Cardiometabolic syndrome: Pathophysiology and treatment

Current Hypertension Reports

Volumn 5, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 393-401

  Castro, Jonathan P ^a   El Atat, Fadi A ^a   McFarlane, Samy I ^a   Aneja, Ashish ^a   Sowers, James R ^a  

^a SUNY DOWNSTATE MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DOXAZOSIN; GLIBENCLAMIDE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INSULIN; METFORMIN; ROSIGLITAZONE; SULFONYLUREA; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; THIAZOLIDINE DERIVATIVE; TROGLITAZONE; SOMATOMEDIN C;

BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIET THERAPY; DISEASE SEVERITY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; HYPERTENSION; KIDNEY DISEASE; METABOLIC DISORDER; MICROALBUMINURIA; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; STROKE; WEIGHT REDUCTION; ALBUMINURIA; INSULIN RESISTANCE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; THROMBOPHILIA; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM;

ALBUMINURIA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR I; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; OBESITY; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM; RISK FACTORS; THROMBOPHILIA;

EID: 0347223374     PISSN: 15226417     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11906-003-0085-y     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Benjamin SM, Valdez R, Geiss LS, et al.: Estimated number of adults with prediabetes in the U.S. in 2000: opportunities for prevention. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:45-649.
2. Isomaa B, Almgren P, Tuomi T, et al.: Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality associated with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2001, 24:683-689.
3. Peiris AN, Sothmann MS, Hoffmann RC, et al.: Adiposity, fat distribution, and cardiovascular risk. Ann Intern Med 1989, 110:867-872.
4. McFarlane SI, Banerji Maryann, Sowers JR: Insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001, 86:713-718.
5. Sowers JR: Update on the cardiometabolic syndrome. Clin Cornerstone 2001, 4:17-23.
6. Pyorala K: Relationship of glucose tolerance and plasma insulin to the incidence of coronary heart disease: results from two population studies in Finland. Diabetes Care 1979, 2:131-141.
7. Fontbonne A, Charles MA, Thibult N, et al.: Hyperinsulinaemia as a predictor of coronary heart disease mortality in a healthy population: the Paris Prospective Study, 15-year follow-up. Diabetologia 1991, 34:356-361.
8. Ducimetiere P, Eschwege E, Papoz L, et al.: Relationship of plasma insulin levels to the incidence of myocardial infarction and coronary heart disease mortality in a middle-aged population. Diabetologia 1980, 19:205-210.
9. Lamarche B, Tchernof A, Mauriege P, et al.: Fasting insulin and apolipoprotein B levels and low-density lipoprotein particle size as risk factors for ischemic heart disease. JAMA 1998, 279:1955-1961.
10. Shinozaki K, Hattori Y, Suzuki M, et al.: Insulin resistance as an independent risk factor for carotid artery wall intima media thickening in vasospastic angina. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997, 7:3302-3310.
11. Meigs JB, D'Agostino RB Sr, Wilson PW, et al.: Risk variable clustering in the insulin resistance syndrome. The Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes 1997, 6:1594-1600.
12. Meigs JB, Mittleman MA, Nathan DM, et al.: Hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and impaired hemostasis: the Framingham Offspring Study. JAMA 2000, 83:221-228.
13. Brown NJ, Kim KS, Chen YQ, et al.: Synergistic effect of adrenal steroids and angiotensin II on plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 production. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 5:336-344.
14. Meade TW, Ruddock V, Stirling Y, et al.: Fibrinolytic activity, clotting factors, and long-term incidence of ischaemic heart disease in the Northwick Park Heart Study. Lancet 1993, 42:1076-1079.
15. Thompson SG, Kienast J, Pyke SD, et al.: Hemostatic factors and the risk of myocardial infarction or sudden death in patients with angina pectoris. European Concerted Action on Thrombosis and Disabilities Angina Pectoris Study Group. N Engl J Med 1995, 332:635-641.
16. Freed M, Fuell D, Menci L, et al.: Effect of combination therapy with rosiglitazone and glibenclamide on PAI-1 antigen, PAI-1 activity, and tPA in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2000, 43:A267.
17. Fonseca VA, Reynolds T, Hemphill D, et al.: Effect of troglitazone on fibrinolysis and activated coagulation in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications 1998, 12:181-186.
18. Lind L, Berne C, Lithell H: Prevalence of insulin resistance in essential hypertension. J Hypertens 1995, 13:1457-1462.
19. Dengel DR, Pratley RE, Hagberg JM, Goldberg AP: Impaired insulin sensitivity and maximal responsiveness in older hypertensive men. Hypertension 1994, 23:320-324.
20. Shen DC, Shieh SM, Fuh MM, et al.: Resistance to insulin-stimulated-glucose uptake in patients with hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988, 66:580-583.
21. Williams B: Insulin resistance: the shape of things to come. Lancet 1994, 344:521-524.
22. Reaven GM, Lithell H, Landsberg L: Hypertension and associated metabolic abnormalities--the role of insulin resistance and the sympathoadrenal system. N Engl J Med 1996, 334:374-381.
23. Nickenig G, Roling J, Strehlow K, et al.: Insulin induces upregulation of vascular AT1 receptor gene expression by posttranscriptional mechanisms. Circulation 1998, 98:2453-2460.
24. Steinberg HO, Chaker H, Learning R, et al.: Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 1996, 97:2601-2610.
25. Dengel DR, Hagberg JM, Pratley RE, et al.: Improvements in blood pressure, glucose metabolism, and lipoprotein lipids after aerobic exercise plus weight loss in obese, hypertensive middle-aged men. Metabolism 1998, 47:1075-1082.
26. Ogihara T, Rakugi H, Ikegami H, et al.: Enhancement of insulin sensitivity by troglitazone lowers blood pressure in diabetic hypertensives. Am J Hypertens 1995, 8:316-320.
27. Raji A, Seely EW, Bekins SA, et al.: Rosiglitazone improves insulin sensitivity and lowers blood pressure in hypertensive patients. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:172-178.
28. Giordano M, Matsuda M, Sanders L, et al.: Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, Ca2+ channel antagonists, and alpha-adrenergic blockers on glucose and lipid metabolism in NIDDM patients with hypertension. Diabetes 1995, 44:665-671.
29. Jensen JS, Borch-Johnsen K, Jensen G, Feldt-Rasmussen B: Microalbuminuria reflects a generalized transvascular albumin leakiness in clinically healthy subjects. Clin Sci Lond 1995, 88:629-633.
30. Naidoo DP: The link between microalbuminuria, endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular disease in diabetes. Cardiovasc J S Afr 2002, 13:194-199.
31. Donnelly R: Microalbuminuria: a therapeutic goal in patients with type 2 diabetes. Presse Med 2002, 31:S9-S12.
32. Ohashi H, Oda H, Ohno M, Watanabe S: Weight reduction improves high blood pressure and microalbuminuria in hypertensive patients with obesity. Nippon Jinzo Gakkai Shi 2001, 43:333-339.
33. Lozano JV, Llisterri JL, Aznar J, Redon J: Losartan reduces microalbuminuria in hypertensive microalbuminuric type 2 diabetics. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001, 16:85-89.
34. Nakamura T, Ushiyama C, Suzuki S, et al.: Effect of troglitazone on urinary albumin excretion and serum type IV collagen concentrations in Type 2 diabetic patients with microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria. Diabet Med 2001, 18:308-313.
35. Tonolo G, Ciccarese M, Brizzi F, et al.: Reduction of albumin excretion rate in normotensive microalbuminuric type 2 diabetic patients during long-term simvastatin treatment. Diabetes Care 1997, 20:1891-1895.
36. McFarlane SI, Muniyappa R, Francisco R, Sowers JR: Clinical review 145: Pleiotropic effects of statins: lipid reduction and beyond. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:1451-1458.
37. Smulders YM, van Eeden AE, Stehouwer CD, et al.: Can reduction in hypertriglyceridaemia slow progression of microalbuminuria in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus? Eur J Clin Invest 1997, 27:997-1002.
38. Baron AD, Steinberg HO, Chaker H, et al.: Insulin-mediated skeletal muscle vasodilation contributes to both insulin sensitivity and responsiveness in lean humans. J Clin Invest 1995, 96:786-792.
39. Sowers JR, Epstein M: Diabetes mellitus and associated hypertension, vascular disease, and nephropathy: an update. Hypertension 1995, 26:869-879.
40. Standley PR, Zhang F, Ram JL, et al.: Insulin attenuates vasopressin-induced calcium transient and voltage-dependent calcium response in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest 1991, 88:1230-1236.
41. Kahn AM, Seidel CL, Allen JC, et al.: Insulin reduces contraction and intracellular calcium concentration in vascular smooth muscle. Hypertension 1993, 22:735-742.
42. Sowers JR: 1996 Effects of insulin and IGF-I on vascular smooth muscle glucose and cation metabolism. Diabetes 45:S47-S51.
43. Tirupattur PR, Ram JL, Standley PR, Sowers JR: Regulation of Na+, K+-ATPase gene expression by insulin in vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Hypertens 1993, 6:626-629.
44. Gupta S, McArthur C, Grady C, Ruderman NB: Stimulation of vascular Na+-K+-ATPase activity by nitric oxide: a cGMP-independent effect. Am J Physiol 1994, 266:H2146-H2151.
45. Reuter H: Sodium-calcium exchange: ins and outs of Ca2+ transport. Nature 1991, 349:567-568.
46. Simmons DA, Winegrad AI: Insulin does not regulate vascular smooth muscle Na+-K+-ATPase activity in rabbit aorta. Diabetologia 1993, 36:2112-2117.
47. Clausen T, Everts ME: Regulation of the Na, K pump in skeletal muscle. Kidney Int 1989, 35:1-13.
48. Sussman I, Schultz V, Gupta S, et al.: Differential effect of metabolic fuels on the energy state of the Na+,K+-ATPase in isolated cerebral microvessels. Am J Physiol 1993, 265:E777-E782.
49. Tare M, Parkington HA, Coleman HA, et al.: Hyperpolarization and relaxation of arterial smooth muscle caused by nitric oxide derived from the endothelium. Nature 1990, 346:69-71.
50. Husid A, Song T, Kahn AM: insulin-inhibited Ca2+ influx and contraction of serotonin-stimulated vascular smooth muscle cells is reversed by N-mono-methyl-L-arginine [abstract]. Am J Hypertens 1996, 9:129A.
51. Trovati M, Massucco F, Mattiello L, et al.: Insulin increases cyclic nucleotide content in human vascular smooth muscle cells: a mechanism potentially involved in insulin-induced modulation of vascular tone. Diabetes 1995, 38:936-941.
52. Bakris GL, Palant CE, Walsh MF, Sowers JR: Analogy between endothelial/mesangial cell and endothelial/vascular smooth muscle cell interactions: role of growth factors and mechanotransduction. in Endocrinology of the Vasculature. Edited by Sewers JR. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 1996:341-355.
53. Ren J, Samson WK, Sowers JR: Insulin-like growth factor 1 as a cardiac hormone: physiological and pathophysiological implications in heart disease. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1999, 31:2049-2061.
54. Li D, Sweeney G, Wang Q, Klip A: 1999 Participation of PI3K and atypical PKC in Na+-K+-pump stimulation by IGF-I in VSMC. Am J Physiol 276(6 Pt 2):H2109-H2116.
55. Hall JE, Hildebrandt DA, Kuo J: Obesity hypertension: role of leptin and sympathetic nervous system. Am J Hypertens 2001, 14:103S-115S.
56. Mark AL, Correia M, Morgan DA, et al.: State-of-the-art-lecture: Obesity-induced hypertension: new concepts from the emerging biology of obesity. Hypertension 1999, 3:537-541.
57. Egan BM, Stepniakowski K, Goodfriend TL: Renin and aldosterone are higher and the hyperinsulinemic effect of salt restriction greater in subjects with risk factors clustering. Am J Hypertens 1994, 7:886-893.
58. Goodfriend TL, Egan BM, Kelley DE: Aldosterone in obesity. Endocr Res 1998, 24:789-796.
59. Goodfriend TL, Egan BM, Kelley DE: Plasma aldosterone, plasma lipoproteins, obesity and insulin resistance in humans. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1999, 60:401-405.
60. Suter PM, Locher R, Hasler E, Vetter W: Is there a role for the ob gene product leptin in essential hypertension? Am J Hypertens 1998, 11:1305-1311.
61. Schorr U, Blaschke K, Turan S, et al.: Relationship between angiotensinogen, leptin and blood pressure levels in young normotensive men. J Hypertens 1998, 16:1475-1480.
62. Cooper R, McFarlane Anderson N, Bennett FI, et al.: ACE, angiotensinogen and obesity: a potential pathway leading to hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 1997, 11:107-111.
63. Cooper R, Forrester T, Ogunbiyi O, Muffinda J: Angiotensinogen levels and obesity in four black populations. ICSHIB investigators. J Hypertens 1998, 16:571-575.
64. Licata G, Scaglione R, Ganguzza A, et al.: Central obesity and hypertension: relationship between fasting serum insulin, plasma renin activity, and diastolic blood pressure in young obese subjects. Am J Hypertens 1994, 7:314-320.
65. Uckaya G, Ozata M, Sonmez A, et al.: Plasma leptin levels strongly correlate with plasma renin activity in patients with essential hypertension. Horm Metab Res 1999, 31:435-438.
66. Engeli S, Sharma AM: The renin-angiotensin system and natriuretic peptides in obesity-associated hypertension. J Mol Med 2001, 79:21-29.
67. Hall JE, Brands MW, Dixon WN, Smith MJ Jr: Obesity-indiced hypertension: renal function and systemic hemodynamics. Hypertension 1993, 22:292-299.
68. Alonso-Galicia M, Brands MW, Zappe DH, Hall JE: Hypertension in obese Zucker rats. Role of angiotensin II and adrenergic activity. Hypertension 1996, 28:1047-1054.
69. Fadi EA, Aneja A, Mcfarlane S, Sowers J: Obesity and hypertension. Recent Prog Horm Res 2003, In press.
70. Wofford MR, Anderson DC, Brown CA, et al.: Antihypertensive effect of alpha and beta adrenergic blockade in obese and lean hypertensive subjects. Am J Hypertens 2001, 14:694-698.
71. Engeli S, Negrel R, Sharma AM: Physiology and pathophysiology of the adipose tissue renin-angiotensin system. Hypertension 2000, 35:1270-1277.
72. Massiera F, Seydoux J, Geloen A, et al.: Angiotensinogen-deficient mice exhibit impairment of diet-induced weight gain with alteration in adipose tissue development and increased locomotor activity. Endocrinology 2001, 142:5220-5225.
73. Folli F, Kahn R, Hansen H, et al.: Angiotensin II inhibits insulin signaling in aortic smooth muscle cells at multiple levels. J Clin Invest 1997, 100:2158-2169.
74. Reaven GM, Lithell H, Landsberg L: Hypertension and associated metabolic abnormalities: the role of insulin resistance and sympathetic adrenal system. N Engl J Med 1996, 334:374-381.
75. Sowers JR: Insulin and insulin-like growth factor in normal and pathological cardiovascular physiology. Hypertension 1997, 29:691-699.
76. Sewers JR, Bakris GL: Antihypertensive therapy and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2000, 342:969-970.
77. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). Food and Nutrition Board (FNB), Institute of Medicine (IOM); 2002.
78. Reaven G, Segal K, Hauptman J, et al.: Effect of orlistat-assisted weight loss in decreasing coronary heart disease risk in patients with syndrome X. Am J Cardiol 2001, 87:827.
79. Hansson L, Lindholm LH, Niskanen L, et al.: Effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: The Captopril Prevention Project (CAPPP) randomized trial. Lancet 1999, 353:611-616.
80. Gress TW, Nieto FJ, Shahar E, et al.: Hypertension and antihypertensive therapy as risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. N Engl J Med 2000, 342:905-912.