., and Bolognesi, C. (1996). Prediction of glucose and insulin responses of normal subjects after consuming mixed meals varying in energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate and glycemic index. J. Nutr. 126, 2807-2812
220. Wong, J. M., de Souza, R., Kendall, C. W., Emam, A., and Jenkins, D. J. (2006). Colonic health: fermentation and short chain fatty acids. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 40, 235-243. doi: 10.1097/00004836-200603000-00015
221. Wong, M. L., Inserra, A., Lewis, M. D., Mastronardi, C. A., Leong, L., Choo, J., et al. (2016). Inflammasome signaling affects anxiety-and depressive-like behavior and gut microbiome composition. Mol. Psychiatry 21, 797-805. doi: 10.1038/mp.2016.46
222. Yang, J., Chen, T., Sun, L., Zhao, Z., Qi, X., Zhou, K., et al. (2013). Potential metabolite markers of schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiatry 18, 67-78. doi: 10.1038/mp.2011.131
223. Zamaria, N. (2004). Alteration of polyunsaturated fatty acid status and metabolism in health and disease. Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 44, 273-282. doi: 10.1051/rnd:2004034
224. Zammit, S., Allebeck, P., David, A. S., Dalman, C., Hemmingsson, T., Lundberg, I., et al. (2004). A longitudinal study of premorbid IQ score and risk of developing schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, severe depression, and other nonaffective psychoses. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 354-360. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.354