Attention and associative learning in humans: An integrative review

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 142, Issue 10, 2016, Pages 1111-1140

  Le Pelley, Mike E ^a   Mitchell, Chris J ^b   Beesley, Tom ^a   George, David N ^c   Wills, Andy J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF HULL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Associative learning; Attention; Conditioning; Reward learning

Indexed keywords

ATTENTION; HUMAN; LEARNING; PHYSIOLOGY;

ASSOCIATION LEARNING; ATTENTION; HUMANS;

EID: 84988876239     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000064     Document Type: Article

References (293)

1. Abad, M. J. F., Ramos-Alvarez, M. M., & Rosas, J. M. (2009). Partial reinforcement and context switch effects in human predictive learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 174-188.
2. Ahmed, O., & Lovibond, P. F. (2015). The impact of previously learned feature-relevance on generalisation of conditioned fear in humans. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 46, 59-65.
3. Anderson, A. K., & Phelps, E. A. (2001). Lesions of the human amygdala impair enhanced perception of emotionally salient events. Nature, 411, 305-309.
4. Anderson, B. A. (2015a). Value-driven attentional capture is modulated by spatial context. Visual Cognition, 23, 67-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 13506285.2014.956851
5. Anderson, B. A. (2015b). Value-driven attentional priority is context specific. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 750-756. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0724-0
6. Anderson, B. A., Faulkner, M. L., Rilee, J. J., Yantis, S., & Marvel, C. L. (2013). Attentional bias for nondrug reward is magnified in addiction. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21, 499-506. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0034575
7. Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2011a). Learned value magnifies salience-based attentional capture. PLoS ONE, 6, e27926. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027926
8. Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2011b). Value-driven attentional capture. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 10367-10371. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1104047108
9. Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2012). Generalization of value-based attentional priority. Visual Cognition, 20, 647-658. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2012.679711
10. Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2013). Reward predictions bias attentional selection. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 262. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00262
11. Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2014). Value-driven attentional priority signals in human basal ganglia and visual cortex. Brain Research, 1587, 88-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.08.062
12. Anderson, B. A., Leal, S. L., Hall, M. G., Yassa, M. A., & Yantis, S. (2014). The attribution of value-based attentional priority in individuals with depressive symptoms. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, 1221-1227. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13415-014-0301-z
13. Anderson, B. A., & Yantis, S. (2012). Value-driven attentional and oculomotor capture during goal-directed, unconstrained viewing. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 74, 1644-1653. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/ s13414-012-0348-2
14. Anderson, B. A., & Yantis, S. (2013). Persistence of value-driven attentional capture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39, 6-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0030860
15. Aron, A. R., Shohamy, D., Clark, J., Myers, C., Gluck, M. A., & Poldrack, R. A. (2004). Human midbrain sensitivity to cognitive feedback and uncertainty during classification learning. Journal of Neurophysiology, 92, 1144-1152.
16. Asgeirsson, A. G., & Kristjansson, A. (2014). Random reward priming is task-contingent: The robustness of the 1-trial reward priming effect. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 10.
17. Austin, A. J., & Duka, T. (2010). Mechanisms of attention for appetitive and aversive outcomes in Pavlovian conditioning. Behavioral Brain Research, 213, 19-26.
18. Austin, A. J., & Duka, T. (2012). Mechanisms of attention to conditioned stimuli predictive of a cigarette outcome. Behavioral Brain Research, 232, 183-189.
19. Awh, E., Belopolsky, A. V., & Theeuwes, J. (2012). Top-down versus bottom-up attentional control: A failed theoretical dichotomy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 437-443.
20. Bach, D. R., Hulme, O., Penny, W. D., & Dolan, R. J. (2011). The known unknowns: Neural representation of second-order uncertainty, and ambiguity. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 4811-4820.
21. Bai, Y., Katahira, K., & Ohira, H. (2014). Dual learning processes underlying human decision-making in reversal learning tasks: Functional significance and evidence from the model fit to human behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 8.
22. Balcetis, E., Dunning, D., & Granot, Y. (2012). Subjective value determines initial dominance in binocular rivalry. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 122-129.
23. Beck, S. B. (1963). Eyelid conditioning as a function of CS intensity, UCS intensity, and Manifest Anxiety scale score. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 429-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0042820
24. Beesley, T., & Le Pelley, M. E. (2010). The effect of predictive history on the learning of sub-sequence contingencies. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 108-135.
25. Beesley, T., & Le Pelley, M. E. (2011). The influence of blocking on overt attention and associability in human learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 37, 114-120.
26. Beesley, T., Nguyen, K. P., Pearson, D., & Le Pelley, M. E. (2015). Uncertainty and predictiveness determine attention to cues during human associative learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 68, 2175-2199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2015.1009919
27. Behrens, T. E. J., Woolrich, M. W., Walton, M. E., & Rushworth, M. F. S. (2007). Learning the value of information in an uncertain world. Nature Neuroscience, 10, 1214-1221.
28. Bohil, C. J., Markman, A. B., & Maddox, W. T. (2005). A feature-salience analogue of the inverse base-rate effect. Korean Journal of Thinking & Problem Solving, 15, 17-28.
29. Boll, S., Gamer, M., Gluth, S., Finsterbusch, J., & Buchel, C. (2013). Separate amygdala subregions signal surprise and predictiveness during associative fear learning in humans. European Journal of Neuroscience, 37, 758-767.
30. Bonardi, C., Graham, S., Hall, G., & Mitchell, C. (2005). Acquired distinctiveness and equivalence in human discrimination learning: Evidence for an attentional process. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 88-92.
31. Bonardi, C., & Hall, G. (1996). Learned irrelevance: No more than the sum of CS and US preexposure effects? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 22, 183-191.
32. Bouton, M. E. (1993). Context, time, and memory retrieval in the interference paradigms of Pavlovian learning. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 80-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.80
33. Braem, S., Hickey, C., Duthoo, W., & Notebaert, W. (2014). Reward determines the context-sensitivity of cognitive control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 40, 1769-1778. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037554
34. Brielmann, A. A., & Spering, M. (2015). Effects of reward on the accuracy and dynamics of smooth pursuit eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 41, 917-928. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039205
35. Broomfield, L., McHugh, L., & Reed, P. (2010). Factors impacting emergence of behavioral control by underselected stimuli in humans after reduction of control by overselected stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 94, 125-133.
36. Bucker, B., Belopolsky, A. V., & Theeuwes, J. (2015). Distractors that signal reward attract the eyes. Visual Cognition, 23, 1-24.
37. Bucker, B., Silvis, J. D., Donk, M., & Theeuwes, J. (2015). Reward modulates oculomotor competition between differently valued stimuli. Vision Research, 108, 103-112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2015.01.020
38. Buckley, M. G., Smith, A. D., & Haselgrove, M. (2014). Shape shifting: Local landmarks interfere with navigation by, and recognition of, global shape. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition, 40, 492-510.
39. Buckley, M. G., Smith, A. D., & Haselgrove, M. (2015). Learned predictiveness training modulates biases towards using boundary or landmark cues during navigation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 1183-1202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2014.977925
40. Buschschulte, A., Boehler, C. N., Strumpf, H., Stoppel, C., Heinze, H. J., Schoenfeld, M. A., and Hopf, J. M. (2014). Reward- and attentionrelated biasing of sensory selection in visual cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26, 1049-1065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00539
41. Callejas-Aguilera, J. E., & Rosas, J. M. (2010). Ambiguity and context processing in human predictive learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 36, 482-494.
42. Camara, E., Manohar, S., & Husain, M. (2013). Past rewards capture spatial attention and action choices. Experimental Brain Research, 230, 291-300.
43. Cavanagh, J. F. (2015). Cortical delta activity reflects reward prediction error and related behavioral adjustments, but at different times. Neuroimage, 110, 205-216.
44. Chapman, C. S., Gallivan, J. P., & Enns, J. T. (2015). Separating value from selection frequency in rapid reaching biases to visual targets. Visual Cognition, 23, 249-271.
45. Chapman, C. S., Gallivan, J. P., Wong, J. D., Wispinski, N. J., & Enns, J. T. (2015). The snooze of lose: Rapid reaching reveals that losses are processed more slowly than gains. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144, 844-863. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000085
46. Chelazzi, L., Eštocćinová, J., Calletti, R., Lo Gerfo, E., Sani, I., Della Libera, C., & Santandrea, E. (2014). Altering spatial priority maps via reward-based learning. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 8594-8604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0277-14.2014
47. Chelazzi, L., Perlato, A., Santandrea, E., & Della Libera, C. (2013). Rewards teach visual selective attention. Vision Research, 85, 58-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2012.12.005
48. Chen, X., Mihalas, S., Niebur, E., & Stuphorn, V. (2013). Mechanisms underlying the influence of saliency on value-based decisions. Journal of Vision, 13, 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/13.12.18
49. Chun, M. M., & Potter, M. C. (1995). A two-stage model for multiple target detection in rapid serial visual presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 109-127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.21.1.109
50. Collins, E. C., Percy, E. J., Smith, E. R., & Kruschke, J. K. (2011). Integrating advice and experience: Learning and decision making with social and nonsocial cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 967-982.
51. Cools, R., Rogers, R., Barker, R. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2010). Top-down attentional control in Parkinson's Disease: Salient considerations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 848-859.
52. Corbetta, M., & Shulman, G. L. (2002). Control of goal-directed and stimulus-driven attention in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3, 201-215.
53. Cox, W. M., Hogan, L. M., Kristian, M. R., & Race, J. H. (2002). Alcohol attentional bias as a predictor of alcohol abusers' treatment outcome. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, 237-243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0376-8716(02)00219-3
54. D'Ardenne, K., Lohrenz, T., Bartley, K. A., & Montague, P. R. (2013). Computational heterogeneity in the human mesencephalic dopamine system. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 747-756.
55. Dayan, P. (2009). Dopamine, reinforcement learning, and addiction. Pharmacopsychiatry, 42, S56-S65.
56. Della Libera, C., & Chelazzi, L. (2009). Learning to attend and to ignore is a matter of gains and losses. Psychological Science, 20, 778-784. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02360.x
57. Della Libera, C., Perlato, A., & Chelazzi, L. (2011). Dissociable effects of reward on attentional learning: From passive associations to active monitoring. PLoS ONE, 6, e19460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019460
58. Dennis, S., & Kruschke, J. K. (1998). Shifting attention in cued recall. Australian Journal of Psychology, 50, 131-138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00049539808258789
59. Denton, S. E., & Kruschke, J. K. (2006). Attention and salience in associative blocking. Learning & Behavior, 34, 285-304.
60. Deubel, H., & Schneider, W. X. (1996). Saccade target selection and object recognition: Evidence for a common attentional mechanism. Vision Research, 36, 1827-1837.
61. Dickinson, A. (1980). Contemporary animal learning theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
62. Dixon, M. L., Ruppel, J., Pratt, J., & De Rosa, E. (2009). Learning to ignore: Acquisition of sustained attentional suppression. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 418-423.
63. Doallo, S., Patai, E. Z., & Nobre, A. C. (2013). Reward associations magnify memory-based biases on perception. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 25, 245-257.
64. Don, H. J., & Livesey, E. J. (2015). Resistance to instructed reversal of the learned predictiveness effect. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 1327-1347.a
65. Dreher, J. C., Kohn, P., & Berman, K. F. (2006). Neural coding of distinct statistical properties of reward information in humans. Cerebral Cortex, 16, 561-573.
66. Duncan, J. (1989). Boundary conditions on parallel processing in human vision. Perception, 18, 457-469.
67. Dunsmoor, J. E., Campese, V. D., Ceceli, A. O., LeDoux, J. E., & Phelps, E. A. (2015). Novelty-facilitated extinction: Providing a novel outcome in place of an expected threat diminishes recovery of defensive responses. Biological Psychiatry, 78, 203-209.a
68. Eberl, C., Wiers, R. W., Pawelczack, S., Rinck, M., Becker, E. S., & Lindenmeyer, J. (2013). Approach bias modification in alcohol dependence: Do clinical effects replicate and for whom does it work best? Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 4, 38-51.
69. Eckstein, M. P., Schoonveld, W., Zhang, S., Mack, S. C., & Akbas, E. (2015). Optimal and human eye movements to clustered low value cues to increase decision rewards during search. Vision Research, 113, 137-154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2015.05.016
70. Eickhoff, S. B., Pomjanski, W., Jakobs, O., Zilles, K., & Langner, R. (2011). Neural correlates of developing and adapting behavioral biases in speeded choice reactions-an fmri study on predictive motor coding. Cerebral Cortex, 21, 1178-1191.
71. Eimas, P. D. (1966). Effects of overtraining and age on intradimensional and extradimensional shifts in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 3, 348-355.
72. Eippert, F., Gamer, M., & Buchel, C. (2012). Neurobiological mechanisms underlying the blocking effect in aversive learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 13164-13176.
73. Ellis, N. C., Hafeez, K., Martin, K. I., Chen, L., Boland, J., & Sagarra, N. (2014). An eye-tracking study of learned attention in second language acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35, 547-579.
74. Esber, G. R., & Haselgrove, M. (2011). Reconciling the influence of predictiveness and uncertainty on stimulus salience: A model of attention in associative learning. Proceedings Biological Sciences, 278, 2553-2561.
75. Fadardi, J. S., & Cox, W. M. (2009). Reversing the sequence: Reducing alcohol consumption by overcoming alcohol attentional bias. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 101, 137-145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.11.015
76. Failing, M., Nissens, T., Pearson, D., Le Pelley, M. E., & Theeuwes, J. (2015). Oculomotor capture by stimuli that signal the availability of reward. Journal of Neurophysiology, 114, 2316-2327.d
77. Failing, M. F., & Theeuwes, J. (2014). Exogenous visual orienting by reward. Journal of Vision, 14, 9.
78. Failing, M. F., & Theeuwes, J. (2015). Nonspatial attentional capture by previously rewarded scene semantics. Visual Cognition, 23, 82-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2014.990546
79. Field, A. P. (2006). The behavioral inhibition system and the verbal information pathway to children's fears. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 742-752. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.742
80. Field, M., & Cox, W. M. (2008). Attentional bias in addictive behaviors: A review of its development, causes, and consequences. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97, 1-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.030
81. Field, M., Munafò, M. R., & Franken, I. H. (2009). A meta-analytic investigation of the relationship between attentional bias and subjective craving in substance abuse. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 589-607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015843
82. Garland, E. L., Froeliger, B. E., Passik, S. D., & Howard, M. O. (2013). Attentional bias for prescription opioid cues among opioid dependent chronic pain patients. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 36, 611-620.
83. Gauntlett-Gilbert, J., Roberts, R. C., & Brown, V. J. (1999). Mechanisms underlying attentional set-shifting in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia, 37, 605-616.
84. Gawronski, B., Rydell, R. J., Vervliet, B., & De Houwer, J. (2010). Generalization versus contextualization in automatic evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 139, 683-701.
85. George, D. N., & Kruschke, J. K. (2012). Contextual modulation of attention in human category learning. Learning & Behavior, 40, 530-541.
86. George, D. N., & Pearce, J. M. (1999). Acquired distinctiveness is controlled by stimulus relevance not correlation with reward. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 25, 363-373.
87. George, D. N., & Pearce, J. M. (2012). A configural theory of attention and associative learning. Learning & Behavior, 40, 241-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13420-012-0078-2
88. Glautier, S., & Shih, S. I. (2015). Relative prediction error and protection from attentional blink in human associative learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 442-458.
89. Goldstone, R. (1994). Influences of categorization on perceptual discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 123, 178-200.
90. Goldstone, R. L., & Steyvers, M. (2001). The sensitization and differentiation of dimensions during category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 116-139.
91. Gong, M., & Li, S. (2014). Learned reward association improves visual working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 40, 841-856. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0035131
92. Griffiths, O., Johnson, A. M., & Mitchell, C. J. (2011). Negative transfer in human associative learning. Psychological Science, 22, 1198-1204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797611419305
93. Griffiths, O., & Le Pelley, M. E. (2009). Attentional changes in blocking are not a consequence of lateral inhibition. Learning & Behavior, 37, 27-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/LB.37.1.27
94. Griffiths, O., & Mitchell, C. J. (2008). Selective attention in human associative learning and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 626-648.
95. Griffiths, O., Mitchell, C. J., Bethmont, A., & Lovibond, P. F. (2015). Outcome predictability biases learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition, 41, 1-17.
96. Hall, G., & Pearce, J. M. (1979). Latent inhibition of a CS during CS-US pairings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 3, 31-42.
97. Hardman, C. A., Scott, J., Field, M., & Jones, A. (2014). To eat or not to eat. The effects of expectancy on reactivity to food cues. Appetite, 76, 153-160.
98. Haselgrove, M., Le Pelley, M. E., Singh, N. K., Teow, H. Q., Morris, R. W., Green, M. J., Killcross, S. (2015). Disrupted attentional learning in high schizotypy: Evidence of aberrant salience. British Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12175
99. Hauser, T. U., Iannaccone, R., Stampfli, P., Drechsler, R., Brandeis, D., Walitza, S., & Brem, S. (2014). The feedback-related negativity (FRN) revisited: New insights into the localization, meaning and network organization. Neuroimage, 84, 159-168.
100. Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2010a). Reward changes salience in human vision via the anterior cingulate. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 11096-11103.
101. Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2010b). Reward guides vision when it's your thing: Trait reward-seeking in reward-mediated visual priming. PLoS ONE, 5, e14087. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014087
102. Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2011). Reward has a residual impact on target selection in visual search, but not on the suppression of distractors. Visual Cognition, 19, 117-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 13506285.2010.503946
103. Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2014). Reward-priming of location in visual search. PLoS ONE, 9, e103372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103372
104. Hickey, C., Kaiser, D., & Peelen, M. V. (2015). Reward guides attention to object categories in real-world scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144, 264-273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038627
105. Hickey, C., & Los, S. A. (2015). Reward priming of temporal preparation. Visual Cognition, 23, 25-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2014.998325
106. Hickey, C., & Peelen, M. V. (2015). Neural mechanisms of incentive salience in naturalistic human vision. Neuron, 85, 512-518. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.049
107. Hickey, C., & van Zoest, W. (2013). Reward-associated stimuli capture the eyes in spite of strategic attentional set. Vision Research, 92, 67-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2013.09.008
108. Hoffman, A. B., & Rehder, B. (2010). The costs of supervised classification: The effect of learning task on conceptual flexibility. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 139, 319-340.
109. Hogarth, L., Dickinson, A., Austin, A., Brown, C., & Duka, T. (2008). Attention and expectation in human predictive learning: The role of uncertainty. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 1658-1668.
110. Hogarth, L., Dickinson, A., & Duka, T. (2005). Explicit knowledge of stimulus-outcome contingencies and stimulus control of selective attention and instrumental action in human smoking behavior. Psychopharmacology, 177, 428-437.
111. Hogarth, L., Dickinson, A., & Duka, T. (2009). Detection versus sustained attention to drug cues have dissociable roles in mediating drug seeking behavior. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17, 21-30.
112. Hogarth, L., Dickinson, A., Hutton, S. B., Elbers, N., & Duka, T. (2006). Drug expectancy is necessary for stimulus control of human attention, instrumental drug-seeking behavior and subjective pleasure. Psychopharmacology, 185, 495-504.
113. Hogarth, L., Dickinson, A., Janowski, M., Nikitina, A., & Duka, T. (2008). The role of attentional bias in mediating human drug-seeking behavior. Psychopharmacology, 201, 29-41.
114. Hogarth, L., Dickinson, A., Wright, A., Kouvaraki, M., & Duka, T. (2007). The role of drug expectancy in the control of human drug seeking. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 33, 484-496.
115. Holland, P. C., & Maddux, J. M. (2010). Brain systems of attention in associative learning. In C. J. Mitchell &M. E. Le Pelley (Eds.), Attention and associative learning: From brain to behaviour (pp. 305-349). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
116. Holmes, N. M., & Harris, J. A. (2010). Latent inhibition. In C. J. Mitchell & M. E. Le Pelley (Eds.), Attention and associative learning: From brain to behavior (pp. 99-130). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
117. Hopf, J. M., Schoenfeld, M. A., Buschschulte, A., Rautzenberg, A., Krebs, R. M., & Boehler, C. N. (2015). The modulatory impact of reward and attention on global feature selection in human visual cortex. Visual Cognition, 23, 229-248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2015.1011252
118. Huang, Y., & Yu, R. J. (2014). The feedback-related negativity reflects "more or less" prediction error in appetitive and aversive conditions. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 6.
119. Hyman, S. E. (2005). Addiction: A disease of learning and memory. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1414-1422.
120. Infanti, E., Hickey, C., & Turatto, M. (2015). Reward associations impact both iconic and visual working memory. Vision Research, 107, 22-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2014.11.008
121. Isaacs, I. D., & Duncan, C. P. (1962). Reversal and nonreversal shifts within and between dimensions in concept formation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 580-585. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0048941
122. Itthipuripat, S., Cha, K., Rangsipat, N., & Serences, J. T. (2015). Valuebased attentional capture influences context-dependent decision-making. Journal of Neurophysiology, 114, 560-569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00343.2015c
123. James, W. (1983). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1890)
124. Jiao, J., Du, F., He, X., & Zhang, K. (2015). Social comparison modulates reward-driven attentional capture. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 1278-1284. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0812-9
125. Jonides, J. (1981). Voluntary versus automatic control over the mind's eye's movement. In J. B. Long & A. D. Baddeley (Eds.), Attention and performance IX (pp. 187-203). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
126. Kahnt, T., Park, S. Q., Haynes, J. D., & Tobler, P. N. (2014). Disentangling neural representations of value and salience in the human brain. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111, 5000-5005.
127. Kalish, M. L., & Kruschke, J. K. (2000). The role of attention shifts in the categorization of continuous dimensioned stimuli. Psychological Research-Psychologische Forschung, 64, 105-116.
128. Kattner, F. (2015). Transfer of absolute and relative predictiveness in human contingency learning. Learning & Behavior, 43, 32-43.
129. Kelly, M. M., & Forsyth, J. P. (2007). Observational fear conditioning in the acquisition and extinction of attentional bias for threat: An experimental evaluation. Emotion, 7, 324-335.
130. Kenny, D. A. (2015). Measuring model fit. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320189111
131. Kersten, A. W., Goldstone, R. L., & Schaffert, A. (1998). Two competing attentional mechanisms in category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory & Cognition, 24, 1437-1458.
132. Kiss, M., Driver, J., & Eimer, M. (2009). Reward priority of visual target singletons modulates event-related potential signatures of attentional selection. Psychological Science, 20, 245-251.
133. Klauer, K. C., Roßnagel, C., & Musch, J. (1997). List-context effects in evaluative priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 246-255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.23.1.246
134. Kopp, B., & Wolff, M. (2000). Brain mechanisms of selective learning: Event-related potentials provide evidence for error-driven learning in humans. Biological Psychology, 51, 223-246.
135. Kristjansson, A., Sigurjonsdottir, O., & Driver, J. (2010). Fortune and reversals of fortune in visual search: Reward contingencies for pop-out targets affect search efficiency and target repetition effects. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 72, 1229-1236.
136. Kruschke, J. K. (1992). ALCOVE: An exemplar-based connectionist model of category learning. Psychological Review, 99, 22-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.22
137. Kruschke, J. K. (1996a). Base rates in category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 3-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.22.1.3
138. Kruschke, J. K. (1996b). Dimensional relevance shifts in category learning. Connection Science, 8, 225-248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 095400996116893
139. Kruschke, J. K. (2001a). The inverse base-rate effect is not explained by eliminative inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 1385-1400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0278-7393.27.6.1385
140. Kruschke, J. K. (2001b). Towards a unified model of attention in associative learning. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 45, 812-863. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1006/jmps.2000.1354
141. Kruschke, J. K. (2006). Locally Bayesian learning with applications to retrospective revaluation and highlighting. Psychological Review, 113, 677-699. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.4.677
142. Kruschke, J. K. (2009). Highlighting: A canonical experiment. In B. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 51, pp. 153-185). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(09)51005-5
143. Kruschke, J. K., & Blair, N. J. (2000). Blocking and backward blocking involve learned inattention. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7, 636-645.
144. Kruschke, J. K., Kappenman, E. S., & Hetrick, W. P. (2005). Eye gaze and individual differences consistent with learned attention in associative blocking and highlighting. Journal of Experimental Psychology- Learning Memory & Cognition, 31, 830-845.
145. Kyllingsbaek, S., Schneider, W. X., & Bundesen, C. (2001). Automatic attraction of attention to former targets in visual displays of letters. Perception & Psychophysics, 63, 85-98.
146. Lashley, K. S. (1929). Brain mechanisms and intelligence. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
147. Laurent, P. A., Hall, M. G., Anderson, B. A., & Yantis, S. (2015). Valuable orientations capture attention. Visual Cognition, 23, 133-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2014.965242
148. Lawrence, A. D., Sahakian, B. J., Rogers, R. D., Hodges, J. R., & Robbins, T. W. (1999). Discrimination, reversal, and shift learning in Huntington's disease: Mechanisms of impaired response selection. Neuropsychologia, 37, 1359-1374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(99) 00035-4
149. Lee, J., & Shomstein, S. (2014). Reward-based transfer from bottom-up to top-down search tasks. Psychological Science, 25, 466-475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797613509284
150. Leon, S. P., Abad, M. J. F., & Rosas, J. M. (2011). Context-outcome associations mediate context-switch effects in a human predictive learning task. Learning and Motivation, 42, 84-98.da
151. Le Pelley, M. E., Beesley, T., & Griffiths, O. (2016). Associative learning and derived attention in humans. In R. A. Murphy & R. C. Honey (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook on the cognitive neuroscience of learning (pp. 114-135). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
152. Le Pelley, M. E., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2003). Learned associability and associative change in human causal learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B-Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 56, 68-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724990244000179
153. Le Pelley, M. E., Oakeshott, S. M., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2005). Blocking and unblocking in human causal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 31, 56-70. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0097-7403.31.1.56
154. Le Pelley, M. E., Oakeshott, S. M., Wills, A. J., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2005). The outcome-specificity of learned predictiveness effects: Parallels between human causal learning and animal conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 31, 226-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0097-7403.31.2.226
155. Le Pelley, M. E., Reimers, S. J., Calvini, G., Spears, R., Beesley, T., & Murphy, R. A. (2010). Stereotype formation: Biased by association. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 138-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018210
156. Le Pelley, M. E., Schmidt-Hansen, M., Harris, N. J., Lunter, C. M., & Morris, C. S. (2010). Disentangling the attentional deficit in schizophrenia: Pointers from schizotypy. Psychiatry Research, 176, 143-149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.03.027a
157. Le Pelley, M. E., Suret, M. B., & Beesley, T. (2009). Learned predictiveness effects in humans: A function of learning, performance, or both? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 35, 312-327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014315
158. Le Pelley, M. E., Turnbull, M. N., Reimers, S. J., & Knipe, R. L. (2010). Learned predictiveness effects following single-cue training in humans. Learning & Behavior, 38, 126-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/LB.38.2.126
159. Le Pelley, M. E. (2004). The role of associative history in models of associative learning: A selective review and a hybrid model. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 57, 193-243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 02724990344000141
160. Le Pelley, M. E. (2010). The hybrid modeling approach to conditioning. In N. A. Schmajuk (Ed.), Computational models of conditioning (pp. 71-107). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511760402.004
161. Le Pelley, M. E., Beesley, T., & Griffiths, O. (2011). Overt attention and predictiveness in human contingency learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 37, 220-229.
162. Le Pelley, M. E., Beesley, T., & Griffiths, O. (2014). Relative salience versus relative validity: Cue salience influences blocking in human associative learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 40, 116-132.
163. Le Pelley, M. E., Beesley, T., & Suret, M. B. (2007). Blocking of human causal learning involves learned changes in stimulus processing. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 1468-1476.
164. Le Pelley, M. E., Calvini, G., & Spears, R. (2013). Learned predictiveness influences automatic evaluations in human contingency learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 66, 217-228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.708760
165. Le Pelley, M. E., Mitchell, C. J., & Johnson, A. M. (2013). Outcome value influences attentional biases in human associative learning: Dissociable effects of training and instruction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 39, 39-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0031230
166. Le Pelley, M. E., Pearson, D., Griffiths, O., & Beesley, T. (2015). When goals conflict with values: Counterproductive attentional and oculomotor capture by reward-related stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144, 158-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000037
167. Le Pelley, M. E., Vadillo, M., & Luque, D. (2013). Learned predictiveness influences rapid attentional capture: Evidence from the dot probe task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39, 1888-1900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0033700
168. Li, J., Schiller, D., Schoenbaum, G., Phelps, E. A., & Daw, N. D. (2011). Differential roles of human striatum and amygdala in associative learning. Nature Neuroscience, 14, 1250-1252.
169. Li, W., Howard, J. D., Parrish, T. B., & Gottfried, J. A. (2008). Aversive learning enhances perceptual and cortical discrimination of indiscriminable odor cues. Science, 319, 1842-1845.
170. Lipp, O. V., Siddle, D. A. T., & Dall, P. J. (1993). Effects of miscuing on Pavlovian conditioned responding and on probe reaction-time. Australian Journal of Psychology, 45, 161-167.
171. Liu, E. H., Mercado, E., Church, B. A., & Orduna, I. (2008). The easyto- hard effect in human (Homo sapiens) and rat (Rattus norvegicus) auditory identification. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 122, 132-145.
172. Liu, P. P., & Luhmann, C. C. (2013). Evidence that a transient but cognitively demanding process underlies forward blocking. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 744-766.
173. Livesey, E. J., Harris, I. M., & Harris, J. A. (2009). Attentional changes during implicit learning: Signal validity protects a target stimulus from the attentional blink. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory & Cognition, 35, 408-422.
174. Livesey, E. J., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2007). Elemental associability changes in human discrimination learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology- Animal Behavior Processes, 33, 148-159.
175. Livesey, E. J., Thorwart, A., De Fina, N. L., & Harris, J. A. (2011). Comparing learned predictiveness effects within and across compound discriminations. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 37, 446-465.
176. Lochmann, T., & Wills, A. J. (2003). Predictive history in an allergy prediction task. In F. Schmalhofer, R. M. Young & G. Katz (Eds.), Proceedings of EuroCogSci 03 (pp. 217-222). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
177. Lovejoy, E. (1968). Attention in discrimination learning. San Francisco, CA: Holden-Day.
178. Lubow, R. E. (1989). Latent inhibition and conditioned attention theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ CBO9780511529849
179. Lucke, S., Lachnit, H., Koenig, S., & Uengoer, M. (2013). The informational value of contexts affects context-dependent learning. Learning & Behavior, 41, 285-297.
180. Lucke, S., Lachnit, H., Stuttgen, M. C., & Uengoer, M. (2014). The impact of context relevance during extinction learning. Learning & Behavior, 42, 256-269.
181. Luque, D., Morís, J., Rushby, J. A., & Le Pelley, M. E. (2015). Goaldirected EEG activity evoked by discriminative stimuli in reinforcement learning. Psychophysiology, 52, 238-248.
182. Macho, S. (1997). Effect of relevance shifts in category acquisition: A test of neural networks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 30-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.23.1.30
183. Mackintosh, N. J. (1975). A theory of attention: Variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement. Psychological Review, 82, 276-298. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076778
184. Mackintosh, N. J., & Little, L. (1969). Intradimensional and extradimensional shift learning by pigeons. Psychonomic Science, 14, 5-6. http:// dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03336395
185. MacLean, M. H., & Giesbrecht, B. (2015). Irrelevant reward and selection histories have different influences on task-relevant attentional selection. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 77, 1515-1528. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13414-015-0851-3
186. Maes, J. H. R., Damen, M. D. C., & Eling, P. (2004). More learned irrelevance than perseveration errors in rule shifting in healthy subjects. Brain and Cognition, 54, 201-211.
187. Maes, J. H. R., Eling, P., Wezenberg, E., Vissers, C., & Kan, C. C. (2011). Attentional set shifting in autism spectrum disorder: Differentiating between the role of perseveration, learned irrelevance, and novelty processing. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33, 210-217.
188. Maes, J. H. R., Vich, J., & Eling, P. (2006). Learned irrelevance and response perseveration in a total change dimensional shift task. Brain and Cognition, 62, 74-79.
189. Maljkovic, V., & Nakayama, K. (1994). Priming of pop-out: I. Role of features. Memory & Cognition, 22, 657-672.
190. Maljkovic, V., & Nakayama, K. (1996). Priming of pop-out: II. The role of position. Perception & Psychophysics, 58, 977-991. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03206826
191. Maljkovic, V., & Nakayama, K. (2000). Priming of pop-out: III. A shortterm implicit memory system beneficial for rapid target selection. Visual Cognition, 7, 571-595. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/135062800407202
192. Marini, F., Marzi, T., & Viggiano, M. P. (2011). "Wanted!" the effects of reward on face recognition: Electrophysiological correlates. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 11, 627-643. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13415-011-0057-7
193. Marissen, M. A. E., Franken, I. H. A., Waters, A. J., Blanken, P., van den Brink, W., & Hendriks, V. M. (2006). Attentional bias predicts heroin relapse following treatment. Addiction, 101, 1306-1312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01498.x
194. Marx, S., & Einhäuser, W. (2015). Reward modulates perception in binocular rivalry. Journal of Vision, 15, 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/15.1.11c
195. Mas-Herrero, E., & Marco-Pallares, J. (2014). Frontal theta oscillatory activity is a common mechanism for the computation of unexpected outcomes and learning rate. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26, 447-458.a
196. Maunsell, J. H. R. (2004). Neuronal representations of cognitive state: Reward or attention? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 261-265.
197. Medin, D. L., & Edelson, S. M. (1988). Problem structure and the use of base-rate information from experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 68-85.
198. Medin, D. L., & Robbins, D. (1971). Effects of frequency on transfer performance after successive discrimination training. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 87, 434-436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0030556
199. Miller, R. R., & Matzel, L. D. (1988). The comparator hypothesis: A response rule for the expression of associations. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 22, 51-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60038-9
200. Mine, C., & Saiki, J. (2015). Task-irrelevant stimulus-reward association induces value-driven attentional capture. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 77, 1896-1907. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13414-015-0894-5
201. Mitchell, C. J., Griffiths, O., Seetoo, J., & Lovibond, P. F. (2012). Attentional mechanisms in learned predictiveness. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 38, 191-202.
202. Mitchell, C., & Hall, G. (2014). Can theories of animal discrimination explain perceptual learning in humans? Psychological Bulletin, 140, 283-307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0032765
203. Mitchell, C. J., Harris, J. A., Westbrook, R. F., & Griffiths, O. (2008). Changes in cue associability across training in human causal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 34, 423-436.
204. Morris, R., Griffiths, O., Le Pelley, M. E., & Weickert, T. W. (2013). Attention to irrelevant cues is related to positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39, 575-582.
205. Munneke, J., Hoppenbrouwers, S. S., & Theeuwes, J. (2015). Reward can modulate attentional capture, independent of top-down set. Attention Perception & Psychophysics, 77, 2540-2548.
206. Myers, C. E., Oliver, L. M., Warren, S. G., & Gluck, M. A. (2000). Stimulus exposure effects in human associative learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B-Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 53, 173-187.
207. Myers, C. E., Warren, S., Brawn, C. M., McGlinchey-Berroth, R., Monti, L., & Gluck, M. A. (2000). Latent learning in medial temporal amnesia: Evidence for disrupted representational but preserved attentional processes. Neuropsychology, 14, 3-15.
208. Nelson, J. B., Lamoureux, J. A., & Leon, S. P. (2013). Extinction arouses attention to the context in a behavioral suppression method with humans. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 39, 99-105.
209. Nosofsky, R. M. (1986). Attention, similarity, and the identificationcategorization relationship. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 39-57.
210. Nosofsky, R. M., Gluck, M. A., Palmeri, T. J., McKinley, S. C., & Glauthier, P. (1994). Comparing models of rule-based classification learning: A replication and extension of Shepard, Hovland, and Jenkins (1961). Memory & Cognition, 22, 352-369.
211. O'Brien, J. L., & Raymond, J. E. (2012). Learned predictiveness speeds visual processing. Psychological Science, 23, 359-363.
212. Orosz, A., Feldon, J., Gal, G., Simon, A., & Cattapan-Ludewig, K. (2007). Repeated measurements of learned irrelevance by a novel within-subject paradigm in humans. Behavioral Brain Research, 180, 1-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2007.02.008
213. Orosz, A. T., Feldon, J., Gal, G., Simon, A. E., & Cattapan-Ludewig, K. (2008). Deficient associative learning in drug-naive first-episode schizophrenia: Results obtained using a new visual within-subjects learned irrelevance paradigm. Behavioral Brain Research, 193, 101-107. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2008.04.025
214. Orosz, A. T., Feldon, J., Simon, A. E., Hilti, L. M., Gruber, K., Yee, B. K., & Cattapan-Ludewig, K. (2011). Learned irrelevance and associative learning is attenuated in individuals at risk for psychosis but not in asymptomatic first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: Translational state markers of psychosis? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37, 973-981.
215. Owen, A. M., Roberts, A. C., Hodges, J. R., Summers, B. A., Polkey, C. E., & Robbins, T. W. (1993). Contrasting mechanisms of impaired attentional set-shifting in patients with frontal-lobe damage or Parkinsonsdisease. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 116, 1159-1175.
216. Owen, A. M., Roberts, A. C., Polkey, C. E., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (1991). Extra-dimensional versus intra-dimensional set shifting performance following frontal lobe excisions, temporal lobe excisions or amygdalo-hippocampectomy in man. Neuropsychologia, 29, 993-1006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(91)90063-E
217. Packer, J. S., Siddle, D. A. T., & Tipp, C. (1989). Restoration of stimulus associability, electrodermal activity, and processing resource allocation. Biological Psychology, 28, 105-121.
218. Pascucci, D., Mastropasqua, T., & Turatto, M. (2015). Monetary reward modulates task-irrelevant perceptual learning for invisible stimuli. PLoS ONE, 10, 12.
219. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London, UK: Oxford University Press.
220. Payzan-LeNestour, E., Dunne, S., Bossaerts, P., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2013). The neural representation of unexpected uncertainty during value-based decision making. Neuron, 79, 191-201.
221. Pearce, J. M., George, D. N., & Redhead, E. S. (1998). The role of attention in the solution of conditional discriminations. In N. A. Schmajuk & P. C. Holland (Eds.), Occasion setting: Associative learning and cognition in animals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.04.037
222. Pearce, J. M., & Hall, G. (1980). A model for Pavlovian learning: Variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli. Psychological Review, 87, 532-552. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.6.532
223. Pearce, J. M., & Mackintosh, N. J. (2010). Two theories of attention: A review and a possible integration. In C. J. Mitchell & M. E. Le Pelley (Eds.), Attention and associative learning: From brain to behaviour (pp. 11-40). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
224. Pearson, D., Donkin, C., Tran, S. C., Most, S. B., & Le Pelley, M. E. (2015). Cognitive control and counterproductive oculomotor capture by reward-related stimuli. Visual Cognition, 23, 41-66. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/13506285.2014.994252
225. Pitt, M. A., & Myung, I. J. (2002). When a good fit can be bad. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 421-425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01964-2
226. Ploghaus, A., Tracey, I., Clare, S., Gati, J. S., Rawlins, J. N. P., & Matthews, P. M. (2000). Learning about pain: The neural substrate of the prediction error for aversive events. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 9281-9286.a
227. Pool, E., Brosch, T., Delplanque, S., & Sander, D. (2014). Where is the chocolate? Rapid spatial orienting toward stimuli associated with primary rewards. Cognition, 130, 348-359.
228. Pool, E., Delplanque, S., Porcherot, C., Jenkins, T., Cayeux, I., & Sander, D. (2014). Sweet reward increases implicit discrimination of similar odors. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 158. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00158
229. Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 00335558008248231
230. Posner, M. I., & Cohen, Y. (1984). Components of visual orienting. In H. Bouma & D. Bouwhuis (Eds.), Attention and performance X (pp. 531-556). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
231. Posner, M. I., Nissen, M. J., & Ogden, W. C. (1978). Attended and unattended processing modes: The role of set for spatial location. In H. L. Pick & I. J. Saltzman (Eds.), Modes of perceiving and processing information (pp. 137-157). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
232. Preuschoff, K., Hart, B. M., & Einhauser, W. (2011). Pupil dilation signals surprise: Evidence for noradrenaline's role in decision making. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 5, 12.
233. Prevost, C., McCabe, J. A., Jessup, R. K., Bossaerts, P., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2011). Differentiable contributions of human amygdalar subregions in the computations underlying reward and avoidance learning. European Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 134-145.
234. Qi, S. Q., Zeng, Q. H., Ding, C., & Li, H. (2013). Neural correlates of reward-driven attentional capture in visual search. Brain Research, 1532, 32-43.
235. Raymond, J. E., & O'Brien, J. L. (2009). Selective visual attention and motivation: The consequences of value learning in an attentional blink task. Psychological Science, 20, 981-988. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02391.x
236. Raymond, J. E., Shapiro, K. L., & Arnell, K. M. (1992). Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: An attentional blink? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18, 849-860. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.18.3.849
237. Rehder, B., & Hoffman, A. B. (2005a). Eyetracking and selective attention in category learning. Cognitive Psychology, 51, 1-41. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.11.001
238. Rehder, B., & Hoffman, A. B. (2005b). Thirty-something categorization results explained: Selective attention, eyetracking, and models of category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 811-829. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.811
239. Reinhart, R. M. G., & Woodman, G. F. (2014). High stakes trigger the use of multiple memories to enhance the control of attention. Cerebral Cortex, 24, 2022-2035. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht057
240. Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory (pp. 64-99). New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
241. Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2001). Incentive-sensitization and addiction. Addiction, 96, 103-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.9611038.x
242. Roper, Z. J. J., Vecera, S. P., & Vaidya, J. G. (2014). Value-driven attentional capture in adolescence. Psychological Science, 25, 1987-1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797614545654
243. Rosas, J. M., & Callejas-Aguilera, J. E. (2006). Context switch effects on acquisition and extinction in human predictive learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory & Cognition, 32, 461-474.
244. Rothkirch, M., Ostendorf, F., Sax, A. L., & Sterzer, P. (2013). The influence of motivational salience on saccade latencies. Experimental Brain Research, 224, 35-47.
245. Rutherford, H. J. V., O'Brien, J. L., & Raymond, J. E. (2010). Value associations of irrelevant stimuli modify rapid visual orienting. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 536-542. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/PBR.17.4.536
246. Sali, A. W., Anderson, B. A., & Yantis, S. (2014). The role of reward prediction in the control of attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 40, 1654-1664. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037267
247. Schmajuk, N. A., & Moore, J. W. (1985). Real-time attentional models for classical conditioning and the hippocampus. Physiological Psychology, 13, 278-290. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03326534
248. Schmidt-Hansen, M., & Le Pelley, M. (2012). The positive symptoms of acute schizophrenia and latent inhibition in humans and animals: Underpinned by the same process(es)? Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 17, 473-505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2012.667202
249. Schoenmakers, T. M., de Bruin, M., Lux, I. F. M., Goertz, A. G., Van Kerkhof, D. H. A. T., & Wiers, R. W. (2010). Clinical effectiveness of attentional bias modification training in abstinent alcoholic patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 109, 30-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.11.022
250. Schütz, A. C., Trommershäuser, J., & Gegenfurtner, K. R. (2012). Dynamic integration of information about salience and value for saccadic eye movements. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 7547-7552. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1115638109
251. Schutzwohl, A. (1998). Surprise and schema strength. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory & Cognition, 24, 1182-1199.
252. Sewell, D. K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2012). Attention and working memory capacity: Insights from blocking, highlighting, and knowledge restructuring. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 141, 444-469.
253. Shapiro, K. L., Caldwell, J., & Sorensen, R. E. (1997). Personal names and the attentional blink: A visual "cocktail party" effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 23, 504-514.
254. Shomstein, S., & Johnson, J. (2013). Shaping attention with reward: Effects of reward on space- and object-based selection. Psychological Science, 24, 2369-2378. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797613490743
255. Shone, L. T., Harris, I. M., & Livesey, E. J. (2015). Automaticity and cognitive control in the learned predictiveness effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Learning and Cognition, 41, 18-31.
256. Siddle, D. A. T. (1985). Effects of stimulus omission and stimulus change on dishabituation of the skin-conductance response. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 206-216.
257. Siddle, D. A. T., Booth, M. L., & Packer, J. S. (1987). Effects of stimulus preexposure on omission responding and omission-produced dishabituation of the human electrodermal response. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 39, 339-363.
258. Sigurjónsdóttir, O., Bjornsson, A. S., Ludvigsdottir, S. J., & Kristjansson, A. (2015). Money talks in attention bias modification: Reward in a dot-probe task affects attentional biases. Visual Cognition, 23, 118-132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2014.984797c
259. Slabosz, A., Lewis, S. J. G., Smigasiewicz, K., Szymura, B., Barker, R. A., & Owen, A. M. (2006). The role of learned irrelevance in attentional set-shifting impairments in parkinson's disease. Neuropsychology, 20, 578-588.
260. Smith, S. D., Most, S. B., Newsome, L. A., & Zald, D. H. (2006). An emotion-induced attentional blink elicited by aversively conditioned stimuli. Emotion, 6, 523-527.
261. Stankevich, B. A., & Geng, J. J. (2014). Reward associations and spatial probabilities produce additive effects on attentional selection. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 76, 2315-2325.
262. Stankevich, B. A., & Geng, J. J. (2015). The modulation of reward priority by top-down knowledge. Visual Cognition, 23, 206-228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2014.981626c
263. Störmer, V., Eppinger, B., & Li, S. C. (2014). Reward speeds up and increases consistency of visual selective attention: A lifespan comparison. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 14, 659-671. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13415-014-0273-zc
264. Suret, M., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2003). Representation and discrimination on an artificial dimension. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B-Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 56, 30-42.
265. Sutherland, N. S., & Mackintosh, N. J. (1971). Mechanisms of animal discrimination learning. New York, NY: Academic Press.
266. Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception & Psychophysics, 51, 599-606. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03211656
267. Theeuwes, J., & Belopolsky, A. V. (2012). Reward grabs the eye: Oculomotor capture by rewarding stimuli. Vision Research, 74, 80-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2012.07.024
268. Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence. New York, NY: Macmillan.
269. Trabasso, T. R., & Bower, G. H. (1968). Attention in learning: Theory and research. New York, NY: Wiley
270. Trick, L., Hogarth, L., & Duka, T. (2011). Prediction and uncertainty in human Pavlovian to instrumental transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory & Cognition, 37, 757-765.
271. Turner, D. C., Aitken, M. R. F., Shanks, D. R., Sahakian, B. J., Robbins, T. W., Schwarzbauer, C., & Fletcher, P. C. (2004). The role of the lateral frontal cortex in causal associative learning: Exploring preventative and super-learning. Cerebral Cortex, 14, 872-880.
272. Uengoer, M., & Lachnit, H. (2012). Modulation of attention in discrimination learning: The roles of stimulus relevance and stimulus-outcome correlation. Learning & Behavior, 40, 117-127.
273. Uengoer, M., Lachnit, H., Lotz, A., Koenig, S., & Pearce, J. M. (2013). Contextual control of attentional allocation in human discrimination learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Animal Behavior Processes, 39, 56-66.
274. Van Damme, S., Crombez, G., Hermans, D., Koster, E. H. W., & Eccleston, C. (2006). The role of extinction and reinstatement in attentional bias to threat: A conditioning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1555-1563.
275. Van der Molen, M. J. W., Van der Molen, M. W., Ridderinkhof, K. R., Hamel, B. C. J., Curfs, L. M. G., & Ramakers, G. J. A. (2012). Attentional set-shifting in fragile X syndrome. Brain and Cognition, 78, 206-217.
276. Vanni-Mercier, G., Mauguiere, F., Isnard, J., & Dreher, J. C. (2009). The hippocampus codes the uncertainty of cue-outcome associations: An intracranial electrophysiological study in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 5287-5294.
277. Wallis, G., Stokes, M. G., Arnold, C., & Nobre, A. C. (2015). Reward boosts working memory encoding over a brief temporal window. Visual Cognition, 23, 291-312.
278. Wang, L., Duan, Y., Theeuwes, J., & Zhou, X. (2014). Reward breaks through the inhibitory region around attentional focus. Journal of Vision, 14, 7.
279. Wang, L., Yu, H., & Zhou, X. (2013). Interaction between value and perceptual salience in value-driven attentional capture. Journal of Vision, 13, 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/13.3.5
280. Waters, A. J., Shiffman, S., Sayette, M. A., Paty, J. A., Gwaltney, C. J., & Balabanis, M. H. (2003). Attentional bias predicts outcome in smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 22, 378-387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0278-6133.22.4.378
281. Welham, A. K., & Wills, A. J. (2011). Unitization, similarity, and overt attention in categorization and exposure. Memory & Cognition, 39, 1518-1533.
282. Wentura, D., Muller, P., & Rothermund, K. (2014). Attentional capture by evaluative stimuli: Gain- and loss-connoting colors boost the additionalsingleton effect. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 701-707.
283. Whitney, L., & White, K. G. (1993). Dimensional shift and the transfer of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46B, 225-252.
284. Wilbertz, G., van Slooten, J., & Sterzer, P. (2014). Reinforcement of perceptual inference: Reward and punishment alter conscious visual perception during binocular rivalry. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 9.
285. Wills, A. J., & Pothos, E. M. (2012). On the adequacy of current empirical evaluations of formal models of categorization. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 102-125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025715
286. Winman, A., Wennerholm, P., Juslin, P., & Shanks, D. R. (2005). Evidence for rule-based processes in the inverse base-rate effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 58, 789-815. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724980443000331b
287. Wills, A. J., Lavric, A., Croft, G. S., & Hodgson, T. L. (2007). Predictive learning, prediction errors, and attention: Evidence from event-related potentials and eye tracking. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 843-854. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2007.19.5.843a
288. Wills, A. J., Lavric, A., Hemmings, Y., & Surrey, E. (2014). Attention, predictive learning, and the inverse base-rate effect: Evidence from event-related potentials. Neuroimage, 87, 61-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.10.060a
289. Wolfe, J. M., Butcher, S. J., Lee, C., & Hyle, M. (2003). Changing your mind: On the contributions of top-down and bottom-up guidance in visual search for feature singletons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 29, 483-502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.29.2.483
290. Yantis, S. (2000). Goal-directed and stimulus-driven determinants of attentional control. In S. Monsell & J. Driver (Eds.), Attention and performance XVIII (pp. 73-103). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
291. Yantis, S., & Jonides, J. (1984). Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: Evidence from visual search. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10, 601-621. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.10.5.601
292. Yokoyama, T., Padmala, S., & Pessoa, L. (2015). Reward learning and negative emotion during rapid attentional competition. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 269. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00269c
293. Zeaman, D., & House, B. J. (1963). The role of attention in retardate discrimination learning. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency: Psychological theory and research (pp. 378-418). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.