Stereotype Formation: Biased by Association

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

Volumn 139, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 138-161

  Le Pelley, Mike E ^a   Reimers, Stian J ^b   Calvini, Guglielmo ^a   Spears, Russell ^a   Beesley, Tom ^b   Murphy, Robin A ^c  

^a CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

associative learning; attention; attitudes; bias; stereotypes

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; ATTITUDE; CONCEPT FORMATION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LEARNING; MALE; PERCEPTION; PHOTOSTIMULATION; PHYSIOLOGY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADULT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ASSOCIATION LEARNING; ATTENTION; ATTITUDE; CONCEPT FORMATION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PHOTIC STIMULATION; PREJUDICE; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 76049088625     PISSN: 00963445     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0018210     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Abele A.E., Cuddy A.J.C., Judd C.M., and Yzerbyt V.Y. Fundamental dimensions of social judgment. European Journal of Social Psychology 38 (2008) 1063-1065
2. Allan L.G. A note on measurement of contingency between two binary variables in judgment tasks. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 15 (1980) 147-149
3. Arkes H.R., and Harkness A.R. Estimates of contingency between two dichotomous variables. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 112 (1983) 117-135
4. Baeyens F., and De Houwer J. Evaluative conditioning is a qualitatively distinct form of classical conditioning: A reply to Davey (1994). Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 825-831
5. Bargh J.A., Chen M., and Burrows L. Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (1996) 230-244
6. Beesley T., and Le Pelley M.E. The effect of predictive history on the learning of sub-sequence contingencies. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2009) Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/17470210902831767
7. Berndsen M., Spears R., van der Pligt J., and McGarty C. Illusory correlation and stereotype formation: Making sense of group differences and cognitive biases. In: McGarty C., Yzerbyt V.Y., and Spears R. (Eds). Stereotypes as explanations: The formation of meaningful beliefs about social groups (2002), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 90-110
8. Blair I.V., and Banaji M.R. Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996) 1142-1163
9. Bonardi C., Graham S., Hall G., and Mitchell C.J. Acquired distinctiveness and equivalence in human discrimination learning: Evidence for an attentional process. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 12 (2005) 88-92
10. Bruner J.S. On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review 64 (1957) 123-152
11. Campbell D.T. Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science 3 (1958) 14-25
12. Chapman L.J., and Chapman J.P. Genesis of popular but erroneous psychodiagnostic observations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 72 (1967) 193-204
13. Crawford M.T., Sherman S.J., and Hamilton D.L. Perceived entitativity, stereotype formation, and the interchangeability of group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002) 1076-1094
14. Davey G.C.L. Is evaluative conditioning a qualitatively distinct form of classical conditioning?. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32 (1994) 291-299
15. De Houwer J., and Beckers T. A review of recent developments in research and theories on human contingency learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 55B (2002) 289-310
16. De Houwer J., Thomas S., and Baeyens F. Associative learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychological Bulletin 127 (2001) 853-869
17. De Houwer J., Vandorpe S., and Beckers T. On the role of controlled cognitive processes in human associative learning. In: Wills A.J. (Ed). New directions in human associative learning (2005), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 41-63
18. Dijksterhuis A., Spears R., and Lepinasse V. Reflecting and deflecting stereotypes: Assimilation and contrast in impression formation and automatic behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37 (2001) 286-299
19. Eagly A.H., and Steffen V.J. Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984) 735-754
20. Eagly A.H., and Steffen V.J. Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin 100 (1986) 309-330
21. Eiser J.R., and Stroebe W. Categorization and social judgment (1972), Academic Press, London, England
22. Fiedler K. The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (1991) 24-36
23. Fiedler K. Explaining and simulating judgment biases as an aggregation phenomenon in probabilistic, multiple-cue environments. Psychological Review 103 (1996) 193-214
24. Field A.P., and Davey G.C.L. Conceptual conditioning: Evidence for an artifactual account of evaluative learning. Learning and Motivation 28 (1997) 446-464
25. Fiske S.T. Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In: Gilbert D.T., Fiske S.T., and Lindzey G. (Eds). The handbook of social psychology 2 (1998), McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA 357-414
26. Fiske S.T., Cuddy A.J.C., Glick P., and Xu J. A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002) 878-902
27. Fiske S.T., and Neuberg S.L. A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 23 (1990), Academic Press, New York, NY 1-74
28. Ford T.E., and Stangor C. The role of diagnosticity in stereotype formation: Perceiving group means and variances. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (1992) 356-367
29. Fuhrman R.W., Bodenhausen G.V., and Lichtenstein M. On the trait implications of social behaviors: Kindness, intelligence, goodness, and normality ratings for 400 behavior statements. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 21 (1989) 587-597
30. George D.N., and Pearce J.M. Acquired distinctiveness is controlled by stimulus relevance not correlation with reward. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 25 (1999) 363-373
31. Gilbert D.T., and Hixon J.G. The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (1991) 509-517
32. Gopnik A., and Schulz L. Causal learning: Psychology, philosophy, and computation (2007), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
33. Griffiths O., and Le Pelley M.E. Attentional changes in blocking are not a consequence of lateral inhibition. Learning & Behavior 37 (2009) 27-41
34. Griffiths O., and Mitchell C.J. Selective attention in human associative learning and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 137 (2008) 626-648
35. Hamilton D.L. Stereotyping and intergroup behavior: Some thoughts on the cognitive approach. In: Hamilton D.L. (Ed). Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior (1981), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 333-354
36. Hamilton D.L., and Gifford R.K. Illusory correlation in interpersonal perception: A cognitive basis of stereotypic judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 12 (1976) 392-407
37. Hamilton D.L., and Rose R.L. Illusory correlation and the maintenance of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980) 832-845
38. Hamilton D.L., and Sherman S.J. Stereotypes. In: Wyer R.S., and Srull T.K. (Eds). Handbook of social cognition 2 (1994), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 1-68
39. Hilton J.L., and von Hippel W. Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology 47 (1996) 237-271
40. Kelley H.H. Attribution in social interaction. In: Jones E.E., et al. (Ed). Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior (1972), General Learning Press, Morristown, NJ 1-26
41. Klauer K.C., and Meiser T. A source-monitoring analysis of illusory correlations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (2000) 1074-1093
42. Kruschke J.K. Towards a unified model of attention in associative learning. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 45 (2001) 812-863
43. Kruschke J.K. Attention in learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science 12 (2003) 171-175
44. Le Pelley M.E. The role of associative history in models of associative learning: A selective review and a hybrid model. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 57B (2004) 193-243
45. Le Pelley, M. E. (in press). Attention and human associative learning. In C. J. Mitchell & M. E. L. Pelley (Eds.), Attention and learning. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
46. Le Pelley, M. E., Beesley, T., & Griffiths, O. (2009). Overt attention and predictive validity in human associative learning. Manuscript in preparation.
47. Le Pelley M.E., and McLaren I.P.L. Learned associability and associative change in human causal learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 56B (2003) 68-79
48. Le Pelley M.E., Oakeshott S.M., and McLaren I.P.L. Blocking and unblocking in human causal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 31 (2005) 56-70
49. Le Pelley M.E., Suret M.B., and Beesley T. Learned predictiveness effects in humans: A function of learning, performance, or both?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 35 (2009) 312-327
50. Lippmann W. Public opinion (1922), Harcourt Brace, New York, NY
51. Livesey E.J., Harris I.M., and Harris J.A. Attentional changes during implicit learning: Signal validity protects a target stimulus from the attentional blink. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 35 (2009) 408-422
52. Lubow R.E. Latent inhibition and conditioned attention theory (1989), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
53. Lubow R.E., and Gewirtz J.C. Latent inhibition in humans: Data, theory, and implications for schizophrenia. Psychological Bulletin 117 (1995) 87-103
54. Mackintosh N.J. Stimulus selection: Learning to ignore stimuli that predict no change in reinforcement. In: Hinde R.A., and Hinde J.S. (Eds). Constraints on learning (1973), Academic Press, London, England 75-96
55. Mackintosh N.J. A theory of attention: Variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement. Psychological Review 82 (1975) 276-298
56. Macrae C.N., Bodenhausen G.V., and Milne A.B. The dissection of selection in person perception: Inhibitory processes in social stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995) 397-407
57. Macrae C.N., Bodenhausen G.V., Milne A.B., and Calvini G. Seeing more than we can know: Visual attention and category activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35 (1999) 590-602
58. Macrae C.N., Milne A.B., and Bodenhausen G.V. Stereotypes as energy saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (1994) 37-47
59. Martin C.L., and Parker S. Folk theories about sex and race differences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21 (1995) 45-57
60. McGarty C., and de la Haye A.-M. Stereotype formation: Beyond illusory correlation. In: Spears R., Oakes P.J., Ellemers N., and Haslam S.A. (Eds). The social psychology of stereotyping and group life (1997), Blackwell, Oxford, England 144-170
61. McGarty C., Haslam S.A., Turner J.C., and Oakes P.J. Illusory correlation as accentuation of actual inter-category difference: Evidence for the effect with minimal stimulus information. European Journal of Social Psychology 23 (1993) 391-410
62. Mitchell, C. J. (in press). Attention and memory in human learning. In C. J. Mitchell & M. E. L. Pelley (Eds.), Attention and learning. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
63. Murphy, R. A., Schmeer, S., Mondragon, E., Vallee-Tourangeau, F., & Hilton, D. (2009). Making the illusory correlation effect appear and then disappear: The effects of increased learning. Manuscript submitted for publication.
64. Oakes P.J. The salience of social categories. In: Turner J.C., Hogg M.A., Oakes P.J., Reicher S.D., and Wetherell M.S. (Eds). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory (1987), Blackwell, Oxford, England 117-141
65. Oakes P.J., Haslam S.A., and Turner J.C. Stereotyping and social reality (1994), Blackwell, Oxford, England
66. Oswald C.J.P., Yee B.K., Rawlins J.N.P., Bannerman D.B., Good M., and Honey R.C. Involvement of the entorhinal cortex in a process of attentional modulation: Evidence from a novel variant of an IDS/EDS procedure. Behavioral Neuroscience 115 (2001) 841-849
67. Pearce J.M., and Hall G. A model for Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli. Psychological Review 87 (1980) 532-552
68. Pryor J.B. The influence of different encoding sets upon the formation of illusory correlations and group impressions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 12 (1986) 216-226
69. Rothbart M., and Taylor M. Category labels and social reality: Do we view social categories as natural kinds?. In: Semin G.R., and Fiedler K. (Eds). Language and social cognition (1992), Sage, London, England 11-36
70. Sartre J.P. Anti-Semite and Jew (1948), Schocken Press, New York, NY
71. Schaller M. The role of statistical reasoning in the formation, preservation and prevention of group stereotypes. British Journal of Social Psychology 33 (1994) 47-61
72. Shanklee H., and Mims M. Sources of error in judging event covariations: Effects of memory demands. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 8 (1982) 208-224
73. Shanks D.R. Associationism and cognition: Human contingency learning at 25. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60 (2007) 291-309
74. Shanks D.R., and Darby R.J. Feature- and rule-based generalization in human associative learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 24 (1998) 405-415
75. Sherif M. Group conflict and co-operation: Their social psychology (1967), Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, England
76. Sherman J.W., Kruschke J.K., Sherman S.J., Percy E.J., Petrocelli J.V., and Conrey F.R. Attentional processes in stereotype formation: A common model for category accentuation and illusory correlation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009) 305-323
77. Shih M., Ambady N., Richeson J.A., Fujita K., and Gray H.M. Stereotype performance boosts: The impact of self-relevance and the manner of stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002) 638-647
78. Sloman S.A. The empirical case of two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 119 (1996) 3-22
79. Smith E.R. Illusory correlation in a simulated exemplar-based memory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 27 (1991) 107-123
80. Smith E.R., and DeCoster J. Knowledge acquisition, accessibility, and use in person perception and stereotyping: Simulation with a recurrent connectionist network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 21-35
81. Smith E.R., Fazio R.H., and Cejka M.A. Accessible attitudes influence categorization of multiply categorizable objects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (1996) 888-898
82. Smith E.R., and Zárate M.A. Exemplar-based model of social judgment. Psychological Review 99 (1992) 3-21
83. Spears R. Four degrees of stereotype formation: Differentiation by any means necessary. In: McGarty C., Yzerbyt V.Y., and Spears R. (Eds). Stereotypes as explanations (2002), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 127-156
84. Stangor C., Carr C., and Kiang L. Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998) 1191-1197
85. Stangor C., and Lange J. Mental representations of social groups: Advances in understanding stereotypes and stereotyping. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 26 (1994) 357-416
86. Stroessner S.J., Hamilton D.L., and Mackie D.M. Affect and stereotyping: The effect of induced mood on distinctiveness-based illusory correlations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (1992) 564-576
87. Tajfel H. Value and the perceptual judgment of magnitude. Psychological Review 64 (1957) 192-204
88. Tajfel H. Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology 33 (1982) 1-39
89. Tajfel H., and Wilkes A.L. Classification and quantitative judgement. British Journal of Psychology 54 (1963) 101-114
90. Van Rooy D., Van Overwalle F., Vanhoomissen T., Labiouse C., and French R. A recurrent connectionist model of group biases. Psychological Review 110 (2003) 536-563
91. Ward W.D., and Jenkins H.M. The display of information and the judgment of contingency. Canadian Journal of Psychology 19 (1965) 231-241
92. Zárate M.A., and Smith E.R. Person categorization and stereotyping. Social Cognition 8 (1990) 161-185