Metabolic disorders

Spinal Cord Medicine: Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages

  Gater, David R ^a   Pai, Ajit B ^b,c  

^a Hunter Holmes McGuire Medical Center   (United States)

^b VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c HUNTER HOLMES MCGUIRE VA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84910623340     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (352)

1. Schwartz MW, Woods SC, Porte D, et al. Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 2000;404(6778):661-671.
2. Shetty PS, Henry CJK, Black AE, et al. Energy requirements of adults: An update on basal metabolic rates (BMRs) and physical activity levels (PALs). Eur J Clin Nutr 1996;50:S11-S23.
3. Westerterp MR. Physical activity as determinant of daily energy expenditure. Physiol Behav 2008;93(4-5):1039-1043.
4. Segal KR, Presta E, Gutin B. Thermic effect of food during graded-exercise in normal weight and obese men. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40(5):995-1000.
5. Illner K, Brinkmann G, Heller M, et al. Metabolically active components of fat free mass and resting energy expenditure in nonobese adults. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000;278(2):E308-E315.
6. Sparti A, DeLany JP, de la Bretonne JA, et al. Relationship between resting metabolic rate and the composition of the fat-free mass. Metabolism 1997;46(10):1225-1230.
7. Ross Conference on Medical R, Ross L. Assessment of energy metabolism in health and disease: Report of the First Ross Conference on Medical Research. Columbus, Ohio: Ross Laboratories; 1980.
8. Wang ZM, Heshka S, Gallagher D, et al. Resting energy expenditure-fat-free mass relationship: new insights provided by body composition modeling. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000;279(3):E539-E545.
9. Nielsen S, Hensrud DD, Romanski S, et al. Body composition and resting energy expenditure in humans: role of fat, fat-free mass and extracellular fluid. Int J Obesity 2000;24(9):1153-1157.
10. Zhang P, Chen XP, Fan M. Signaling mechanisms involved in disuse muscle atrophy. Med Hypotheses 2007;69(2):310-321.
11. Cox SAR, Weiss SM, Posuniak EA, et al. Energy-expenditure after spinal-cord injury - an evaluation of stable rehabilitating patients. J Trauma-Injury Infect Crit Care 1985;25(5):419-423.
12. Rodriguez DJ, Clevenger FW, Osler TM, et al. Obligatory negative nitrogen-balance following spinal-cord injury. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1991;15(3):319-322.
13. Rodriguez DJ, Benzel EC, Clevenger FW. The metabolic response to spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1997;35(9):599-604.
14. Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Wang J, et al. The relationship between energy expenditure and lean tissue in monozygotic twins discordant for spinal cord injury. J Rehabil Res Dev 2004;41(1):1-8.
15. Buchholz AC, McGillivray CF, Pencharz PB. Differences in resting metabolic rate between paraplegic and able-bodied subjects are explained by differences in body composition. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77(2):371-378.
16. Buchholz AC, Pencharz PB. Energy expenditure in chronic spinal cord injury. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2004;7(6):635-639.
17. Monroe MB, Tataranni PA, Pratley R, et al. Lower daily energy expenditure as measured by a respiratory chamber in subjects with spinal cord injury compared with control subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68(6):1223-1227.
18. Mollinger LA, Sparr GB, El Ghatet AZ. Daily energy expenditure and basal metabolic rates of patients with sponak cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;66:420-426.
19. Castro MJ, Apple DF, Hillegass EA, et al. Influence of complete spinal cord injury on skeletal muscle cross-sectional area within the first 6 months of injury. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999;80(4):373-378.
20. Modlesky CM, Bickel CS, Slade JM, et al. Assessment of skeletal muscle mass in men with spinal cord injury using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and magnetic resonance imaging. J Appl Physiol 2004;96(2):561-565.
21. Wielopolski L, Ramirez LM, Spungen AM, et al. Measuring partial body potassium in the legs of patients with spinal cord injury: a new approach. J Appl Physiol 2009;106(1):268-273.
22. Shah PK, Stevens JE, Gregory CM, et al. Lower-extremity muscle cross-sectional area after incomplete spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2006;87(6):772-778.
23. Drummond MJ, Glynn EL, Lujan HL, et al. Gene and protein expression associated with protein synthesis and breakdown in paraplegic skeletal muscle. Muscle Nerve 2008;37(4):505-513.
24. Dreyer HC, Glynn EL, Lujan HL, et al. Chronic paraplegia-induced muscle atrophy downregulates the mTOR/S6K1 signaling pathway. J Appl Physiol 2008;104(1):27-33.
25. Tsitouras PD, Zhong YG, Spungen AM, et al. Serum testosterone and growth-hormone insulin-like growth-factor-i in adults with spinal-cord injury. Horm Metab Res 1995;27(6):287-292.
26. Schopp LH, Clark M, Mazurek MO, et al. Testosterone levels among men with spinal cord injury admitted to inpatient rehabilitation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2006;85(8):678-684.
27. Kostovski E, Iversen PO, Birkeland K, et al. Decreased levels of testosterone and gonadotrophins in men with long-standing tetraplegia. Spinal Cord 2008;46(8):559-564.
28. Clark MJ, Schopp LH, Mazurek MO, et al. Testosterone levels among men with spinal cord injury - Relationship between time since injury and laboratory values. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2008;87(9):758-764.
29. Rasmussen BB, Richter EA. The balancing act between the cellular processes of protein synthesis and breakdown: Exercise as a model to understand the molecular mechanisms regulating muscle mass. J Appl Physiol 2009;106(4):1365-1366.
30. Drummond MJ, Dreyer HC, Fry CS, et al. Nutritional and contractile regulation of human skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. J Appl Physiol 2009;106(4):1374-1384.
31. Miyazaki M, Esser KA. Cellular mechanisms regulating protein synthesis and skeletal muscle hypertrophy in animals. J Appl Physiol 2009;106(4):1367-1373.
32. Celik B. Testosterone replacement therapy and motor function in men with spinal cord injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2008;87(12):1054-1055.
33. Arver S, Lehtihet M. Current guidelines for the diagnosis of testosterone deficiency. In: Advances in the management of testosterone deficiency. vol. 37, 2009:5-20.
34. Gooren LJG. Advances in testosterone replacement therapy. In: Advances in the management of testosterone deficiency. vol. 37, 2009:32-51.
35. Bhasin S, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, et al. Testosterone therapy in adult men with androgen deficiency syndromes: An endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91(6):1995-2010.
36. Yilmaz B, Yasar E, Goktepe S, et al. Basal metabolic rate and autonomic nervous system dysfunction in men with spinal cord injury. Obesity 2007;15(11):2683-2687.
37. Jeon JY, Steadward RD, Wheeler GD, et al. Intact sympathetic nervous system is required for leptin effects on resting metabolic rate in people with spinal cord injury. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88(1):402-407.
38. Brown R, Macefield VG. Assessing the capacity of the sympathetic nervous system to respond to a cardiovascular challenge in human spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2008;46(10):666-672.
39. Lucin KM, Sanders VM, Jones TB, et al. Alterations in sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function after experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurochem 2005;94:44-44.
40. Houtman S, Oeseburg B, Hughson RL, et al. Sympathetic nervous system activity and cardiovascular homeostasis during head-up tilt in patients with spinal cord injuries. Clin Auton Res 2000;10(4):207-212.
41. Steinberg LL, Lauro FAA, Sposito MMM, et al. Catecholamine response to exercise in individuals with different levels of paraplegia. Braz J Med Biol Res 2000;33(8):913-918.
42. Claydon VE, Krassioukov AV. Orthostatic hypotension and autonomic pathways after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2006;23(12):1713-1725.
43. Webber J, Macdonald IA. Signalling in body-weight homeostasis: neuroendocrine efferent signals. Proc Nutr Soc 2000;59(3):397-404.
44. Brozek J, Grande F, Andersson JT. Densiometric analysis of body composition: revision of some quantitative assumptions. Ann NY Acad Sci 1963;110:113-130.
45. Siri W. Body composition from fluid spaces and density: analysis of methods. In: Brozek J, Henschel A, eds. Techniques for measuring body composition. 1 ed. Washington D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1961:223-224.
46. Gater D, Clasey J. Body composition assessment in spinal cord injury clinical trials. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2006;11(3):36-49.
47. Clasey JL, Gater DR. Body composition assessment in adults with spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2007;12(4):8-19.
48. Gater DR. Obesity after spinal cord injury. Phys Med Rehabil Clin North Am 2007;18(2):331-351.
49. Maimoun L, Couret I, Micallef JP, et al. Use of bone biochemical markers with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for early determination of bone loss in persons with spinal cord injury. Metab-Clin Exp 2002;51(8):958-963.
50. Maimoun L, Couret I, Mariano-Goulart D, et al. Changes in osteoprotegerin/RANKL system, bone mineral density, and bone biochemicals markers in patients with recent spinal cord injury. Calcif Tissue Int 2005;76(6):404-411.
51. de Bruin ED, Vanwanseele B, Dambacher MA, et al. Long-term changes in the tibia and radius bone mineral density following spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2005;43(2):96-101.
52. Zehnder Y, Luthi M, Michel D, et al. Long-term changes in bone metabolism, bone mineral density, quantitative ultrasound parameters, and fracture incidence after spinal cord injury: a cross-sectional observational study in 100 paraplegic men. Osteoporos Int 2004;15(3):180-189.
53. Clasey JL, Janowiak AL, Gater DR. Relationship between regional bone density measurements and the time since injury in adults with spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85(1):59-64.
54. Buchholz AC, McGillivray CF, Pencharz PB. The use of bioelectric impedance analysis to measure fluid compartments in subjects with chronic paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84(6):854-861.
55. Cardus D, McTaggart WG. Body composition in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1985;66:257-259.
56. Nuhlicek DNR, Spurr GB, Barboriak JJ, et al. Body-composition of patients with spinal-cord injury. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988;42(9):765-773.
57. Heymsfield SB, Lichtman S, Baumgartner RN, et al. Body-composition of humans - comparison of 2 improved 4-compartment models that differ in expense, technical complexity, and radiation exposure. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52(1):52-58.
58. Heyward VH. ASEP methods recommendation: body composition assessment. J Exerc Physiol Online 2001;4(4):1-12.
59. Clasey JL, Gater DR. A comparison of hydrostatic weighing and air displacement plethysmography in adults with spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86(11):2106-2113.
60. Gater DR. Pathophysiology of obesity after spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2007;12(4):20-34.
61. Jones LM, Legge M, Goulding A. Healthy body mass index values often underestimate body fat in men with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84(7):1068-1071.
62. Maggioni M, Bertoli S, Margonato V, et al. Body composition assessment in spinal cord injury subjects. Acta Diabetologica 2003;40:S183-S186.
63. Spungen AM, Adkins RH, Stewart CA, et al. Factors influencing body composition in persons with spinal cord injury: a cross-sectional study. J Appl Physiol 2003;95(6):2398-2407.
64. Spungen AM, Wang J, Pierson RN, et al. Soft tissue body composition differences in monozygotic twins discordant for spinal cord injury. J Appl Physiol 2000;88(4):1310-1315.
65. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome pandemic. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008;28(4):629-636.
66. de Ferranti S, Mozaffarian D. The perfect storm: Obesity, adipocyte dysfunction, and metabolic consequences. Clin Chem 2008;54(6):945-955.
67. Antuna-Puente B, Feve B, Fellahi S, et al. Adipokines: The missing link between insulin resistance and obesity. Diabetes Metab 2008;34(1):2-11.
68. Borch KH, Braekkan SK, Mathiesen EB, et al. Abdominal obesity is essential for the risk of venous thromboembolism in the metabolic syndrome: the Tromso study. J Thromb Haemost 2009;7(5):739-745.
69. Lind L, Ingelsson E, Sundstrom J, et al. The impact of obesity and the metabolic syndrome on the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in middle-aged men. Circulation 2009;19(10):E302-E302.
70. Nita C, Hancu N, Rusu A, et al. Hypertensive waist: first step of the screening for metabolic syndrome. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2009;7(2):105-109.
71. Oda E. The metabolic syndrome as a concept of adipose tissue disease. Hypertens Res 2008;31(7):1283-1291.
72. Ordovas JM, Corella D. Metabolic syndrome pathophysiology: the role of adipose tissue. Kidney Int 2008;74:S10-S14.
73. Wild SH, Byrne CD, Tzoulaki I, et al. Metabolic syndrome, haemostatic and inflammatory markers, cerebrovascular and peripheral arterial disease: The Edinburgh Artery Study. Atherosclerosis 2009;203(2):604-609.
74. Terry RB, Page WF, Haskell WL. Waist hip ratio, body-mass index and premature cardiovascular-disease mortality in United-States-Army Veterans during a 23-year follow-up-Study. Int J Obes 1992;16(6):417-423.
75. Terry RB, Stefanick ML, Haskell WL, et al. Contributions of regional adipose-tissue depots to plasma-lipoprotein concentrations in overweight men and women-possible protective effects of thigh fat. Metab-Clin Exp 1991;40(7):733-740.
76. Brockmann GA, Tsaih SW, Neuschl C, et al. Genetic factors contributing to obesity and body weight can act through mechanisms affecting muscle weight, fat weight, or both. Physiol Genom 2009;36(2):114-126.
77. Sanders SS. PCSK1 variants: genetic risk factors for obesity. Clin Genet 2009;75(4):318-319.
78. Gianotti TF, Sookoian S, Gemma C, et al. Study of genetic variation in the STAT3 on obesity and insulin resistance in male adults. Obesity 2008;16(7):1702-1707.
79. Hill JO, Wyatt HR, Reed GW, et al. Obesity and the environment: Where do we go from here? Science 2003;299(5608):853-855.
80. Hill JO, Peters JC. Environmental contributions to the obesity epidemic. Science 1998;280(5368):1371-1374.
81. Grundy SM. A changing paradigm for prevention of cardiovascular disease: emergence of the metabolic syndrome as a multiplex risk factor. Eur Heart J Suppl 2008;10(B):B16-B23.
82. Barness LA, Opitz JM, Gilbert-Barness E. Obesity: Genetic, molecular, and environmental aspects. Am J Med Genet Part A 2007;143A(24):3016-3034.
83. Koerner A, Kratzsch J, Kiess W. Adipocytokines: leptin-the classical, resistin-the controversical, adiponectin-the promising, and more to come. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;19(4):525-546.
84. Bjorbaek C, Kahn BB. Leptin signaling in the central nervous system and the periphery. Recent Prog Horm Res 2004;59(1):305-331.
85. Elmquist JK. Hypothalamic pathways underlying the endocrine, autonomic, and behavioral effects of leptin. Physiol Behav 2001;74(4-5):703-708.
86. Seeley RJ, D'Alessio DA, Woods SC. Fat hormones pull their weight in the CNS. Nat Med 2004;10(5):454-455.
87. Bodary PF, Eitzman DT. Adiponectin: Vascular protection from the fat? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006;26(2):235-236.
88. Rajala MW, Obici S, Scherer PE, et al. Adipose-derived resistin and gut-derived resistin-like molecule-(beta) selectively impair insulin action on glucose production. J Clin Invest 2003;111(2):225-230.
89. Chen BH, Song YQ, Ding EL, et al. Circulating levels of resistin and risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women: results from two prospective cohorts. Diabetes Care 2009;32(2):329-334.
90. Burnett MS, Devaney JM, Adenika RJ, et al. Cross-Sectional associations of resistin, coronary heart disease, and insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91(1):64-68.
91. Barnes KM, Miner JL. Role of resistin in insulin sensitivity in rodents and humans. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2009;10(1):96-107.
92. Li FP, He J, Li ZZ, et al. Effects of resistin expression on glucose metabolism and hepatic insulin resistance. Endocrine 2009;35(2):243-251.
93. Frankel DS, Vasan RS, D'Agostino RB, et al. Resistin, adiponectin, and risk of heart failure: The Framingham Offspring Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;53(9):754-762.
94. de Luis DA, Sagrado MG, Conde R, et al. Relation of resistin levels with cardiovascular risk factors and insulin resistance in non-diabetes obese patients. Diab Res Clin Pract 2009;84(2):174-178.
95. Kuzmicki M, Telejko B, Szamatowicz J, et al. High resistin and interleukin-6 levels are associated with gestational diabetes mellitus. Gynecol Endocrinol 2009;25(4):258-263.
96. Naharci MI. The metabolic syndrome is associated with circulating adipokines in older adults across a wide range of adiposity. J Gerontol Ser A-Biol Sci Med Sci 2009;64(4):503-503.
97. Matsuzawa Y. White adipose tissue and cardiovascular disease. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;19(4):637-647.
98. Malavazos AE, Corsi MM, Ermetici F, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines and cardiac abnormalities in uncomplicated obesity: Relationship with abdominal fat deposition. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2007;17(4):294-302.
99. You TJ, Nicklas BJ, Ding JZ, et al. The metabolic syndrome is associated with circulating adipokines in older adults across a wide range of adiposity. J Gerontol Ser A-Biol Sci Med Sci 2008;63(4):414-419.
100. Fried SK, Bunkin DA, Greenberg AS. Omental and subcutaneous adipose tissues of obese subjects release interleukin-6: depot difference and regulation by glucocorticoid. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83(3):847-850.
101. Kern PA, Ranganathan S, Li CL, et al. Adipose tissue tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 expression in human obesity and insulin resistance. Am J Physiol-Endocrinol Metab 2001;280(5):E745-E751.
102. Weber MM, Michl P, Auernhammer CJ, et al. Interleukin-3 and Interleukin-6 stimulate cortisol secretion from adult human adrenocortical cells. Endocrinology 1997;138(5):2207.
103. Kern PA, Saghizadeh M, Ong JM, et al. The expression of tumor-necrosis-factor in human adipose-tissue - regulation by obesity, weight-loss, and relationship to lipoprotein-lipase. J Clin Inv 1995;95(5):2111-2119.
104. Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Novel clinical markers of vascular wall inflammation. Circ Res 2001;89(9):763-771.
105. Pai JK, Pischon T, Ma J, et al. Inflammatory markers and the risk of coronary heart disease in men and women. N Engl J Med 2004;351(25):2599-2610.
106. Lee MY, Myers J, Hayes A, et al. C-reactive protein, metabolic syndrome, and insulin resistance in individuals with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2005;28(1):20-25.
107. Manns PJ, McCubbin JA, Williams DP. Fitness, inflammation, and the metabolic syndrome in men with paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86(6):1176-1181.
108. Mavri A, Stegnar M, Krebs M, et al. Impact of adipose tissue on plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in dieting obese women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1999;19(6):1582-1587.
109. Aso Y, Wakabayashi S, Yamamoto R, et al. Metabolic syndrome accompanied by hypercholesterolemia is strongly associated with proinflammatory state and impairment of fibrinolysis in patients with type 2 diabetes: synergistic effects of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor Diabetes Care 2005;28(9):2211-2216.
110. Aubert H, Frere C, Aillaud MF, et al. Weak and non-independent association between plasma TAFI antigen levels and the insulin resistance syndrome. J Thromb Haemost 2003;1(4):791-797.
111. Teasell RW, Hsieh JT, Aubut JAL, et al. Venous thromboembolism after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90(2):232-245.
112. Maruyama Y, Mizuguchi M, Yaginuma T, et al. Serum leptin, abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2008;46(7):494-499.
113. Kolovou GD, Anagnostopoulou KK, Cokkinos DV. Pathophysiology of dyslipidaemia in the metabolic syndrome. Postgrad Med J 2005;81(956):358-366.
114. Raal FJ. Pathogenesis and management of the dyslipidemia of the metabolic syndrome. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2009;7(2):83-88.
115. Kwiterovich J, Peter O, Coresh J, et al. Prevalence of hyperapobetalipoproteinemia and other lipoprotein phenotypes in men (aged ≤ 50 years) and women (≤60 years) with coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 1993;71(8):631-639.
116. Pischon T, Girman CJ, Sacks FM, et al. Non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein B in the prediction of coronary heart disease in men. Circulation 2005;112(22):3375-3383.
117. Rashid S, Patterson BW, Lewis GF. What have we learned about HDL metabolism from kinetics studies in humans? J Lipid Res 2006;47(8):1631-1642.
118. Rashid S, Genest J. Effect of obesity on high-density lipoprotein metabolism. Obesity 2007;15(12):2875-2888.
119. Verges B. New insight into the pathophysiology of lipid abnormalities in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab 2005;31(5):429-439.
120. Schmid A, Halle M, Stutzle C, et al. Lipoproteins and free plasma catecholamines in spinal cord injured men with different injury levels. Clin Physiol 2000;20(4):304-310.
121. Demirel S, Demirel G, Tukek T, et al. Risk factors for coronary heart disease in patients with spinal cord injury in Turkey. Spinal Cord 2001;39(3):134-138.
122. Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Adkins RH, et al. Metabolic and endocrine changes in persons aging with spinal cord injury. Assist Technol 1999;11(2):88-96.
123. Dallmeijer AJ, van der Woude LHV, van Kamp GJ, et al. Changes in lipid, lipoprotein and apolipoprotein profiles in persons with spinal cord injuries during the first 2 years post-injury. Spinal Cord 1999;37(2):96-102.
124. Moussavi RM, Ribas-Cardus F, Rintala DH, et al. Dietary and serum lipids in individuals with spinal cord injury living in the community. J Rehabil Res Dev 2001;38(2):225-233.
125. Ozgurtas T, Alaca R, Gulec M, et al. Do spinal cord injuries adversely affect serum lipoprotein profiles? Mil Med 2003;168(7):545-547.
126. Vidal J, Javierre C, Curia FJ, et al. Long-term evolution of blood lipid profiles and glycemic levels in patients after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2003;41(3):178-181.
127. Bauman W, Spungen A. Risk assessment for coronary heart disease in a veteran population with spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2007;12(4):35-53.
128. Bhattacharya S, Dey D, Roy SS. Molecular mechanism of insulin resistance. J Biosci 2007;32(2):405-413.
129. Gallagher EJ, LeRoith D, Karnieli E. The metabolic syndrome - from insulin resistance to obesity and diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2008;37(3):559.
130. Shulman GI. Cellular mechanisms of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 2000;106(2):171-176.
131. Grundy SM. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89(6):2595-2600.
132. Duckworth WC, Jallepalli P, Solomon SS. Glucose intolerance in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1983;64:107-110.
133. Petry C, Rothstein JL, Bauman WA. Hemoglobin A1c as a predictor of glucose intolerance in spinal cord injury. J Am Paraplegia Soc 1993;16(1):56.
134. Aksnes AK, Hjeltnes N, Wahlstrom EO, et al. Intact glucose transport in morphologically altered denervated skeletal muscle from quadriplegic patients. Am J Physiol-Endocrinol Metab 1996;34(3):E593-E600.
135. Szczypaczewsa M, Nazar K, Kaciuba-Uscilko H. Glucose tolerance and insulin response to glucose load in body builders. Int J Sports Med 1989;10:34-47.
136. Yki-Jarvinen H, Koivisto VA, Taskinen M, et al. Glucose tolerance, plasma lipoproteins and tissue lipoprotein lipase activities in body builders. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Med 1984;53:253-259.
137. Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Disorders of carbohydrate and lipid-metabolism in veterans with paraplegia or quadriplegia - a model of premature aging. Metab-Clin Exp 1994;43(6):749-756.
138. Vasan RS, Larson MG, Leip EP, et al. Assessment of frequency of progression to hypertension in non-hypertensive participants in the Framingham Heart Study: a cohort study. The Lancet 2001;358(9294):1682-1686.
139. Bogaert YE, Linas S. The role of obesity in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2009;5(2):101-111.
140. Castro JP, El-Atat FA, McFarlane SI, et al. Cardiometabolic syndrome: Pathophysiology and treatment. Curr Hypertens Rep 2003;5(5):393-401.
141. Kurukulasuriya LR, Stas S, Lastra G, et al. Hypertension in obesity. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2008;37(3):647.
142. Singer GM, Setaro JF. Secondary hypertension: obesity and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Hypertens 2008;10(7):567-574.
143. Yanai H, Tomono Y, Ito K, et al. The underlying mechanisms for development of hypertension in the metabolic syndrome. Nutr J 2008;7.
144. Huang Z, Willett WC, Manson JE, et al. Body weight, weight change, and risk for hypertension in women. Ann Intern Med 1998;128(2):81-88.
145. Wofford MR, Hall JE. Pathophysiology and treatment of obesity hypertension. Curr Pharm Des 2004;10(29):3621-3637.
146. Engeli S, Negrel R, Sharma AM. Physiology and pathophysiology of the adipose tissue renin-angiotensin system. Hypertension 2000;35(6):1270-1277.
147. LaVela SL, Weaver FM, Goldstein B, et al. Diabetes mellitus in individuals with spinal cord injury or disorder. J Spinal Cord Med 2006;29(4):387-395.
148. Lee MY, Myers J, Abella J, et al. Homocysteine and hypertension in persons with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2006;44(8):474-479.
149. Wilt T, Carlson F, Goldish G, et al. Carbohydrate & lipid disorders & relevant considerations in persons with spinal cord injury. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 163 (Prepared by the Minnesota Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-02-0009.). In AHRQ Publication No. 08-E005. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; January 2008.
150. Alberti K, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications part 1: Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus - Provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabetic Med 1998;15(7):539-553.
151. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) Final Report. Circulation 2002;106(25):3143.
152. Holt RIG. International Diabetes Federation re-defines the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Obes Metab 2005;7(5):618.
153. Liang H, Chen D, Wang Y, et al. Different risk factor patterns for metabolic syndrome in men with spinal cord injury compared with able-bodied men despite similar prevalence rates. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88(9):1198-1204.
154. Nash MS, Mendez AJ. A guideline-driven assessment of need for cardiovascular disease risk intervention in persons with chronic paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88(6):751-757.
155. Castillo C, Miller J, Moore J, et al. Metabolic syndrome in veterans with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2007;30(4):403.
156. Rosenzweig JL, Ferrannini E, Grundy SM, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes in patients at metabolic risk: An endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93(10):3671-3689.
157. Bianchi C, Penno G, Daniele G, et al. Optimizing management of metabolic syndrome to reduce risk: focus on life-style. Intern Emerg Med 2008;3(2):87-98.
158. Despres JP, Arsenault BJ, Poirier P. Management of the atherogenic dyslipidemia of insulin resistance/metabolic syndrome: making visceral obesity/ectopic fat a new therapeutic target. Med Clin North Am 2008;92(Suppl 1):11-26.
159. Fogli-Cawley JJ, Dwyer JT, Saltzman E, et al. The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and risk of the metabolic syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;86(4):1193-1201.
160. Fogli-Cawley JJ, Dwyer JT, Saltzman E, et al. The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans and insulin resistance in the Framingham Offspring Cohort. Diabetes Care 2007;30(4):817-822.
161. Tsai AG, Wadden TA. The evolution of very-low-calorie diets: An update and meta-analysis. Obesity 2006;14(8):1283-1293.
162. Wadden TA, Foster GD, Letizia KA. One-year behavioral treatment of obesity - comparison of moderate and severe caloric restriction and the effects of weight maintenance therapy. J Consulting Clin Psychol 1994;62(1):165-171.
163. Gater D. Spinal cord injury. In: JK Ehrman, PM Gordon, PS Visich, SJ Keteyian, eds. Clinical exercise physiology. 2 ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2009:523-542.
164. Nash MA, Gater DR. Exercise to reduce obesity in spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2007;12(4):76-93.
165. Gater D. Exercise and fitness with spinal cord injury. In: SA Sisto, E Druin, MM Sliwinski, eds. Spinal cord injuries: management and rehabilitation. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier, 2009:430-454.
166. Hjeltnes N, Aksnes AK, Birkeland KI, et al. Improved body composition after 8 wk of electrically stimulated leg cycling in tetraplegic patients. Am J Physiol-Regul Integr Comp Physiol 1997;42(3):R1072-R1079.
167. Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Body composition changes and anabolic hormone considerations with advancing age and in persons with spinal cord injury. Wounds-A Compendium Clin Res Pract 2001;13(4):22D-31D.
168. Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Coronary heart disease in individuals with spinal cord injury: assessment of risk factors. Spinal Cord 2008;46(7):466-476.
169. Srinivasan BT, Jarvis J, Khunti K, et al. Recent advances in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a review. Postgrad Med J 2008;84(996):524-531.
170. Bagg W, Plank LD, Gamble G, et al. The effects of intensive glycaemic control on body composition in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2001;3(6):410-416.
171. Fonseca VA, Kulkarni KD. Management of type 2 diabetes: Oral agents, insulin, and injectables. J Am Diet Assoc 2008;108(4):S29-S33.
172. Krentz AJ. Management of type 2 diabetes in the obese patient: current concerns and emerging therapies. Curr Med Res Opin 2008;24(2):401-417.
173. Home P, Pocock S, Beck-Nielsen H, et al. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination therapy for type 2 diabetes (RECORD): a multicentre, randomised, open-label trial. The Lancet 2009, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60953-3.
174. Manolagas SC. Birth and death of bone cells: basic regulatory mechanisms and implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis. Endocr Rev 2000;21(2):115-137.
175. Hsu H, Lacey DL, Dunstan CR, et al. Tumor necrosis factor receptor family member RANK mediates osteoclast differentiation and activation induced by osteoprotegerin ligand. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96(7):3540-3545.
176. Simonet WS, Lacey DL, Dunstan CR, et al. Osteoprotegerin: a novel secreted protein involved in the regulation of bone density. Cell 1997;89(2):309-319.
177. Parfitt AM. Osteonal and hemi-osteonal remodeling: the spatial and temporal framework for signal traffic in adult human bone. J Cell Biochem 1994;55(3):273-286.
178. Jiang SD, Jiang LS, Dai LY. Mechanisms of osteoporosis in spinal cord injury. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006;65(5):555-565.
179. Cowin SC, Moss-Salentijn L, Moss ML. Candidates for the mechanosensory system in bone. J Biomech Eng 1991;113(2):191-197.
180. Doty SB. Morphological evidence of gap junctions between bone cells. Calcif Tissue Int 1981;33(5):509-512.
181. Santos A, Bakker AD, Klein-Nulend J. The role of osteocytes in bone mechanotransduction. Osteoporos Int 2009;20(6):1027-1031.
182. Papachroni KK, Karatzas DN, Papavassiliou KA, et al. Mechanotransduction in osteoblast regulation and bone disease. Trends Mol Med 2009;15(5):208-216.
183. Wolff J. Das Gesetz der Transformation der Knochen. Berlin: Ahirshwald, 1892.
184. De Souza MJ, West SL, Jamal SA, et al. The presence of both an energy deficiency and estrogen deficiency exacerbate alterations of bone metabolism in exercising women. Bone 2008;43(1):140-148.
185. Christmas C, O'Connor KG, Harman SM, et al. Growth hormone and sex steroid effects on bone metabolism and bone mineral density in healthy aged women and men. J Gerontol Ser A-Biol Sci Med Sci 2002;57(1):M12-M18.
186. Fohr B, Schulz A, Battmann A. Sex steroids and bone metabolism: Comparison of in vitro effects of 17 beta-estradiol and testosterone on human osteosarcoma cell lines of various gender and differentiation. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes2000;108(6):414-423.
187. Isidori AM, Giannetta E, Greco EA, et al. Effects of testosterone on body composition, bone metabolism and serum lipid profile in middle-aged men: a meta-analysis. Clin Endocrinol 2005;63(3):280-293.
188. Kim H, Park H, Choi H, et al. The effects of low dose estrogen therapy on the bone mineral densities and bone metabolism of menopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 2008;23:S472-S472.
189. Kuroki Y, Kaji H, Kawano S, et al. Short-term effects of glucocorticoid therapy on biochemical markers of bone metabolism in Japanese patients: a prospective study. J Bone Miner Metab 2008;26(3):271-278.
190. Chan MHM, Chan PKS, Griffith JF, et al. Steroid-induced osteonecrosis in severe acute respiratory syndrome: a retrospective analysis of biochemical markers of bone metabolism and corticosteroid therapy. Pathology 2006;38(3):229-235.
191. Sobhani A, Moradi F, Moradi F, et al. Estimation of glucocorticoid effects on bone metabolism markers and bone mineral density in rats. Bone 2004;34:S43-S44.
192. Kondo H, Nifuji A, Takeda S, et al. Unloading induces osteoblastic cell suppression and osteoclastic cell activation to lead to bone loss via sympathetic nervous system. J Biol Chem 2005;280(34):30192-30200.
193. Meyers VE, Zayzafoon M, Douglas JT, et al. RhoA and cytoskeletal disruption mediate reduced osteoblastogenesis and enhanced adipogenesis of human mesenchymal stem cells in modeled microgravity. J Bone Miner Res2005;20(10):1858-1866.
194. Minaire P, Neunier P, Edouard C, et al. Quantitative histological data on disuse osteoporosis: comparison with biological data. Calcif Tissue Res 1974;17(1):57-73.
195. Zerwekh J, Ruml L, Gottschalk F, et al. The effects of twelve weeks of bed rest on bone histology, biochemical markers of bone turnover, and calcium homeostasis in eleven normal subjects. J Bone Miner Res 1998;13:1594-1601.
196. Vico L, Collet P, Thomas T, et al. Effects of long-term microgravity exposure on cancellous and cortical weight-bearing bones of cosmonauts The Lancet 2000;355(9215):1607-1611.
197. Biering-Sorensen F, Bohr HH, Schaadt OP. Longitudinal study of bone mineral content in the lumbar spine, the forearm and the lower extremities after spinal cord injury. Eur J Clin Invest 1990;20(3):330-335.
198. Garland DE, Stewart CA, Adkins RH, et al. Osteoporosis after spinal cord injury. J Orthop Res 1992;10(3):371-378.
199. Garland DE, Adkins RH, Stewart CA. Five-year longitudinal bone evaluations in individuals with chronic complete spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2008;31(5):543-550.
200. Dauty M, Perrouin Verbe B, Maugars Y, et al. Supralesional and sublesional bone mineral density in spinal cord-injured patients. Bone 2000;27(2):305-309.
201. Frey-Rindova P, de Bruin ED, Stussi E, et al. Bone mineral density in upper and lower extremities during 12 months after spinal cord injury measured by peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Spinal Cord 2000;38(1):26-32.
202. Tsuzuku S, Ikegami Y, Yabe K. Bone mineral density differences between paraplegic and quadriplegic patients: a cross-sectional study. Spinal Cord 1999;37(5):358-361.
203. Demirel G, Yilmaz H, Paker N, et al. Osteoporosis after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1998;36(12):822-825.
204. Finsen V, Indredavik B, Fougner KJ. Bone-mineral and hormone status in paraplegics. Paraplegia 1992;30(5):343-347.
205. Maimoun L, Fattal C, Micallef JP, et al. Bone loss in spinal cord-injured patients: from physiopathology to therapy. Spinal Cord 2006;44(4):203-210.
206. Roberts D, Lee W, Cuneo RC, et al. Longitudinal study of bone turnover after acute spinal cord injury. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83(2):415-422.
207. Uebelhart D, Hartmann D, Vuagnat H, et al. Early modifications of biochemical markers of bone metabolism in spinal cord injury patients. A preliminary study. Scand J Rehabil Med 1994;26(4):197-202.
208. Pietschmann P, Pils P, Woloszczuk W, et al. Increased serum osteocalcin levels in patients with paraplegia. Paraplegia 1992;30(3):204-209.
209. Zehnder Y, Risi S, Michel D, et al. Prevention of bone loss in paraplegics over 2 years with alendronate. J Bone Miner Res 2004;19(7):1067-1074.
210. Jiang SD, Jiang LS, Dai LY. Effects of spinal cord injury on osteoblastogenesis, osteoclastogenesis and gene expression profiling in osteoblasts in young rats. Osteoporos Int 2007;18(3):339-349.
211. Morse LR, Nguyen HP, Jain N, et al. Age and motor score predict osteoprotegerin level in chronic spinal cord injury. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2008;8(1):50-57.
212. Stewart AF, Adler M, Byers CM, et al. Calcium homeostasis in immobilization: an example of resorptive hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med 1982;306(19):1136-1140.
213. Bauman WA, Zhong YG, Schwartz E. Vitamin D deficiency in veterans with chronic spinal cord injury. Metabolism 1995;44(12):1612-1616.
214. Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Morrison N, et al. Effect of a vitamin D analog on leg bone mineral density in patients with chronic spinal cord injury. J Rehabil Res Dev 2005;42(5):625-634.
215. Vaziri ND, Pandian MR, Segal JL, et al. Vitamin D, parathormone, and calcitonin profiles in persons with long-standing spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75(7):766-769.
216. Bauman WA, Morrison NG, Spungen AM. Vitamin D replacement therapy in persons with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2005;28(3):203-207.
217. Mechanick JI, Pomerantz F, Flanagan S, et al. Parathyroid hormone suppression in spinal cord injury patients is associated with the degree of neurologic impairment and not the level of injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997;78(7):692-696.
218. Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Metabolic changes in persons after spinal cord injury. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2000;11(1):109-140.
219. Naftchi NE, Viau AT, Sell GH, et al. Pituitary-testicular axis dysfunction in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1980;61(9):402-405.
220. Maimoun L, Lumbroso S, Paris F, et al. The role of androgens or growth factors in the bone resorption process in recent spinal cord injured patients: a cross-sectional study. Spinal Cord 2006;44(12):791-797.
221. Celik B, Sahin A, Caglar N, et al. Sex hormone levels and functional outcomes: a controlled study of patients with spinal cord injury compared with healthy subjects. Am J Phys Med Rehabil/Assoc Acad Physiatrists 2007;86(10):784-790.
222. Rosenquist RC. Evaluation of 17-ketosteroid, estrogen and gonadotrophin excretion in patients with spinal cord injury. Am J Med 1950;8(4):534-535.
223. Jilka RL. Cytokines, bone remodeling, and estrogen deficiency: a 1998 update. Bone 1998;23(2):75-81.
224. Manolagas SC, Jilka RL. Bone marrow, cytokines, and bone remodeling. Emerging insights into the pathophysiology of osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 1995;332(5):305-311.
225. Pacifici R. Cytokines, estrogen, and postmenopausal osteoporosis-the second decade. Endocrinology 1998;139(6):2659-2661.
226. Slade JM, Bickel CS, Modlesky CM, et al. Trabecular bone is more deteriorated in spinal cord injured versus estrogen-free postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 2005;16(3):263-272.
227. Levasseur R, Sabatier JP, Potrel-Burgot C, et al. Sympathetic nervous system as transmitter of mechanical loading in bone. Joint Bone Spine 2003;70(6):515-519.
228. Serre CM, Farlay D, Delmas PD, et al. Evidence for a dense and intimate innervation of the bone tissue, including glutamate-containing fibers. Bone 1999;25(6):623-629.
229. Cherruau M, Morvan FO, Schirar A, et al. Chemical sympathectomy-induced changes in TH-, VIP-, and CGRP-immunoreactive fibers in the rat mandible periosteum: influence on bone resorption. J Cell Physiol 2003;194(3):341-348.
230. Arai M, Nagasawa T, Koshihara Y, et al. Effects of beta-adrenergic agonists on bone-resorbing activity in human osteoclast-like cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 2003;1640(2-3):137-142.
231. Togari A. Adrenergic regulation of bone metabolism: possible involvement of sympathetic innervation of osteoblastic and osteoclastic cells. Microsc Res Tech 2002;58(2):77-84.
232. Schlienger RG, Kraenzlin ME, Jick SS, et al. Use of beta-blockers and risk of fractures. JAMA 2004;292(11):1326-1332.
233. Chantraine A, Nusgens B, Lapiere CM. Bone remodeling during the development of osteoporosis in paraplegia. Calcif Tissue Int 1986;38(6):323-327.
234. Claus-Walker J, Campos RJ, Carter RE, et al. Calcium excretion in quadriplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1972;53(1):14-20.
235. Maynard FM. Immobilization hypercalcemia following spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1986;67(1):41-44.
236. Maynard FM, Imai K. Immobilization hypercalcemia in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1977;58(1):16-24.
237. Naftchi NE, Viau AT, Sell GH, et al. Mineral metabolism in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1980;61(3):139-142.
238. Zhou XJ, Vaziri ND, Segal JL, et al. Effects of chronic spinal cord injury and pressure ulcer on 25(OH)-vitamin D levels. J Am Paraplegia Soc 1993;16(1):9-13.
239. Kaplan PE, Gandhavadi B, Richards L, et al. Calcium balance in paraplegic patients: influence of injury duration and ambulation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1978;59(10):447-450.
240. Hansen RB, Biering-Sorensen F, Kristensen JK. Urinary calculi following traumatic spinal cord injury. Scand J Urol Nephrol 2007;41(2):115-119.
241. Kohli A, Lamid S. Risk factors for renal stone formation in patients with spinal cord injury. Br J Urol 1986;58(6):588-591.
242. Ost MC, Lee BR. Urolithiasis in patients with spinal cord injuries: risk factors, management, and outcomes. Curr Opin Urol 2006;16(2):93-99.
243. Massagli TL, Cardenas DD. Immobilization hypercalcemia treatment with pamidronate disodium after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80(9):998-1000.
244. Labossiere R, Hintzke C, Ileana S. Hypercalcemia of Immobilization. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2009;10(4):284-285.
245. Kedlaya D, Brandstater ME, Lee JK. Immobilization hypercalcemia in incomplete paraplegia: Successful treatment with pamidronate. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1998;79(2):222-225.
246. Drake MT, Clarke BL, Khosla S. Bisphosphonates: Mechanism of action and role in clinical practice. Mayo Clinic Proc 2008;83(9):1032-1045.
247. Rogers MJ, Roelofs AJ, Coxon FP. Molecular mechanisms of bisphosphonate action: insight into structure-function relationships. Clin Exp Metastasis 2008;25:27-28.
248. de Bruin ED, Frey-Rindova P, Herzog RE, et al. Changes of tibia bone properties after spinal cord injury: Effects of early intervention. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80(2):214-220.
249. Kaplan PE, Roden W, Gilbert E, et al. Reduction of hypercalciuria in tetraplegia after weight-bearing and strengthening exercises. Paraplegia 1981;19(5):289-293.
250. Meythaler JM, Tuel SM, Cross LL. Successful treatment of immobilization hypercalcemia using calcitonin and etidronate. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993;74(3):316-319.
251. Bossche LV, Vanderstraeten G. Heterotopic ossification: A review. J Rehabil Med 2005;37(3):129-136.
252. Pape HC, Marsh S, Morley JR, et al. Current concepts in the development of heterotopic ossification. J Bone Jt Surg-Brit Vol 2004;86B(6):783-787.
253. van Kuijk AA, Geurts ACH, van Kuppevelt HJM. Neurogenic heterotopic ossification in spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2002;40(7):313-326.
254. Garland DE. A clinical perspective on common forms of acquired heterotopic ossification. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1991;(263):13-29.
255. Bravopayno P, Esclarin A, Arzoz T, et al. Incidence and risk-factors in the appearance of heterotopic ossification in spinal-cord injury. Paraplegia 1992;30(10):740-745.
256. Wittenberg RH, Peschke U, Botel U. Heterotopic ossification after spinal-cord injury - epidemiology and risk-factors. J Bone Jt Surg-Brit Vol 1992;74(2):215-218.
257. da Paz AC, Artal FJC, Kalil RK. The function of proprioceptors in bone organization: A possible explanation for neurogenic heterotopic ossification in patients with neurological damage. Med Hypotheses 2007;68(1):67-73.
258. Estrores IM, Harrington A, Banovac K. C-reaction protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate in patients with heterotopic ossification after spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2004;27(5):434-437.
259. Gonda K, Nakaoka T, Yoshimura K, et al. Heterotopic ossification of degenerating rat skeletal muscle induced by adenovirus-mediated transfer of bone morphogenetic protein-2 gene. J Bone Miner Res 2000;15(6):1056-1065.
260. Chantraine A, Nusgens B, Lapiere CM. Biochemical-analysis of heterotopic ossification in spinal-cord injury patients. Paraplegia 1995;33(7):398-401.
261. Hardy A, Dickson J. Pathological ossification in traumatic paraplegia. J Bone Jt Surg-Am Vol 1963;45B:76-87.
262. Rossier A, Bussat P, Infabte F. Current facts on para-osteoarthropathy (POA). Paraplegia 1973;11:36-78.
263. Cassar-Pullicino V, McClelland M, Badwan D, et al. Sonographic diagnosis of heterotopic bone formation in spinal cord patients. Paraplegia 1993;31(1):40-50.
264. Banovac K, Gonzalez F. Evaluation and management of heterotopic ossification in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1997;35(3):158-162.
265. Subbarao JV, Garrison SJ. Heterotopic ossification: diagnosis and management, current concepts and controversies. J Spinal Cord Med 1999;22(4):273-283.
266. Colachis SC, Clinchot DM, Venesy D. Neurovascular complications of heterotopic ossification following spinal-cord injury. Paraplegia 1993;31(1):51-57.
267. Sherman AL, Williams J, Patrick L, et al. The value of serum creatine kinase in early diagnosis of heterotopic ossification. J Spinal Cord Med 2003;26(3):227-230.
268. Shehab D, Elgazzar AH, Collier BD. Heterotopic ossification. J Nucl Med 2002;43(3):346-353.
269. Svircev JN, Wallbom AS. False-negative triple-phase bone scans in spinal cord injury to detect clinically suspect heterotopic ossification: A case series. J Spinal Cord Med 2008;31(2):194-196.
270. Snoecx M, Demuynck M, Vanlaere M. Association between muscle trauma and heterotopic ossification in spinal-cord injured patients-reflections on their causal relationship and the diagnostic-value of ultrasonography. Paraplegia1995;33(8):464-468.
271. Thomas EA, Cassarpullicino VN, McCall IW. The role of ultrasound in the early diagnosis and management of heterotopic bone-formation. Clin Radiol 1991;43(3):190-196.
272. Kim SW, Wu SY, Kim RC. Computerized quantitative radionuclide assessment of heterotopic ossification in spinal-cord injury patients. Paraplegia 1992;30(11):803-807.
273. Brooker AF, Bowerman JW, Robinson RA, et al. Ectopic ossification following total hip-replacement - incidence and a method of classification. J Bone Jt Surg-Am Vol 1973;A 55(8):1629-1632.
274. Finerman GAM, Stover SL. Heterotopic ossification following hip-replacement or spinal-cord injury-2 clinical-studies with EHDP. Metab Bone Dis Relat Res 1981;3(4-5):337-342.
275. Garland DE, Orwin JF. Resection of heterotopic ossification in patients with spinal-cord injuries. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1989;(242):169-176.
276. Stover SL, Hahn H, Miller J. Disodium etidronate in the prevention of heterotopic ossification following spinal cord injury (preliminary report). Paraplegia 1976;14:146-156.
277. Banovac K, Williams JM, Patrick LD, et al. Prevention of heterotopic ossification after spinal cord injury with indomethacin. Spinal Cord 2001;39(7):370-374.
278. Banovac K, Williams JM, Patrick LD, et al. Prevention of heterotopic ossification after spinal cord injury with COX-2 selective inhibitor (rofecoxib). Spinal Cord 2004;42(12):707-710.
279. Biering-Sorensen F, Tondevold E. Indomethacin and disodium etidronate for the prevention of recurrence of heterotopic ossification after surgical resection-2 case-reports. Paraplegia 1993;31(8):513-515.
280. Cullen N, Perera J. Heterotopic ossification: pharmacologic options. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2009;24(1):69-71.
281. Buschbacher R, McKinley W, Buschbacher L, et al. Warfarin in prevention of heterotopic ossification. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1992;71(2):86-91.
282. Jamil F, Subbarao JV, Banaovac K, et al. Management of immature heterotopic ossification (HO) of the hip. Spinal Cord 2002;40(8):388-395.
283. Haran M, Bhuta T, Lee B. Pharmacological interventions for treating acute heterotopic ossification. In: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004.
284. Michelsson JE, Rauschning W. Pathogenesis of experimental heterotopic bone-formation following temporary forcible exercising of immobilized limbs. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1983;(176):265-272.
285. Crawford C, Varghese G, Mani MM, et al. Heterotopic ossification: Are range of motion exercises contraindicated? J Burn Care Rehabil 1986;7:323-327.
286. Subbarao JV, Nemchausky B, Gratzer M. Resection of heterotopic ossification and Didronel therapy-Regaining wheelchar independence in the spinal cord injured patient. J Am Paraplegia Soc 1987;10:3-7.
287. Mahy PR, Urist MR. Experimental heterotopic bone-formation induced by bone morphogenetic protein and recombinant human interleukin-1b. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1988;(237):236-244.
288. Banovac K, Sherman AL, Estrores IM, et al. Prevention and treatment of heterotopic ossification after spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2004;27(4):376-382.
289. Banovac K, Gonzalez F, Wade N, et al. Intravenous disodium etidronate therapy in spinal-cord injury patients with heterotopic ossification. Paraplegia 1993;31(10):660-666.
290. Sautter-Bihl ML, Liebermeister E, Nanassy A. Radiotherapy as a local treatment option for heterotopic ossifications in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2000;38(1):33-36.
291. Wainapel SF, Rao PU, Schepsis AA. Ulnar nerve compression by heterotopic ossification in a head-injured patient. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1985;66(8):512-514.
292. Banaovac K, Renfree K, Hornicek F. Heterotopic ossification after brain and spinal cord injury. Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med 1998;10:223-256.
293. McAuliffe JA, Wolfson AH. Early excision of heterotopic ossification about the elbow followed by radiation therapy. J Bone Jt Surg-Am Vol 1997;79A(5):749-755.
294. Freebourn TM, Barber DB, Able AC. The treatment of immature heterotopic ossification in spinal cord injury with combination surgery, radiation therapy and NSAID. Spinal Cord 1999;37(1):50-53.
295. van Kuijk AA, van Kuppevelt HJM, van der Schaaf DB. Osteonecrosis after treatment for heterotopic ossification in spinal cord injury with the combination of surgery, irradiation, and an NSAID. Spinal Cord 2000;38(5):319-324.
296. Meiners T, Abel R, Bohm V, et al. Resection of heterotopic ossification of the hip in spinal cord injured patients. Spinal Cord 1997;35(7):443-445.
297. Datta HK, Ng WF, Walker JA, et al. The cell biology of bone metabolism. J Clin Pathol 2008;61(5):577-587.
298. Demulder A, Guns M, Ismail A, et al. Increased osteoclast-like cells formation in long-term bone marrow cultures from patients with a spinal cord injury. Calcif Tissue Int 1998;63(5):396-400.
299. Manolagas SC. The role of IL-6 type cytokines and their receptors in bone. Ann NY Acad Sci 1998;840:194-204.
300. Lam J, Takeshita S, Barker JE, et al. TNF-alpha induces osteoclastogenesis by direct stimulation of macrophages exposed to permissive levels of RANK ligand. J Clin Invest 2000;106(12):1481-1488.
301. Kim N, Kadono Y, Takami M, et al. Osteoclast differentiation independent of the TRANCE-RANK-TRAF6 axis. J Exp Med 2005;202(5):589-595.
302. Jimi E, Nakamura I, Ikebe T, et al. Activation of NF-kappa B is involved in the survival of osteoclasts promoted by interleukin-1. J Biol Chem 1998;273(15):8799-8805.
303. Takeda S, Karsenty G. Molecular bases of the sympathetic regulation of bone mass. Bone 2008;42(5):837-840.
304. Lorenzo J, Canalis E, Raisz L. Metabolic bone disease. In: Williams RH, Kronenberg H, eds. Williams textbook of endocrinology. 11th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2008:xix, 1911.
305. Lewiecki EM, Watts NB, McClung MR, et al. Official positions of the international society for clinical densitometry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89(8):3651-3655.
306. Lazo MG, Shirazi P, Sam M, et al. Osteoporosis and risk of fracture in men with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2001;39(4):208-214.
307. Vestergaard P, Krogh K, Rejnmark L, et al. Fracture rates and risk factors for fractures in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1998;36(11):790-796.
308. Giangregorio L, McCartney N. Bone loss and muscle atrophy in spinal cord injury: epidemiology, fracture prediction, and rehabilitation strategies. J Spinal Cord Med 2006;29(5):489-500.
309. Shields RK, Schlechte J, Dudley-Javoroski S, et al. Bone mineral density after spinal cord injury: A reliable method for knee measurement. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86(10):1969-1973.
310. Garland DE, Adkins RH, Kushwaha V, et al. Risk factors for osteoporosis at the knee in the spinal cord injury population. J Spinal Cord Med 2004;27(3):202-206.
311. Eser P, Frotzler A, Zehnder Y, et al. Fracture threshold in the femur and tibia of people with spinal cord injury as determined by peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86(3):498-504.
312. Morse LR, Battaglino RA, Stolzmann KL, et al. Osteoporotic fractures and hospitalization risk in chronic spinal cord injury. Osteoporos Int 2009; 20(3):385-392.
313. Reid IR. Glucocorticoid effects on bone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83(6):1860-1862.
314. Cummings SR, Nevitt MC, Browner WS, et al. Risk factors for hip fracture in white women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. N Engl J Med 1995;332(12):767-773.
315. Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Wang J, et al. Relationship of fat mass and serum estradiol with lower extremity bone in persons with chronic spinal cord injury. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006;290(6):E1098-E1103.
316. Uebelhart D, Demiaux-Domenech B, Roth M, et al. Bone metabolism in spinal cord injured individuals and in others who have prolonged immobilisation. A review. Paraplegia 1995;33(11):669-673.
317. Wilmet E, Ismail AA, Heilporn A, et al. Longitudinal study of the bone mineral content and of soft tissue composition after spinal cord section. Paraplegia 1995;33(11):674-677.
318. Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Wang J, et al. Continuous loss of bone during chronic immobilization: A monozygotic twin study. Osteoporos Int 1999;10(2):123-127.
319. Yu W, Gluer CC, Fuerst T, et al. Influence of degenerative joint disease on spinal bone-mineral measurements in postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int 1995;57(3):169-174.
320. Riggs BL, Wahner HW, Seeman E, et al. Changes in bone-mineral density of the proximal femur and spine with aging-differeneces between the post-menopausal and senile osteoporosis syndromes. J Clin Investig 1982;70(4):716-723.
321. Bauman WA, Schwartz E, Song ISY, et al. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry overestimates bone mineral density of the lumbar spine in persons with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2009;47(8):628-633.
322. Jaovisidha S, Sartoris DJ, Martin EME, et al. Influence of spondylopathy on bone densitometry using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Calcif Tissue Int 1997;60(5):424-429.
323. Liu CC, Theodorou DJ, Theodorou SJ, et al. Quantitative computed tomography in the evaluation of spinal osteoporosis following spinal cord injury. Osteoporos Int 2000;11(10):889-896.
324. Biering-Sorensen F, Bohr H, Schaadt O. Bone mineral content of the lumbar spine and lower extremities years after spinal cord lesion. Paraplegia 1988;26:293-301.
325. Biering-Sorensen F, Hansen B, Lee BSB. Non-pharmacological treatment and prevention of bone loss after spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Spinal Cord 2009;47(7):508-518.
326. Ben M, Harvey L, Denis S, et al. Does 12 weeks of regular standing prevent loss of ankle mobility and bone mineral density in people with recent spinal cord injuries? Aust J Physiother 2005;51(4):251-256.
327. Aleekna V, Tamulaitiene M, Sinevicius T, et al. Effect of weight-bearing activities on bone mineral density in spinal cord injured patients during the period of the first two years. Spinal Cord 2008;46(11):727-732.
328. Goemaere S, Van Laere M, De Neve P, et al. Bone mineral status in paraplegic patients who do or do not perform standing. Osteoporos Int 1994;4(3):138-143.
329. Gusi N, Raimundo A, Leal A. Low-frequency vibratory exercise reduces the risk of bone fracture more than walking: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2006;7:92.
330. Verschueren SM, Roelants M, Delecluse C, et al. Effect of 6-month whole body vibration training on hip density, muscle strength, and postural control in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled pilot study. J Bone Miner Res2004;19(3):352-359.
331. Jones LM, Legge M, Goulding A. Intensive exercise may preserve bone mass of the upper limbs in spinal cord injured males but does not retard demineralisation of the lower body. Spinal Cord 2002;40(5):230-235.
332. Needham-Shropshire BM, Broton JG, Klose KJ, et al. Evaluation of a training program for persons with SCI paraplegia using the Parastep 1 ambulation system: part 3. Lack of effect on bone mineral density. Arch Phys Med Rehabil1997;78(8):799-803.
333. Giangregorio LM, Webber CE, Phillips SM, et al. Can body weight supported treadmill training increase bone mass and reverse muscle atrophy in individuals with chronic incomplete spinal cord injury? Appl Physiol Nutr Metab2006;31(3):283-291.
334. Bloomfield SA, Mysiw WJ, Jackson RD. Bone mass and endocrine adaptations to training in spinal cord injured individuals. Bone 1996;19(1):61-68.
335. Mohr T, Podenphant J, Biering-Sorensen F, et al. Increased bone mineral density after prolonged electrically induced cycle training of paralyzed limbs in spinal cord injured man. Calcif Tissue Int 1997;61(1):22-25.
336. Chen SC, Lai CH, Chan WP, et al. Increases in bone mineral density after functional electrical stimulation cycling exercises in spinal cord injured patients. Disabil Rehabil 2005;27(22):1337-1341.
337. Belanger M, Stein RB, Wheeler GD, et al. Electrical stimulation: Can it increase muscle strength and reverse osteopenia in spinal cord injured individuals? Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81(8):1090-1098.
338. BeDell KK, Scremin AM, Perell KL, et al. Effects of functional electrical stimulation-induced lower extremity cycling on bone density of spinal cord-injured patients. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1996;75(1):29-34.
339. Leeds EM, Klose KJ, Ganz W, et al. Bone mineral density after bicycle ergometry training. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990;71(3):207-209.
340. Clark JM, Jelbart M, Rischbieth H, et al. Physiological effects of lower extremity functional electrical stimulation in early spinal cord injury: lack of efficacy to prevent bone loss. Spinal Cord 2007;45(1):78-85.
341. Khong S, Savic G, Gardner BP, et al. Hormone replacement therapy in women with spinal cord injury - a survey with literature review. Spinal Cord 2005;43(2):67-73.
342. Leu CT, Luegmayr E, Freedman LP, et al. Relative binding affinities of bisphosphonates for human bone and relationship to antiresorptive efficacy. Bone 2006;38(5):628-636.
343. Harris ST, Watts NB, Genant HK, et al. Effects of risedronate treatment on vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. Vertebral Efficacy With Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group. JAMA 1999;282(14):1344-1352.
344. McClung MR, Geusens P, Miller PD, et al. Effect of risedronate on the risk of hip fracture in elderly women. Hip Intervention Program Study Group. N Engl J Med 2001;344(5):333-340.
345. Moran de Brito CM, Battistella LR, Saito ET, et al. Effect of alendronate on bone mineral density in spinal cord injury patients: a pilot study. Spinal Cord 2005;43(6):341-348.
346. Bauman WA, Wecht JM, Kirshblum S, et al. Effect of pamidronate administration on bone in patients with acute spinal cord injury. J Rehabil Res Dev 2005;42(3):305-313.
347. Gilchrist NL, Frampton CM, Acland RH, et al. Alendronate prevents bone loss in patients with acute spinal cord injury: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92(4):1385-1390.
348. Minaire P, Depassio J, Berard E, et al. Effects of clodronate on immobilization bone loss. Bone 1987;8(Suppl 1):S63-S68.
349. Nance PW, Schryvers O, Leslie W, et al. Intravenous pamidronate attenuates bone density loss after acute spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80(3):243-251.
350. Bryson JE, Gourlay ML. Bisphosphonate use in acute and chronic spinal cord injury: a systematic review. J Spinal Cord Med 2009;32(3):215-225.
351. Chambers TJ, Magnus CJ. Calcitonin alters behaviour of isolated osteoclasts. J Pathol 1982;136(1):27-39.
352. Chesnut CH, Silverman S, Andriano K, et al. A randomized trial of nasal spray salmon calcitonin in postmenopausal women with established osteoporosis: the prevent recurrence of osteoporotic fractures study. PROOF Study Group. Am J Med 2000;109(4):267-276.