Oxidative stress and antioxidants in carcinogenesis and integrative therapy of cancer

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 20, Issue 42, 2014, Pages 6529-6542

  Milkovic, Lidija ^a   Siems, Werner ^b   Siems, Renate ^b   Zarkovic, Neven ^a  

^a RUDER BO KOVI INSTITUTE   (Croatia)

^b Research Institute of Physiotherapy and Gerontology   (Germany)

Author keywords

Anoikis; Antioxidants; Carcinogenesis; Lipid peroxidation; Oxidative stress; Reactive oxygen species (ROS); Redox signaling; Therapy

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; LIPID; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE;

ARTICLE; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER PREVENTION; CANCER THERAPY; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL GROWTH; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; HUMAN; INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE; LIPID PEROXIDATION; METASTASIS; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; METABOLISM; NEOPLASMS; PATHOLOGY;

ANTIOXIDANTS; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES;

EID: 84911479104     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: 18734286     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612820666140826152822     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. Klaunig JE, Kamendulis LM, Hocevar BA. Oxidative stress and oxidative damage in carcinogenesis. Toxicol Pathol 2010; 38: 96-109.
2. Sies H. Oxidative stress: Introductory remarks. In: Sies H, Ed. Oxidative Stress, London: Academic Press 1985; p. 1-7.
3. Čipak Gašparović A, Lovaković T, Žarković N. Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants: Biological Response Modifiers of Oxidative Homeostasis in Cancer. Period Biol 2010; 112: 433-9.
4. Collins Y, Chouchani ET, James AM, Menger KE, Cochemé HM, Murphy MP. Mitochondrial redox signalling at a glance. J Cell Sci 2012; 125: 801-6.
5. Trachootham D, Lu W, Ogasawara MA, Nilsa RD, Huang P. Redox regulation of cell survival. Antioxid Redox Signal 2008; 10: 1343-74.
6. Fruehauf JP, Meyskens FL. Reactive oxygen species: a breath of life or death? Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13: 789-94.
7. Noori S. An Overview of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defensive System. J Clin Cell Immunol 2012; 01: 1-9.
8. Nordberg J, Arnér ES. Reactive oxygen species, antioxidants, and the mammalian thioredoxin system. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 31: 1287-312.
9. Rahman K. Studies on free radicals, antioxidants, and co-factors. Clin Interv Aging 2007; 2: 219-36.
10. Esterbauer H, Schaur RJ, Zollner H. Chemistry and biochemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal, malonaldehyde and related aldehydes. Free Radic Biol Med 1991; 11: 81-128.
11. Repetto M, Semprine J, Boveris A. Lipid peroxidation: chemical mechanism, biological implications and analytical determination. In: Catala A, Ed. Lipid peroxidation [open access book]. InTech 2012; pp. 3-30. Available from: (http://www. intechopen. com/books/lipid-peroxidation/lipid-peroxidation-chemical-mechanism-biological-implications-and-analytical-determination).
12. Zarkovic N, Cipak A, Jaganjac M, Borovic S, Zarkovic K. Pathophysiological relevance of aldehydic protein modifications. J Pro-teomics 2013; 92: 239-47.
13. Zarkovic N. 4-hydroxynonenal as a bioactive marker of pathophysiological processes. Mol Aspects Med 2003; 24: 281-91.
14. Niki E, Yoshida Y, Saito Y, Noguchi N. Lipid peroxidation: mechanisms, inhibition, and biological effects. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 338: 668-76.
15. Barrera G. Oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation products in cancer progression and therapy. ISRN Oncol 2012; 2012: 137289.
16. Uchida K. 4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal: a product and mediator of oxidative stress. Prog Lipid Res 2003; 42: 318-43.
17. Guéraud F, Atalay M, Bresgen N, et al. Chemistry and biochemistry of lipid peroxidation products. Free Radic Res 2010; 44: 1098-124.
18. Zarkovic N, Schaur RJ, Puhl H, Jurin M, Esterbauer H. Mutual dependence of growth modifying effects of 4-hydroxynonenal and fetal calf serum in vitro. Free Radic Biol Med 1994; 16: 877-84.
19. Sunjic SB, Cipak A, Rabuzin F, Wildburger R, Zarkovic N. The influence of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal on proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of human osteosarcoma cells. Biofactors 2005; 24: 141-8.
20. Rudić M, Milković L, Zarković K, et al. The effects of angiotensin II and the oxidative stress mediator 4-hydroxynonenal on human osteoblast-like cell growth: possible relevance to otosclerosis. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 57C: 22-8.
21. Mrakovcic L, Wildburger R, Jaganjac M, et al. Lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal as factor of oxidative homeostasis supporting bone regeneration with bioactive glasses. Acta Biochim Pol 2010; 57: 173-8.
22. Leonarduzzi G, Robbesyn F, Poli G. Signaling kinases modulated by 4-hydroxynonenal. Free Radic Biol Med 2004; 37: 1694-702.
23. Borovic S, Sunjic I, Wildburger R, Mittelbach M, Waeg G, Zark-ovic N. Lipid peroxidation end product as a modulator of cell growth. In: Hayashi T, Ed. Cell Growth Process. New Res. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2007, pp. 220-37.
24. Watson J. Oxidants, antioxidants and the current incurability of metastatic cancers. Open Biol 2013; 3: 120144. Available from (http://dx. doi. org/10. 1098/rsob. 120144).
25. Miguel M De, Cordero M. Oxidative therapy against cancer. In: Lushchak V, Ed. Oxidative stress and diseases [open access book]. InTech 2012; p p. 497-520. Available from: (http://www. intechopen. com/books/oxidative-stress-and-diseases/oxidative-therapy-against-cancer).
26. Gago-Dominguez M, Jiang X, Castelao JE. Lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress genes and dietary factors in breast cancer protection: a hypothesis. Breast Cancer Res 2007; 9: 201.
27. Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 2011; 61: 69-90.
28. Burness ML, Sipkins DA. The stem cell niche in health and malignancy. Semin Cancer Biol 2010; 20: 107-15.
29. Manda G, Nechifor MT, Neagu T-M. Reactive Oxygen Species, Cancer and Anti-Cancer Therapies. Curr Chem Biol 2009; 3: 342-66.
30. Fiaschi T, Chiarugi P. Oxidative stress, tumor microenvironment, and metabolic reprogramming: a diabolic liaison. Int J Cell Biol 2012; 2012: 762825.
31. Diehn M, Cho RW, Lobo NA, et al. Association of reactive oxygen species levels and radioresistance in cancer stem cells. Nature 2009; 458: 780-3.
32. Terada LS, Nwariaku FE. Escaping Anoikis through ROS: ANGPTL4 controls integrin signaling through Nox1. Cancer Cell 2011; 19: 297-9.
33. Kim YN, Koo KH, Sung JY, Yun UJ, Kim H. Anoikis resistance: an essential prerequisite for tumor metastasis. Int J Cell Biol 2012; 2012: 306879.
34. Dawane JS, Pandit VA. Understanding redox homeostasis and its role in cancer. J Clin Diagn Res 2012; 6: 1796-802.
35. Valko M, Rhodes CJ, Moncol J, Izakovic M, Mazur M. Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chem Biol Interact 2006; 160: 1-40.
36. Li X, Fang P, Mai J, Choi ET, Wang H, Yang X. Targeting mitochondrial reactive oxygen species as novel therapy for inflammatory diseases and cancers. J Hematol Oncol 2013; 6: 19.
37. Veskoukis AS, Tsatsakis AM, Kouretas D. Dietary oxidative stress and antioxidant defense with an emphasis on plant extract administration. Cell Stress Chaperones 2012; 17: 11-21.
38. Sosa V, Moliné T, Somoza R, Paciucci R, Kondoh H, LLeonart ME. Oxidative stress and cancer: an overview. Ageing Res Rev 2013; 12: 376-90.
39. Fridovich I. Biological effects of the superoxide radical. Arch Biochem Biophys 1986; 247: 1-11.
40. Valko M, Leibfritz D, Moncol J, Cronin MTD, Mazur M, Telser J. Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2007; 39: 44-84.
41. Gough DR, Cotter TG. Hydrogen peroxide: a Jekyll and Hyde signalling molecule. Cell Death Dis 2011; 2: e213.
42. Valko M, Morris H, Cronin MTD. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Curr Med Chem 2005; 12: 1161-208.
43. Lloyd RV, Hanna PM, Mason RP. The origin of the hydroxyl radical oxygen in the Fenton reaction. Free Radic Biol Med 1997; 22: 885-8.
44. Ray PD, Huang BW, Tsuji Y. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis and redox regulation in cellular signaling. Cell Signal 2012; 24: 981-90.
45. Eaton P. Protein thiol oxidation in health and disease: techniques for measuring disulfides and related modifications in complex protein mixtures. Free Radic Biol Med 2006; 40: 1889-99.
46. D'Autréaux B, Toledano MB. ROS as signalling molecules: mechanisms that generate specificity in ROS homeostasis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2007; 8: 813-24.
47. Nguyen T, Nioi P, Pickett CB. The Nrf2-antioxidant response element signaling pathway and its activation by oxidative stress. J Biol Chem 2009; 284: 13291-5.
48. Matsuzawa A, Ichijo H. Redox control of cell fate by MAP kinase: physiological roles of ASK1-MAP kinase pathway in stress signaling. Biochim Biophys Acta 2008; 1780: 1325-36.
49. Dolado I, Swat A, Ajenjo N, De Vita G, Cuadrado A, Nebreda AR. p38alpha MAP kinase as a sensor of reactive oxygen species in tu-morigenesis. Cancer Cell 2007; 11: 191-205.
50. Baraibar MA, Liu L, Ahmed EK, Friguet B. Protein oxidative damage at the crossroads of cellular senescence, aging, and age-related diseases. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2012; 2012: 919832.
51. Poppek D, Grune T. Proteasomal defense of oxidative protein modifications. Antioxid Redox Signal 2006; 8: 173-84.
52. Cooke MS, Evans MD, Dizdaroglu M, Lunec J. Oxidative DNA damage: mechanisms, mutation, and disease. FASEB J 2003; 17: 1195-214.
53. Wildburger R, Mrakovcic L, Stroser M, et al. Lipid peroxidation and age-associated diseases-cause or consequence? Turkiye Klin J Med Sci 2009; 29: 189-93.
54. Negre-Salvayre A, Auge N, Ayala V, et al. Pathological aspects of lipid peroxidation. Free Radic Res 2010; 44: 1125-71.
55. Zarkovic N, Ilic Z, Jurin M, Schaur RJ, Puhl H, Esterbauer H. Stimulation of HeLa cell growth by physiological concentrations of 4-hydroxynonenal. Cell Biochem Funct 1993; 11: 279-86.
56. Borovic S, Cipak A, Meinitzer A, et al. Differential sensitivity to 4-hydroxynonenal for normal and malignant mesenchymal cells. Redox Rep 2007; 12: 50-4.
57. Siems W, Grune T. Intracellular metabolism of 4-hydroxynonenal. Mol Aspects Med 2003; 24: 167-75.
58. Lushchak VI. Glutathione homeostasis and functions: potential targets for medical interventions. J Amino Acids 2012; 2012: 736837.
59. Awasthi S, Singhal SS, Awasthi YC, et al. RLIP76 and Cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14: 4372-7.
60. Cyr AR, Domann FE. The redox basis of epigenetic modifications: from mechanisms to functional consequences. Antioxid Redox Signal 2011; 15: 551-89.
61. Magee JA, Piskounova E, Morrison SJ. Cancer stem cells: impact, heterogeneity, and uncertainty. Cancer Cell 2012; 21: 283-96.
62. Marusyk A, Almendro V, Polyak K. Intra-tumour heterogeneity: a looking glass for cancer? Nat Rev Cancer 2012; 12: 323-34.
63. Nguyen DX, Bos PD, Massagué J. Metastasis: from dissemination to organ-specific colonization. Nat Rev Cancer 2009; 9: 274-84.
64. Al-Hajj M, Clarke MF. Self-renewal and solid tumor stem cells. Oncogene 2004; 23: 7274-82.
65. Balic M, Lin H, Young L, et al. Most early disseminated cancer cells detected in bone marrow of breast cancer patients have a putative breast cancer stem cell phenotype. Clin Cancer Res 2006; 12: 5615-21.
66. O'Brien CA, Kreso A, Jamieson CHM. Cancer stem cells and selfrenewal. Clin Cancer Res 2010; 16: 3113-20.
67. Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 2011; 144: 646-74.
68. Gupta GP, Massagué J. Cancer metastasis: building a framework. Cell 2006; 127: 679-95.
69. Steeg PS. Tumor metastasis: mechanistic insights and clinical challenges. Nat Med 2006; 12: 895-904.
70. Chambers AF, Groom AC, MacDonald IC. Dissemination and growth of cancer cells in metastatic sites. Nat Rev Cancer 2002; 2: 563-72.
71. Qanungo S, Starke DW, Pai H V, Mieyal JJ, Nieminen AL. Glutathione supplementation potentiates hypoxic apoptosis by S-glutathionylation of p65-NFkappaB. J Biol Chem 2007; 282: 18427-36.
72. Rodenhiser DI. Epigenetic contributions to cancer metastasis. Clin Exp Metastasis 2009; 26: 5-18.
73. Velu CS, Niture SK, Doneanu CE, Pattabiraman N, Srivenugopal KS. Human p53 is inhibited by glutathionylation of cysteines present in the proximal DNA-binding domain during oxidative stress. Biochemistry 2007; 46: 7765-80.
74. Zhu P, Tong BMK, Wang R, et al. Nox4-dependent ROS modulation by amino endoperoxides to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. Cell Death Dis 2013; 4: e552.
75. Guadamillas MC, Cerezo A, Del Pozo MA. Overcoming anoikis--pathways to anchorage-independent growth in cancer. J Cell Sci 2011; 124: 3189-97.
76. Chiarugi P, Giannoni E. Anoikis: a necessary death program for anchorage-dependent cells. Biochem Pharmacol 2008; 76: 1352-64.
77. Barrallo-Gimeno A, Nieto MA. The Snail genes as inducers of cell movement and survival: implications in development and cancer. Development 2005; 132: 3151-61.
78. Kwok WK, Ling M, Lee T, et al Up-Regulation of TWIST in Prostate Cancer and Its Implication as a Therapeutic Target. Cancer Res 2005; 65: 5153-62.
79. Plantefaber LC, Hynes RO. Changes in integrin receptors on onco-genically transformed cells. Cell 1989; 56: 281-90.
80. Frisch SM, Ruoslahti E. Integrins and anoikis. Curr Opin Cell Biol 1997; 9: 701-6.
81. Patwardhan GA, Liu YY. Sphingolipids and expression regulation of genes in cancer. Prog Lipid Res 2011; 50: 104-14.
82. Hannun YA, Obeid LM. Principles of bioactive lipid signalling: lessons from sphingolipids. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2008; 9: 139-50.
83. Del Pozo MA, Balasubramanian N, Alderson NB, et al. Phospho-caveolin-1 mediates integrin-regulated membrane domain internalization. Nat Cell Biol 2005; 7: 901-8.
84. Chunhacha P, Chanvorachote P. Roles of caveolin-1 on anoikis resistance in non small cell lung cancer. Int J Physiol Pathophysiol Pharmacol 2012; 4: 149-55.
85. Rungtabnapa P, Nimmannit U, Halim H, Rojanasakul Y, Chanvo-rachote P. Hydrogen peroxide inhibits non-small cell lung cancer cell anoikis through the inhibition of caveolin-1 degradation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2011; 300: C235-45.
86. Martinez-Outschoorn UE, Pavlides S, Howell A, et al. Stromal-epithelial metabolic coupling in cancer: integrating autophagy and metabolism in the tumor microenvironment. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2011; 43: 1045-51.
87. Witkiewicz AK, Dasgupta A, Sotgia F, et al. An absence of stromal caveolin-1 expression predicts early tumor recurrence and poor clinical outcome in human breast cancers. Am J Pathol 2009; 174: 2023-34.
88. Pavlides S, Whitaker-Menezes D, Castello-Cros R, et al. The reverse Warburg effect: aerobic glycolysis in cancer associated fibroblasts and the tumor stroma. Cell Cycle 2009; 8: 3984-4001.
89. Martinez-Outschoorn UE, Lin Z, Trimmer C, et al. Cancer cells metabolically "fertilize" the tumor microenvironment with hydrogen peroxide, driving the Warburg effect: Implications for PET imaging of human tumors. Cell Cycle 2011; 10: 2504-20.
90. Lisanti MP, Martinez-Outschoorn UE, Chiavarina B, et al. Understanding the "lethal" drivers of tumor-stroma co-evolution: emerging role(s) for hypoxia, oxidative stress and autophagy/mitophagy in the tumor micro-environment. Cancer Biol Ther 2010; 10: 537-42.
91. Paget S. The distribution of secondary growths in cancer of the breast. 1889. Cancer Metastasis Rev 1989; 8: 98-101.
92. Brackstone M, Townson JL, Chambers AF. Tumour dormancy in breast cancer: an update. Breast Cancer Res 2007; 9: 208.
93. Aguirre-Ghiso JA. Models, mechanisms and clinical evidence for cancer dormancy. Nat Rev Cancer 2007; 7: 834-46.
94. Ortega ÁL, Mena S, Estrela JM. Oxidative and nitrosative stress in the metastatic microenvironment. Cancers 2010; 2: 274-304.
95. Joyce JA, Pollard JW. Microenvironmental regulation of metastasis. Nat Rev Cancer 2009; 9: 239-52.
96. Grek CL, Tew KD. Redox metabolism and malignancy. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2010; 10: 362-8.
97. Bedard K, Krause K. The NOX family of ROS-generating NADPH oxidases: physiology and pathophysiology. Physiol Rev 2007; 87: 245-313.
98. Keith B, Simon MC. Hypoxia-inducible factors, stem cells, and cancer. Cell 2007; 129: 465-72.
99. Cairns RA, Harris IS, Mak TW. Regulation of cancer cell metabolism. Nat Rev Cancer 2011; 11: 85-95.
100. Warburg O. On the Origin of Cancer Cells. Science 1956; 123: 309-14.
101. Dakubo GD. The Warburg phenomenon and other metabolic alterations of cancer cells. In: Dakubo GD Ed. Mitochondrial Genetics and Cancer. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2010; pp. 39-66.
102. Fung C, Lock R, Gao S, Salas E, Debnath J. Induction of auto-phagy during extracellular matrix detachment promotes cell survival. Mol Biol Cell 2008; 19: 797-806.
103. Schafer ZT, Grassian AR, Song L, et al. Antioxidant and oncogene rescue of metabolic defects caused by loss of matrix attachment. Nature 2009; 461: 109-13.
104. Giannoni E, Buricchi F, Grimaldi G, et al. Redox regulation of anoikis: reactive oxygen species as essential mediators of cell survival. Cell Death Differ 2008; 15: 867-78.
105. Kamarajugadda S, Cai Q, Chen H, et al. Manganese superoxide dismutase promotes anoikis resistance and tumor metastasis. Cell Death Dis 2013; 4: e504.
106. Schumacker PT. SIRT3 controls cancer metabolic reprogramming by regulating ROS and HIF. Cancer Cell 2011; 19: 299-300.
107. Gao P, Zhang H, Dinavahi R, et al. HIF-dependent antitumorigenic effect of antioxidants in vivo. Cancer Cell 2007; 12: 230-8.
108. Narayanan BA. Chemopreventive agents alters global gene expression pattern: predicting their mode of action and targets. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2006; 6: 711-27.
109. Finley LWS, Carracedo A, Lee J, et al. SIRT3 opposes reprogramming of cancer cell metabolism through HIF1α destabilization. Cancer Cell 2011; 19: 416-28.
110. Zhang CZ, Liu L, Cai M, et al. Low SIRT3 expression correlates with poor differentiation and unfavorable prognosis in primary hepatocellular carcinoma. PLoS One 2012; 7: e51703.
111. Pani G, Galeotti T, Chiarugi P. Metastasis: cancer cell's escape from oxidative stress. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2010; 29: 351-78.
112. Ramirez A, Ramadan B, Ritzenthaler JD, Rivera HN, Jones DP, Roman J. Extracellular cysteine/cystine redox potential controls lung fibroblast proliferation and matrix expression through upregu-lation of transforming growth factor-beta. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2007; 293: L972-81.
113. Kenific CM, Thorburn A, Debnath J. Autophagy and metastasis: another double-edged sword. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2010; 22: 241-5.
114. Azad MB, Chen Y, Gibson SB. Regulation of autophagy by reactive oxygen species (ROS): implications for cancer progression and treatment. Antioxid Redox Signal 2009; 11: 777-90.
115. Pizzimenti S, Barrera G, Calzavara E, et al. Down-regulation of Notch1 expression is involved in HL-60 cell growth inhibition induced by 4-hydroxynonenal, a product of lipid peroxidation. Med Chem 2008; 4: 551-7.
116. Leong KG, Niessen K, Kulic I, et al. Jagged1-mediated Notch activation induces epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition through Slug-induced repression of E-cadherin. J Exp Med 2007; 204: 2935-48.
117. Pizzimenti S, Toaldo C, Pettazzoni P, Dianzani MU, Barrera G. The "Two-Faced" Effects of Reactive Oxygen Species and the Lipid Peroxidation Product 4-Hydroxynonenal in the Hallmarks of Cancer. Cancers 2010; 2: 338-63.
118. Usatyuk P V, Parinandi NL, Natarajan V. Redox regulation of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-mediated endothelial barrier dysfunction by focal adhesion, adherens, and tight junction proteins. J Biol Chem 2006; 281: 35554-66.
119. Lee SJ, Seo KW, Yun MR, et al. 4-Hydroxynonenal enhances MMP-2 production in vascular smooth muscle cells via mitochondrial ROS-mediated activation of the Akt/NF-kappaB signaling pathways. Free Radic Biol Med 2008; 45: 1487-92.
120. Akiba S, Kumazawa S, Yamaguchi H, et al. Acceleration of matrix metalloproteinase-1 production and activation of platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta in human coronary smooth muscle cells by oxidized LDL and 4-hydroxynonenal. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006; 1763: 797-804.
121. Gerber M, Astre C, Ségala C, et al. Tumor progression and oxi-dant-antioxidant status. Cancer Lett 1997; 114: 211-4.
122. Juric-Sekhar G, Zarkovic K, Waeg G, Cipak A, Zarkovic N. Distribution of 4-hydroxynonenal-protein conjugates as a marker of lipid peroxidation and parameter of malignancy in astrocytic and ependymal tumors of the brain. Tumori 2009; 95: 762-8.
123. Karihtala P, Kauppila S, Puistola U, Jukkola-Vuorinen A. Divergent behaviour of oxidative stress markers 8-hydroxydeoxy-guanosine (8-OHdG) and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) in breast carcinogenesis. Histopathology 2011; 58: 854-62.
124. Okamoto K, Toyokuni S, Uchida K, et al. Formation of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-modified proteins in human renal-cell carcinoma. Int J Cancer 1994; 58: 825-9.
125. Dianzani MU. Lipid peroxidation and cancer. Crit Rev Oncol He-matol 1993; 15: 125-47.
126. Kondo S, Toyokuni S, Iwasa Y, et al. Persistent oxidative stress in human colorectal carcinoma, but not in adenoma. Free Radic Biol Med 1999; 27: 401-10.
127. Biasi F, Tessitore L, Zanetti D, et al. Associated changes of lipid peroxidation and transforming growth factor beta1 levels in human colon cancer during tumour progression. Gut 2002; 50: 361-7.
128. Pizzimenti S, Toaldo C, Pettazzoni P, Ciamporcero E, Dianzani MU, Barrera G. Lipid Peroxidation in Colorectal Carcinogenesis: Bad and Good News. In: Ettarh R Ed. Colorectal Cancer Biology-From Genes to Tumor [open access book]. InTech 2012. Available from: (http://www. intechopen. com/books/colorectal-cancer-biology-from-genes-to-tumor/lipid-peroxidation-in-colorectal-carcinogenesis-bad-and-good-news).
129. Borek C. Dietary antioxidants and human cancer. Integr Cancer Ther2004; 3: 333-41.
130. Yavari N, Andersson-Engels S, Segersten U, Malmstrom P-U. An overview on preclinical and clinical experiences with photodynamic therapy for bladder cancer. Can J Urol 2011; 18: 5778-86.
131. Block KI, Koch AC, Mead MN, Tothy PK, Newman RA, Gyllen-haal C. Impact of antioxidant supplementation on chemotherapeutic toxicity: a systematic review of the evidence from randomized controlled trials. Int J Cancer 2008; 123: 1227-39.
132. Conklin KA. Chemotherapy-associated oxidative stress: impact on chemotherapeutic effectiveness. Integr Cancer Ther 2004; 3: 294-300.
133. Rahman AM, Yusuf SW, Ewer MS. Anthracycline-induced car-diotoxicity and the cardiac-sparing effect of liposomal formulation. Int J Nanomedicine 2007; 2: 567-83.
134. Fuchs-Tarlovsky V. Role of antioxidants in cancer therapy. Nutrition 2013; 29: 15-21.
135. Lawenda BD, Kelly KM, Ladas EJ, Sagar SM, Vickers A, Blum-berg JB. Should supplemental antioxidant administration be avoided during chemotherapy and radiation therapy? J Natl Cancer Inst 2008; 100: 773-83.
136. Wang J, Yi J. Cancer cell killing via ROS: to increase or decrease, that is the question. Cancer Biol Ther 2008; 7: 1875-84.
137. Siems WG, Sommerburg O, Wiswedel I, et al. Carotenoid intake and supplementation in cancer-Pro and con. In: O. Sommerburg, Siems W, Kraemer K, Eds. Carotenoids Transl. Med., Boston, MA: CRC Press Taylor & Francis 2013; pp. 225-56.
138. Ziegler RG, Mayne ST, Swanson CA. Nutrition and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996; 7: 157-77.
139. Cooper DA, Eldridge AL, Peters JC. Dietary carotenoids and lung cancer: a review of recent research. Nutr Rev 1999; 57: 133-45.
140. Wakai K, Matsuo K, Nagata C, et al. Lung cancer risk and consumption of vegetables and fruit: an evaluation based on a systematic review of epidemiological evidence from Japan. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2011; 41: 693-708.
141. Peto R, Doll R, Buckley JD, Sporn MB. Can dietary beta-carotene materially reduce human cancer rates? Nature 1981; 290: 201-8.
142. Li C, Ford ES, Zhao G, Balluz LS, Giles WH, Liu S. Serum α-carotene concentrations and risk of death among US Adults: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Follow-up Study. Arch Intern Med 2011; 171: 507-15.
143. Virtamo J, Pietinen P, Huttunen JK, et al. Incidence of cancer and mortality following alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation: a postintervention follow-up. JAMA 2003; 290: 476-85.
144. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1029-35.
145. Fritz H, Kennedy D, Fergusson D, et al. Vitamin A and retinoid derivatives for lung cancer: a systematic review and meta analysis. PLoS One 2011; 6: e21107.
146. Zhang SM. Role of vitamins in the risk, prevention, and treatment of breast cancer. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2004; 16: 19-25.
147. Lazzeroni M, Gandini S, Puntoni M, Bonanni B, Gennari A, De-Censi A. The science behind vitamins and natural compounds for breast cancer prevention. Getting the most prevention out of it. Breast 2011; 20 Suppl 3: S36-41.
148. Zhang X, Dai B, Zhang B, Wang Z. Vitamin A and risk of cervical cancer: a meta-analysis. Gynecol Oncol 2012; 124: 366-73.
149. Myung S-K, Ju W, Kim SC, Kim H. Vitamin or antioxidant intake (or serum level) and risk of cervical neoplasm: a meta-analysis. BJOG 2011; 118: 1285-91.
150. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 1767-76.
151. Wu K, Erdman JW, Schwartz SJ, et al. Plasma and dietary caro-tenoids, and the risk of prostate cancer: a nested case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004; 13: 260-9.
152. Mondul AM, Watters JL, Männistö S, et al. Serum retinol and risk of prostate cancer. Am J Epidemiol 2011; 173: 813-21.
153. Kristal AR, Till C, Platz EA, et al. Serum lycopene concentration and prostate cancer risk: results from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2011; 20: 638-46.
154. Etminan M, Takkouche B, Caamaño-Isorna F. The role of tomato products and lycopene in the prevention of prostate cancer: a metaanalysis of observational studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004; 13: 340-5.
155. Van Patten CL, de Boer JG, Tomlinson Guns ES. Diet and dietary supplement intervention trials for the prevention of prostate cancer recurrence: a review of the randomized controlled trial evidence. J Urol 2008; 180: 2314-21; discussion 2721-2.
156. Ilic D, Forbes KM, Hassed C. Lycopene for the prevention of prostate cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011: CD008007.
157. Tzonou A, Signorello LB, Lagiou P, Wuu J, Trichopoulos D, Trichopoulou A. Diet and cancer of the prostate: a case-control study in Greece. Int J Cancer 1999; 80: 704-8.
158. Buchmayer F, Pleiner J, Elmlinger MW, Lauer G, Nell G, Sitte HH. Actovegin®: a biological drug for more than 5 decades. Wien Med Wochenschr 2011; 161: 80-8.
159. Wu S-X, Cui T-T, Zhao C, et al. A prospective, randomized, multicenter trial to investigate Actovegin in prevention and treatment of acute oral mucositis caused by chemoradiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Radiother Oncol 2010; 97: 113-8.
160. Kçdzierska M, Głowacki R, Czernek U, et al. Changes in plasma thiol levels induced by different phases of treatment in breast cancer; the role of commercial extract from black chokeberry. Mol Cell Biochem 2013; 372: 47-55.
161. Bejanyan N, Tiu R V, Raza A, et al. A phase 2 trial of combination therapy with thalidomide, arsenic trioxide, dexamethasone, and ascorbic acid (TADA) in patients with overlap myelodysplas-tic/myeloproliferative neoplasms (MDS/MPN) or primary myelofibrosis (PMF). Cancer 2012; 118: 3968-76.
162. Held LA, Rizzieri D, Long GD, et al. A Phase I study of arsenic trioxide (Trisenox), ascorbic acid, and bortezomib (Velcade) combination therapy in patients with relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma. Cancer Invest 2013; 31: 172-6.
163. Hong DS, Kurzrock R, Supko JG, et al. A phase I first-in-human trial of bardoxolone methyl in patients with advanced solid tumors and lymphomas. Clin Cancer Res 2012; 18: 3396-406.
164. Macciò A, Madeddu C, Gramignano G, et al. A randomized phase III clinical trial of a combined treatment for cachexia in patients with gynecological cancers: evaluating the impact on metabolic and inflammatory profiles and quality of life. Gynecol Oncol 2012; 124: 417-25.
165. Fuchs-Tarlovsky V, Bejarano-Rosales M, Gutiérrez-Salmeán G, Casillas MA, López-Alvarenga JC, Ceballos-Reyes GM. [Effect of antioxidant supplementation over oxidative stress and quality of life in cervical cancer]. Nutr Hosp 2011; 26: 819-26.
166. Fuchs-Tarlovsky V, Rivera MAC, Altamirano KA, Lopez-Alvarenga JC, Ceballos-Reyes GM. Antioxidant supplementation has a positive effect on oxidative stress and hematological toxicity during oncology treatment in cervical cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 2013; 21: 1359-63.
167. Sakhi AK, Russnes KM, Thoresen M, et al. Pre-radiotherapy plasma carotenoids and markers of oxidative stress are associated with survival in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients: a prospective study. BMC Cancer 2009; 9: 458.
168. Hertz N, Lister RE. Improved survival in patients with end-stage cancer treated with coenzyme Q(10) and other antioxidants: a pilot study. J Int Med Res 2009; 37: 1961-71.
169. Lesser GJ, Case D, Stark N, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of oral coenzyme Q10 to relieve selfreported treatment-related fatigue in newly diagnosed patients with breast cancer. J Support Oncol 2013; 11: 31-42.
170. Nath S. Spicy approach to cancer treatment. J Natl Cancer Inst 2011; 103: 1817-8.
171. Schaffer M, Schaffer PM, Zidan J, Bar Sela G. Curcuma as a functional food in the control of cancer and inflammation. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2011; 14: 588-97.
172. Majewska-Wierzbicka M, Czeczot H. [Anticancer activity of fla-vonoids]. Pol Merkur Lekarski 2012; 33: 364-9.
173. Ellinger S, Müller N, Stehle P, Ulrich-Merzenich G. Consumption of green tea or green tea products: is there an evidence for antioxidant effects from controlled interventional studies? Phytomedicine 2011; 18: 903-15.
174. Schernhammer ES, Giobbie-Hurder A, Gantman K, et al. A randomized controlled trial of oral melatonin supplementation and breast cancer biomarkers. Cancer Causes Control 2012; 23: 609-16.
175. Gröber U, Mücke R, Holzhauer P, Kisters K. [Micronutrients in oncology. Current data about vitamin D, selenium, L-carnitine and vitamin C]. Med Monatsschr Pharm 2013; 36: 133-43.
176. Kune G, Watson L. Colorectal cancer protective effects and the dietary micronutrients folate, methionine, vitamins B6, B12, C, E, selenium, and lycopene. Nutr Cancer 2006; 56: 11-21.
177. Dennert G, Horneber M. Selenium for alleviating the side effects of chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery in cancer patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006: CD005037.
178. Goossens ME, Buntinx F, Joniau S, et al. Designing the selenium and bladder cancer trial (SELEBLAT), a phase lll randomized chemoprevention study with selenium on recurrence of bladder cancer in Belgium. BMC Urol 2012; 12: 8.
179. Lasalvia-Prisco E, Goldschmidt P, Galmarini F, et al. Addition of an induction regimen of antiangiogenesis and antitumor immunity to standard chemotherapy improves survival in advanced malignancies. Med Oncol 2012; 29: 3626-33.
180. Sultana N. Clinically useful anticancer, antitumor, and antiwrinkle agent, ursolic acid and related derivatives as medicinally important natural product. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2011; 26: 616-42.
181. Yim EK, Lee MJ, Lee KH, Um SJ, Park JS. Antiproliferative and antiviral mechanisms of ursolic acid and dexamethasone in cervical carcinoma cell lines. Int J Gynecol Cancer n 2006; 16: 2023-31.
182. Dean M, Fojo T, Bates S. Tumour stem cells and drug resistance. Nat Rev Cancer 2005; 5: 275-84.
183. Garraway LA, Jänne PA. Circumventing cancer drug resistance in the era of personalized medicine. Cancer Discov 2012; 2: 214-26.
184. Augustyniak A, Bartosz G, Cipak A, et al. Natural and synthetic antioxidants: an updated overview. Free Radic Res 2010; 44: 1216-62.