Potential of in vitro methods for mechanistic studies of particulate matter-induced cardiopulmonary toxicity

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 41, Issue 22, 2011, Pages 1971-2002

  Gutleb, Arno C ^a  

^a LUXEMBOURG INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Luxembourg)

Author keywords

cardiovascular disease; in vitro studies; inflammation; mechanistic understanding; particulate matter

Indexed keywords

CARDIO-VASCULAR DISEASE; IN VITRO STUDIES; INFLAMMATION; MECHANISTIC UNDERSTANDING; PARTICULATE MATTER;

DISEASES;

PATHOLOGY;

ION CHANNEL;

ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCE; CANCER; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CYTOLOGY; HEALTH IMPACT; HEALTH RISK; HUMAN ACTIVITY; LESION; NERVOUS SYSTEM; PARTICULATE MATTER; POLLUTION EXPOSURE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RESPIRATORY DISEASE; TOXICOLOGY;

ANIMAL CELL; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOTOXICITY; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CELL CULTURE; CELL ISOLATION; CELL LINE; EMBRYONIC STEM CELL; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART FAILURE; HEART MUSCLE; HEART MUSCLE CELL; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; IN VITRO STUDY; INFLAMMATION; LUNG ALVEOLUS CELL; LUNG CANCER; NONHUMAN; PARTICULATE MATTER; PNEUMONIA; POLITICS; REVIEW; STROKE; SUDDEN DEATH; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME;

EID: 80053473305     PISSN: 10643389     EISSN: 15476537     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2010.495641     Document Type: Review

References (251)

1. Brook, R.D. (2007). Is air pollution a cause for cardiovascular disease? Updated review and controversials. Rev. Environ. Health. 22, 115-137. (Pubitemid 47310568)
2. Brook, R.D. (2007). Why physicians who treat hypertension should know more about air pollution. J. Clin. Hypertens. 9, 629-635.
3. Brook, R.D. (2008). Cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Clin. Sci. 115, 175-187.
4. Boyd, D.R., and Genuis, S.J. (2008). The environmental burden of disease in Canada: Respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and congenital affliction. Environ. Res. 106, 240-249. (Pubitemid 351162975)
5. Kan, H., Huang, W., Chen, B., and Zhao, N. (2009). Impact of outdoor air pollution on cardiovascular health in mainland China. CVD Prev. Contr. 4, 61-70.
6. Chen, G., Song, G., Jiang, L., Zhang, Y., Zhao, N., Chen, B., and Kan, H. (2008). Short-term effects of ambient gaseous pollutants and particulate matter on daily mortality in Shanghai, China. J. Occup. Health 50, 41-47. (Pubitemid 351680006)
7. Katsouyanni, K., Touloumi, G., Samoli, E., Gryparis, A., Le Tertre, A., Monopo-lis, Y., Rossi, G., Zmirou, D., Ballester, F., Boumghar, A., Anderson, H.R., Woj-tyniak, B., Paldy, A., Braunstein, R., Pekkanen, J., Schindler, C., and Schwartz, J. (2001). Confounding and effect modification in the short-term effects of ambient particles on total mortality: Results from 29 European cities within the APHEA2 project. Epidemiol. 12, 521-531. (Pubitemid 32761993)
8. Chen, H., Goldberg, M.S., and Villeneuve, P.J. (2008). A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases. Rev. Environ. Health 23, 243-297.
9. Zanobetti, A., Schwartz, J., Samoli, E., Gryparis, A., Touloumi, G., Peacock, J., Anderson, R.H., Le Tertre, A., Bobros, J., Celko, M., Goren, A., Forsberg, B., Michelozzi, P., Rabczenko, D., Hoyos, S.P., Wichmann, H.E., and Katsouyanni, K. (2003). The temporal pattern of respiratory and heart disease mortality in response to air pollution. Environ. Health Perspect. 111, 1188-1193. (Pubitemid 36939400)
10. Harrison, R.M., Stedman, J., and Derwent, D. (2008). New directions: Why are PM concentrations in Europe not falling? Atmosph. Environ. 42, 603-606.
11. Buzzard, N.A., Clark, N.N., and Guffey, S.E. (2009). Investigation into pedestrian exposure to near-vehicle exhaust emissions. Environ. Health 8, 13.
12. Liu, L., Poon, R., Chen, L., Frescura, A.-M., Montuschi, P., Ciabattoni, G., Wheeler, A., and Dales, R. (2009). Acute effects of air pollution on pulmonary function, airway inflammation, and oxidative stress in asthmatic children. Environ. Health Persp. 117, 668-674.
13. Sierra-Vargas, M.P., Guzman-Grenfell, A.M., Blanco-Jimenez, S., Sepulveda-Sanchez, J.D., Bernabe, R.M., Cardenas-Gonzales, B., Ceballos, G., and Hicks, J.J. (2009). Airborne particulate matter PM2.5 from Mexico City affects the generation of reactive oxygen species by blood neutrophils from asthmatics: An in vitro approach. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 4, 17.
14. Buchholz, S., Krein, A., Junk, J., Gutleb, A.C., Pfister, L., and Hoffmann, L. (2010). Modelling, measuring and characterizing airborne particles in southwestern Luxembourg. Manuscript submitted for publication.
15. 10 and ultrafine particles. Sci. Total Environ. 407, 1286-1298.
16. Gustafsson, M., Blomqvist, G., Gudmundsson, A., Dahl, A., Swietlicki, E., Bo-hgard, M., Lindbom, J., and Ljungman, A. (2008). Properties and toxicological effects of particles from the interaction between tyres, road pavement and winter traction material. Sci. Total Environ. 393, 226-240.
17. 2.5 due to wildfires in the western United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 2812-2818. (Pubitemid 351536916)
18. Logan, W.P. (1953). Mortality in the London fog incident, 1952. Lancet, 1(6755), 336-338.
19. Bell, M.L., and Davis, D.L. (2001). Reassessment of the lethal fog of 1952: Novel indicators of acute and chronic consequences of acute exposure to air pollution. Environ. Health Perspect. 109, 389-394. (Pubitemid 32600270)
20. Harrison, R.M. (2004). Key pollutants-airborne particles. Sci. Total. Environ. 334/335, 3-8.
21. LaRosa, L.E., Buckley, T.J., and Wallace, L.A. (2002). Real-time indoor and outdoor measurements of black carbon in an occupied house: An examination of sources. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 52, 41-49. (Pubitemid 34093526)
22. Hopke, P.K., and Rossner, A. (2006). Exposure to airborne particulate matter in the ambient, indoor, and occupational environment. Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. 5, 747-771.
23. Bernstein, J.A., Alexis, N., Bacchus, H., Bernstein, I.L., Frits, P., Horner, E., Li, N., Mason, S., Nel, A., Oullette, J., Reijula, K., Reponen, T., Seltzer, J., Smith, A., and Tarlo, S.M. (2008). The health effects of nonindustrial indoor air pollution. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 121, 585-591.
24. McCormack, M.C., Breysee, P.N., Matsui, E.C., Hansel, N.N., Williams, D., Curtis-Brosnan, J., Eggleston, P., and Diette, G.B. (2009). In-home particle concentrations and childhood asthma morbidity. Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 294-298.
25. Buseck, P.R., and Adachi, K. (2008). Nanoparticles in the atmosphere. Elements, 4, 389-394.
26. Sabin, L.D., Behrentz, E., Winer, A.M., Jeong, S., Fitz, D.R., Pankratz, D.V., Colome, S.D., and Fruin, S.A. (2005). Characterizing the range of children's air pollutant exposure during school bus commutes. J. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epidem. 11, 377-387. (Pubitemid 43109907)
27. Behrentz, E., Sabin, L.D., Winer, A.M., Fitz, D.R., Pankratz, D.V., Colome, S.D., and Fruin, S.A. (2005). Relative importance of school bus related microen-vironments to children's pollutants exposure. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 55, 1418-1430. (Pubitemid 41541637)
28. Phalen, R.F., and Oldham, M.J. (2006). Aerosol dosimetry considerations. Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. 5, 773-784. (Pubitemid 44780556)
29. Junk, J., Helbig, A., and Krein, A. (2009). Mortality rates and air pollution levels under different weather conditions: An example from Western Europe. Int. J. Waste Manag., Special issue: Urban Air Pollut. 4, 197-212.
30. Miller, K.A., Siscovick, D.S., Sheppard, L., Shepherd, K., Sullivan, J.H., Anderson, G.L., and Kaufman, J.D. (2007). Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. New Engl. J. Med. 356, 447-458. (Pubitemid 46193072)
31. Laden, F., Schwartz, J., Speizer, F.E., and Dockery, D.W. (2006). Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and mortality: Extended follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities study. Am J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 173, 667-672. (Pubitemid 43363809)
32. Brunekreef, B., Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Schouten, L., Bausch-Goldbohm, S., Fischer, P., Armstrong, B., Hughes, E., Jerret, M., and van den Brandt, P. (2009). Effects of long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality in the Netherlands: Tthe NLCS-AIR study. Resp. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 139, 5-89.
33. Jacobson, M.Z. (2008). On the causal link between carbon dioxide and air pollution mortality. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L03809, doi:10.1029/2007GL031101 (Pubitemid 351492950)
34. Ebi, K.L., and McGregor, G. (2008). Climate change, trophospheric ozone and particulate matter, and health impacts. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 1449-1455.
35. Hogreve, C., Lynn, B., Rosenzweig, C., Goldber, R., Civerolo, K., Ku, J.-Y., et al. Utilizing CMAQ process analysis to understand the impacts of climate change on ozone and particulate matter, models-3 User's Workshop, 26-28 September 2005. Chapel Hill, NC, USA. Retrieved from http://www. cmascenter.org/conference/2005/abstracts/3 2.pdf
36. Hogreve, C., Leung, R., Mickley, L., Hunt, S., and Winner, D. (2005). Considering climate change in air quality management. EM (Environmental Manager), October, 19-23.
37. World Health Organisation. (2002). The world health report: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
38. World Health Organisation. (2004). Particulate matter air pollution: How it harms health. Fact sheet Euro/04/05. Berlin, Germany: WHO.
39. World Health Organisation. (2007). Health relevance of particulate matter from various sources. Report on a WHO Workshop, Bonn, Germany, 26-27 March 2007. EU/07/5067587
40. U.S. EPA and Clean Air Quality Scientific Advisory Committee. (2005). Review of the national ambient air quality standards for particulate matter: Policy assessment of scientific and technical information. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards staff paper. Washington, DC: U.S. EPA.
41. Donaldson, K., Brown, D., Clouter, A., Duffin, R., MacNee, W., Renwick, L., et al. (2002). The pulmonary toxicology of ultrafine particles. J. Aerosol. Med. 15, 213-220. (Pubitemid 34827534)
42. Müller, B., Seifart, C., and Barth, P.J. (1998). Effect of air pollutants on the pulmonary surfactant system. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 28, 762-777. (Pubitemid 28432130)
43. Pietropaoli, A.P., Frampton, M.W., Hyde, R.W., Morrow, P.E., Oberdörster, G., Cox, C., et al. (2004). Pulmonary function, diffusing capacity, and inflammation in healthy and asthmatic subjects exposed to ultrafine particles. Inhal. Toxicol. 16, 59-72. (Pubitemid 38923902)
44. Nemmar, A., Hoet, P.H.M., Vanquickenborne, B., Dinsdale, D., Thomeer, M., Hoylaerts, M.F., Vanbilloen, H., Mortelmans, L., and Nemery, B. (2002). Passage of inhaled particles into the blood circulation in humans. Circul. 105, 411-414. (Pubitemid 34141694)
45. Furuyama, A., Kanno, S., Kobayashi, T., and Hirano, S. (2009). Extrapulmonary translocation of intratracheally instilled fine and ultrafine particles via direct and alveolar macrophage-associated routes. Arch. Toxicol. 83, 429-437.
46. Elder, A., and Oberdörster, G. (2006). Translocation and effects of ultrafine particles outside of the lung. Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. 5, 785-796.
47. Oberdörster, G., Sharp, Z., Atudorei, V., Elder, A., Gelein, R., Kreyling, W., and Cox, C. (2004). Translocation of inhaled particles to the brain. Inhal. Toxicol. 16, 437-445.
48. Rosenthal, F.S., Carney, J.P., and Olinger, M.L. (2008). Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and airborne fine particulate matter: A case-crossover analysis of emergency medical services data in Indianapolis, Indiana. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 631-636. (Pubitemid 351864279)
49. Lewtas, J. (2007). Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects. Mutat. Res. 636, 95-133. (Pubitemid 350123761)
50. Bräuner, E.V., Forchhammer, L., Møller, P., Barregard, L., Gunnarsen, L., Ashari, A., Wahlin, P., Glasius, M., Dragsted, L.O., Basu, S., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., and Loft, S. (2008). Indoor particle affect vascular function in the aged: An air filtration-based intervention study. Am J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 177, 419-425. (Pubitemid 351317585)
51. Ritz, B., and Wilhelm, M. (2008). Ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes: Methodological issues in an emerging field. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 102, 182-190. (Pubitemid 351143419)
52. Williams, K., Edwards, S., Tassone, E., Gray, S., Swamy, G.K., Gelfand, A., and Miranda, M.L. (2006). Effect of air pollution (PM2.5 & PM10) on low birthweight in North Carolina. Am. J. Obst. Gyn. 195(Suppl. 1), 213.
53. Chen, J.C., and Schwartz, J. (2009). Neurobehavioural effects of ambient air pollution on cognitive performance in U.S. adults. Neurotoxicol. 30, 231-239.
54. Chen, J.C., and Schwartz, J. (2008). Metabolic syndrome and inflammatory responses to long-term particulate air pollutants. Environ. Health. Perspect. 116, 612-617. (Pubitemid 351864276)
55. 2.5 constituents explain differing results among epidemiological studies? Inhal. Toxi-col. 21, 1-13.
56. Pope, A.C., Ezzati, M., and Dockery, D. (2009). Fine-particulate air pollution and life expectancy in the United States. New Engl. J. Med. 360, 376-386.
57. Delfino, R.J., Sioutas, C., and Malik, S. (2005). Potential role of ultrafine particles in associations between airborne particle mass and cardiovascular health. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 934-946. (Pubitemid 41149620)
58. Kok de, T.M.C.M., Driece, H.A.L., Hogervorst, J.G.F., and Briedé, J.J. (2006). Toxicological assessment of ambient and traffic related particulate matter: A review of recent studies. Mutat. Res., 613, 103-122. (Pubitemid 44750846)
59. Pope, A.C. Burnett, R.T., Thurston, G.D., Thun, M.J., Calle, E.E., Krewski, D., and Godleski, J.J. (2004). Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution: Epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiolog-ical pathways of disease. Circul. 109, 71-77. (Pubitemid 38056024)
60. Johnson, R.L. (2009). Relative effects of air pollution on lungs and heart. Circul. 109, 5-7.
61. Pope, A.C., and Douglas, D.W. (2006). Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. J. Air Waste Manag. Ass. 109, 5-7.
62. Nawrot, T.S., Torfs, R., Fierens, F., De Henauw, S., Hoet, P.H., van Kerschaever, G., et al. (2007). Stronger associations between daily mortality and fine par-ticulate air pollution in summer than in winter: Evidence from a heavily polluted region in Western Europe. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 61, 146-149. (Pubitemid 46174222)
63. Vermylen, J., Nemmar, A., Nemery, B., and Hoylaerts, M.F. (2005). Ambient air pollution and acute myocardial infarction. J. Thromb. Haemost. 3, 1955-1961. (Pubitemid 43086052)
64. Kreyling, W.G., Semmler-Behnke, M., and Möller, W. (2006). Ultrafine particle-lung interactions: Does size matter? J. Aerosol. Med. 19, 74-83.
65. Lewtas, J. (2007). Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects. Mutat. Res. 636, 95-133. (Pubitemid 350123761)
66. Brook, R.D., Franklin, B., Cascio, W., Hong, Y., Howard, G., Lipsett, M., Luep-ker, R., Mittleman, M., Samet, J., Smith, S.C., and Tager, I. (2004). Air pollution and cardiovascular disease. A statement for healthcare professionals from the expert panel on population and prevention science of the American Heart Association. Circul. 109, 2655-2671. (Pubitemid 38720571)
67. Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants. (2006). Cardiovascular disease and air pollution. Retrieved from http://www. advisorybodies.doh.gov. uk/comeap/statementsreports/CardioDisease.pdf
68. Brunekreef, B., and Holgate, S.T. (2002). Air pollution and health. Lancet, 360, 1233-1242. (Pubitemid 35232725)
69. Dockery, D.W., and Stone, P.H. (2007). Cardiovascular risks from fine partic-ulate air pollution. New Engl. J. Med. 356, 511-513. (Pubitemid 46193080)
70. Riediker, M., Cascio, W.E., Griggs, T.R., Herbst, M.C., Bromberg, P.A., Neas, L., Williams, R.W., and Devlin, R.B. (2004). Particulate matter exposure in cars is associated with cardiovascular effects in healthy young men. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 169, 934-940. (Pubitemid 38457320)
71. Bigert, C., Gustavsson, P., Hallquist, J., Hogstedt, C., Lewne, M., Plato, N., Reuterwall, C., and Scheele, P. (2003). Myocardial infarction among professional drivers. Epidemiol. 14, 333-339. (Pubitemid 40417086)
72. Laden, F., Neas, L.M., Dockery, D.W., and Schwartz, J. (2000). Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities. Environ. Health Perspect. 108, 941-947.
73. Franchini, M., and Mannucci, P.M. (2007). Short-term effects of air pollution on cardiovascular diseases: Outcomes and mechanisms. J. Throm. Haemost. 5, 2169-2174. (Pubitemid 47617866)
74. Pope, C.A. (2007). Mortality effects of longer term exposures to fine particulate air pollution: Review of recent epidemiological evidence. Inhal. Toxicol. 19, 33-38.
75. Schwela, D. (2000). Air pollution and health in urban areas. Rev. Environ. Health 15, 13-42. (Pubitemid 30465955)
76. Pope, A.C., Renlund, D.G., Kfoury, A.G., May, H.T., and Horne, B.D. (2008). Relation of heart failure hospitalization to exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Am. J. Cardiol. 102, 1230-1234.
77. Delfino, R.J., Staimer, N., Tjoa, T., Polidori, A., Arhemi, M., Gillen, D.L., Klein-man, M.T., Vaziri, N.D., Longhurst, J., Zaldivar, F., and Sioutas, C. (2008). Circulating biomarkers of inflammation, antioxidant activity, and platelet activation are associated with primary combustion aerosols in subjects with coronary artery disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 898-906. (Pubitemid 351943897)
78. Monteiller, C., Tran, L., MacNee, W., Faux, S., Jones, A., Miller, B., and Donaldson, K. (2007). The pro-inflammatory effects of low-toxicity low-solubility particles, nanoparticles and fine particles, on epithelial cells in vitro: The RLE of surface area. Occup. Environ. Med. 64, 609-615. (Pubitemid 47345256)
79. Hext, P.M., Tomenson, J.A., and Thompson, P. (2005). Titanium dioxide: Inhalation toxicology and epidemiology. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 49, 461-472. (Pubitemid 41191439)
80. Nygaard, U.C., Samuelson, M., Aase, A., and Løvik, M. (2004). The capacity of particles to increase allergic sensitization is predicted by particle number and surface area, not by particle mass. Toxicol. Sci. 82, 515-524. (Pubitemid 39600079)
81. Nygaard, U.C., Alberg, T., Bleumink, R., Asse, A., Dybing, E., Pieters, R., and Løvik, M. (2005). Ambient air particles from four European cities increase the primary cell response to allergen in the draining lymph node. Toxicol. 207, 241-254. (Pubitemid 39642840)
82. Dybing, E., Lovdal, T., Hetland, R.B. Løvik, M., and Schwarze, P.E. (2004). Respiratory allergy adjuvant and inflammatory effects of urban ambient particles. Toxicol. 198, 307-314. (Pubitemid 38609043)
83. Napierska, D., Thomassen, L.C., Rabolli, V., Lison, D., Gonzalez, L., Kirsch-Volders, M., Martens, J.A., and Hoet, P.H. (2009). Size-dependent cytotoxic-ity of monodisperse silica nanoparticles in human endothelial cells. Small 5, 846-853.
84. Hetland, R.B., Refsnes, M., Myran, T., Johansen, B.V., Uthus, N., and Schwarze, P.E. (2000). Mineral and/or metal content as critical determinants of particle-induced release of IL-6 and IL-8 from A549 cells. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A, 60, 47-65. (Pubitemid 30255666)
85. Øvrevik, J., Myran, T., Refsnes, M., Lag, M., Becher, R., Hetland, R.B., and Schwarze, P.E. (2005). Mineral particles of varying composition induce differential chemokine release from epithelial lung cells: Importance of physico-chemical characteristics. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 49, 219-231. (Pubitemid 40547327)
86. Diociauti, M., Balduzzi, M., De Berardis, B., Cattani, G., Stacchini, G., Ziemacki, G., Marconi, A., and Paoletti, L. (2001). The two PM(2.5) (fine) and PM2.5-10) (coarse) fractions: Evidence of different biological activity. Environ. Res. 86, 254-262.
87. Wichmann, G., Frack, U., Herbarth, O., Rehwagen, M., Dietz, A., Massolo, L., Ronco, A., and Müller, A. (2009). Different immunomodulatory effects associated with sub-micrometer particles in ambient air from rural, urban and industrial areas. Toxicol. 257, 127-136.
88. Müller, A., Wichmann, G., Massolo, L., Rehwagen, M., Gröbsch, C., Loffhagen, N., Herbarth, O., and Ronco, A. (2006). Cytotoxicity and oxidative stress caused by chemicals adsorbed on particulate matter. Environ. Toxicol. 21, 457-463. (Pubitemid 44452824)
89. Schwarze, P.E., Øvrevik, J., Hetland, R.B., Becher, R., Cassee, F.R., Lag, M., Løvik, M., Dybing, E., and Refsnes, M. (2007). Importance of size and composition of particles for effects on cells in vitro. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(Suppl. 1), 17-22. (Pubitemid 47450687)
90. Stone, V., Johnston, H., and Clift, M.J. (2007). Air pollution, ultrafine and nanoparticle toxicology: Cellular and molecular interactions. IEEE Trans. Nanobiosci. 6, 331-340. (Pubitemid 350210539)
91. Valavanidis, A., Fiotakis, K., and Vlachogianni, T. (2008). Airborne particulate matter and human health assessment and importance of size and composition of particles for oxidative damage and carcinogenic mechanism. J. Environ. Sci Health. C. Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev. 26, 339-362. (Pubitemid 352790465)
92. Stoeger, T., Reinhard, C., Takenaka, S., Schroeppel, A., Karg, E., Ritter, B., Heyder, J., and Schulz, H. (2006). Instillation of six different ultrafine carbon particles indicates a surface area threshold dose for acute lung inflammation in mice. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 328-333. (Pubitemid 43338255)
93. Xia, T., Kochovich, M., and Nel, A. (2006). The role of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in mediating particulate matter injury. Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. 5, 817-836.
94. Donaldson, K., and Stone, V. (2003). Current hypotheses on the mechanism of toxicity of ultrafine particles. Ann. Ist. Super Sanitá 39, 405-410. (Pubitemid 38418409)
95. Stone, V., Johnston, H., and Clift, M.J. (2007). Air pollution, ultrafine and nanoparticle toxicology: Cellular and molecular interactions. IEEE Trans Nanobiosci. 6, 331-340. (Pubitemid 350210539)
96. Gilmour, P.S., Ziesenis, A., Morrison, E.R., Vickers, M.A., Drost, E.M., Ford, I., Karg, E., Mossa, C., Schroeppel, A., Ferron, G.A., Heyder, J., Greaves, M., MacNee, W., and Donaldson, K. (2004). Pulmonary and systematic effects of short-term inhalation exposure to ultrafine carbon black particles. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 195, 35-44. (Pubitemid 38177497)
97. Harrison, R.M., Shi, J.P., Xi, S., Khan, A., Mark, D., Kinnersley, R., et al. (2000). Measurement of number, mass and size distribution of particles in the athmo-sphere. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A, 358, 2567-2579.
98. Samuelsen, M., Nygaard, U.C., and Løvik, M. (2009). Particle size determines activation of the innate immune system in the lung. Scand. J. Immunol. 69, 421-428.
99. Kocbach, A., Li, Y., Yttri, K.E., Cassee, F.R., Schwarze, P.E., and Namork, E. (2005). Physicochemical characterization of combustion particles from vehicle exhaust and residential wood smoke. Part. Fib. Toxicol. 3, 1.
100. Krein, A., Udelhoven, T., Audinot, J.-N., Hissler, C., Guignard, C., Pfister, L., Migeon, H.-N., and Hoffmann, L. (2008). Imaging chemical patches on near-surface athmospheric dust particles with NanoSIMS50 to identify material sources. Water Air. Soil Poll. 8, 495-503.
101. Kang, S., Hwang, H., Park, Y., Kim, H., and Ro, C.U. (2008). Chemical compositions of subway particles in Seoul, Korea determined by a quantitative single particle analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 15, 9051-9057.
102. Møller, P., Kjærsgaard Folkmann, J., Forchhammer, L., Vaclavik Bräuner, E., Høgh Danielsen, P., Risom, L., and Loft, S. (2008). Air pollution, oxidative damage to DNA, and carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett. 266, 84-97.
103. Tarantini, L., Bonzini, M., Apostoli, P., Pegoraro, V., Bollati, V., Marinelly, B., Cantone, L., Rizzo, G., Hou, L., Schwartz, J., Bertazzi, P.A., and Baccarelli, A. (2009). Effects of particulate matter on genomic DNA methylation content and iNOS promoter methylation. Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 217-222.
104. Schwarze, P.E., Øvrevik, J., Lag, M., Refsnes, M., Nafstad, P., Hetland, R.B., and Dybing, E. (2006). Particulate matter properties and health effects: Consistency of epidemiological and toxicological studies? Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 25, 559-579. (Pubitemid 44804779)
105. Novák, J., Jálová, V., Giesy, J.O., and Hilscherová, K. (2009). Pollutants in particulate and gaseous fraction of ambient air interfere with multiple signalling pathways in vitro. Environ. Int. 35, 43-49.
106. 10 from three urban locations in New Zealand. Sci. Total Environ. 349, 161-174. (Pubitemid 41421073)
107. Klein, G.P., Hodge, E.M., Diamond, M.L., Yip, A., Dann, T., Stem, G., et al. (2006). Gas-ambient air contaminants exhibit significant dioxin-like and estrogen-like activity in vitro. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 697-703.
108. Matsumoto, H., Adachi, S., and Suzuki, Y. (2005). Bisphenol A in ambient air particulates responsible for proliferation of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells and its concentration changes over 6 months. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 48, 459-466. (Pubitemid 40880577)
109. Wang, J.X., Xie, P., Xu, Y., Kettrup, A., and Schramm, K.W. (2004). Differing estrogen activities in the organic phase of air particulate matter collected during sunny and foggy weather in a Chinese city detected by a recombinant yeast bioassay. Atmos. Environ. 38, 6157-6166. (Pubitemid 39445792)
110. Cavallari, J.M., Eisen, E.A., Fang, S.C., Schwartz, J., Hauser, R., Herrick, R.F., and Christiani, D.C. (2008). PM2.5 metal exposure and nocturnal heart rate variability: A panel study of boilermarker construction workers. Environ. Health, 7, 36.
111. Riediker, M., Devlin, R.B., Griggs, T.R., Herbst, M.C., Bromberg, P.A., Williams, R.W., and Cascio, W.E. (2004). Cardiovascular effects in patrol officers are associated with fine particulate matter from brake wear and engine emissions. Part. Fib. Toxicol. 1, 2.
112. Kang, J.Y. (2002). Cardiovascular toxicity of particulate air pollution. Cardio-vasc. Tox. 2, 233-235.
113. Riediker, M. (2007). Cardiovascular effects of fine particulate matter components in highway patrol officers. Inhal. Toxicol. 19(Suppl. 1), 99-105. (Pubitemid 47454502)
114. Aust, A.E., Ball, J.C., Hu, A.A., Lighty, J.S., Smith, K.R., Straccia, A.M., Vernath, J.M., and Young, W.C. (2002). Particle characteristics responsible for effects on human lung epithelial cells. Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 110, 1-65.
115. Wilson, M.R., Lightbody, J.H., Donaldson, K., Sales, J, Stone, V. (2002). Interactions between ultrafine particles and transition metals in vivo and in vitro. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 184, 172-179. (Pubitemid 35425705)
116. Jalava, P.I., Salonen, R.O., Pennanen, A.S., Happo, M.S., Penttinen, P., Hälinen, A.I., Sillanpää, M., Hillamo, R., and Hirvonen, M.-R. (2008). Effects of solubility of urban air fine and coarse particles on cytotoxic and inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 229, 146-160.
117. 2.5) in Shanghai atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 42, 7205-7214.
118. 2.5 and heart variability are modified by particle composition and beta-blocker use in patients with coronary heart disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 105-111.
119. Timonen, K.L., Vanninen, E., de Hartog, J.J., Ibald-Mulli, A., Brunekreef, B., Gold, D.R., Heinrich, J., Hoek, G., Lanki, T., Peters, A., Tarkiainen, T.H., Tiit-tanen, P., Kreyling, W., and Pekkanen, J. (2006). Effects of ultrafine and fine particulate and gaseous air pollution on cardiac autonomic control in subjects with coronary artery disease: The ULTRA study. J. Exp. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 16, 332-341. (Pubitemid 44086634)
120. Franklin, M., Koutrakis, P., and Schwartz, P. (2008). The role of particle composition on the association between PM2.5 and mortality. Epidemiol. 19, 680-689.
121. Schulz, H., Harder, V., Ibald-Mulli, A., Khandoga, A., Koenig, W., Krombach, F., Radykewicz, R., Stampfl, A., Thorand, B., and Peters, A. (2005). Cardiovascular effects of fine and ultrafine particles. J. Aerosol. Med. 18, 1-22. (Pubitemid 40349943)
122. Utell, M.J., Frampton, M.W., Zareba, W., Devlin, R.B., and Cascio, W.E. (2002). Cardiovascular effects associated with air pollution: Potential mechanisms and methods of testing. Inhal. Toxicol. 14, 1231-1247. (Pubitemid 36019737)
123. Danesh, J., Kaptoge, S., Mann, A.G., Sarwar, N., Wood, A., Angleman, S.B., Wensley, F., Higgins, J.P., Lennon, L., Eiriksdottir, G., Rumley, A., Whincup, P.H., Lowe, G.D., and Gudnason, V. (2008). Long-term interleukin-6 levels and subsequent risk of coronary heart disease: Two new prospective studies and a systematic review. PloS Med. 8, e78.
124. Ulrich, M., Alink, G.M., Kumarathasan, P., Vincent, R., Boere, A.J.F., and Cassee, F.R. (2002). Health effects and time course of particulate matter on the lung cardiopulmonary system in rats with lung inflammation. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 65, 1571-1595. (Pubitemid 35217501)
125. Kreyling, W.G., and Scheuch, G. (2000). Clearance of particles deposited in the lungs. In P. Gehr and J. Heyder (Eds.), Particle-lung interactions (pp. 323-376). New York/Basel: Marcel Dekker.
126. Oberdörster, G., Sharp, Z., Atudorei, V., Gelein, R., Lunts, A., Kreyling, W., and Cox, C. (2002). Extrapulmonary translocation of ultrafine carbon particles following whole-body inhalation exposure of rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 25, 1531-1543. (Pubitemid 35217499)
127. Fubini, B., and Hubbard, A. (2003). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generation by silica inflammation and fibrosis. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 34, 1507-1516. (Pubitemid 36638711)
128. Prahalad, A.K., Soukup, J.M., Inmon, J., Willis, R., Ghio, A.J., Becker, S., and Gallagher, J.E. (1999). Ambient air particles: Effects on cellular oxidant radical generation in relation to particulate elemental chemistry. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 158, 81-91. (Pubitemid 29343431)
129. Ohyama, M., Otake, T., Adachi, S., Kobayashi, T., and Morinaga, K. (2007). A comparison of the production of reactive oxygen species by suspended par-ticulate matter and diesel exhaust particles with macrophages. Inhal. Toxicol. 19, Suppl. 1, 157-160. (Pubitemid 47450706)
130. Valavanidis, A., Fiotakis, K., Bakeas, E., and Vlahogianni, T. (2005). Electron paramagnetic resonance study of the generation of reactive oxygen species catalysed by transition metals and quinoid redox cycling by inhalable ambient particulate matter. Redox. Rep. 10, 37-51. (Pubitemid 41556829)
131. Dellinger, B., Pryor, W.A., Cuteo, R., Squadrito, G.L., Hegde, V., and Deutsch, W.A. (2001). Role of free radicals in the toxicity of airborne fine particulate matter. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 14, 1371-1377. (Pubitemid 32988407)
132. Li, N., Hao, M., Phalen, R.F., Hinds, W.C., and Nel, A.E. (2003). Particulate air pollutants and asthma. A paradigm for the role of oxidative stress in PM-induced adverse health effects. Clin. Immunol. 109, 250-263.
133. Cho, H.Y., Reddy, S.P., and Kleeberger, S.R. (2006). Nrf2 defends the lung from oxidative stress. Antioxid. Redox Signal 8, 76-87. (Pubitemid 43324533)
134. Li, N., Xia, T., and Nel, A.E. (2008). The role of oxidative stress in ambient particulate matter-induced lung diseases and its implications in the toxicity of engineered nanoparticles. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 44, 1689-1699.
135. Kobayashi, Y. (2008). The role of cytokines in neutrophil biology. Front. Biosci. 13, 2400-2407.
136. Brown, R.K., Wyatt, H., Price, J.F., and Kelly, F.J. (1996). Pulmonary dysfunction in cystic fibrosis is associated with oxidative stress. Eur. Respir. J. 9, 334-339. (Pubitemid 26068628)
137. Goldstein, D.J., Moazami, N., Seldomridge, J.A., Laio, H., Ashton, R.C. jr., Naka, Y., Pinsky, D.J., and Oz, M.C. (1997). Circulatory resuscitation with left ventricular assist device support reduces interleukins 6 and 8 levels. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 63, 971-974. (Pubitemid 27191646)
138. Damas, J.K., Gullestad, L., Ueland, T., Solum, N.O., Simonsen, S., Froland, S.S., and Aukrust, P. (2000). CXC-chemokines, a new group of cytokines in congestive heart failure-possible role of platelets and monocytes. Cardiovasc. Res. 45, 428-436. (Pubitemid 30069508)
139. Sharma, R., Coats, A.J., and Anker, S.D. (2000). The role of inflammatory mediators in chronic heart failure; cytokines, nitric oxide, and endothelin-1. Int. J. Cardiol. 72, 175-186. (Pubitemid 30068636)
140. Li, N., Kim, S., Wang, M., Froines, J., Sioutas, C., and Nel, A. (2002). Use of a stratified oxidative stress model to study the biological effects of ambient concentrated and diesel exhaust particulate matter. Inhal. Toxicol. 14, 459-486. (Pubitemid 34578748)
141. Tao, R., Gonzalez-Flecha, B., and Kobzik, L. (2003). Reactive oxygen species in pulmonary inflammation by ambient particulates. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 35, 327-340. (Pubitemid 37289164)
142. Verones, B., and Oortgiesen, M. (2001). Neurogenic inflammation and partic-ulate matter (PM) air pollutants. Neurotoxicol. 22, 795-810. (Pubitemid 34075637)
143. Heunks, L.M., and Dekhuizen, P.N. (2000). Respiratory muscle function and free radicals: From cell to COPD. Thorax 55, 704-716. (Pubitemid 30468230)
144. Mills, N.L., Törnqvist, H., Robinson, S.D., Gonzalez, M.C., Söderberg, S., and Sandström, T. (2007). Air pollution and atherothrombosis. Inhal. Toxicol. 19, 81-89. (Pubitemid 47450691)
145. Nemmar, A., Nemery, B., Hoet, P.H.M., Vermylen, J., and Hoylaerts, M.F. (2003). Pulmonary inflammation and thrombogenicity caused by diesel particles in hamsters. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 168, 1366-1372. (Pubitemid 37487333)
146. Rudez, G., Janssen, N.A.H., Kilinc, E., Leebeek, F.W.G., Gerlofs-Nijland, M.E., Spronk, H.M.H., ten Cate, H., Cassee, F.R., and de Maat, M.P.M. (2009). Effects of ambient air pollution on hemostasis and inflammation. Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 995-1001.
147. Libby, P. (2002). Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature 420, 868-847.
148. Nemmar, A., Hoylaerts, M.F., and Nemery, B. (2006). Effects of particulate air pollution on hemostasis. Clin. Occup. Environ. Med. 5, 865-881.
149. Urch, B., Silverman, F., Corey, P., Brook, J.R., Lukic, K.Z., Rajagopalan, S., and Brook, R.D. (2005). Acute blood pressure responses in healthy adults during controlled air pollution exposures. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 1052-1055. (Pubitemid 41149637)
150. Knaapen, A.M., Borm, P.C., Albrecht, C., and Schins, R.P. (2004). Inhaled particles and lung cancer. Part A: Mechanisms. Int. J. Cancer 109, 799-809. (Pubitemid 38500735)
151. Prahalad, A.K., Inmon, J., Dailey, L.A., Madden, M.C., Ghio, A.J., and Gallagher, J.E. (2001). Air pollution particles mediated oxidative DNA base damage in a cell free system and in human airway epithelial cells in relation to particulate metal content and bioreactivity. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 14, 879-887. (Pubitemid 32661344)
152. Prahalad, A.K., Inmon, J., Ghio, A.J., and Gallagher, J.E. (2000). Enhancement of 2'-deoxyguanosine hydroxylation and DMA damage by coal and oil fly ash in relation to particulate metal content and availability. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 13, 1011-1019.
153. Risom, L., Møller, P., and Loft, S. (2005). Oxidative stress-induced DNA damage by particulate air pollution. Mut. Res. 592, 119-137. (Pubitemid 41714049)
154. Sun, Q., Yue, P., Ying, Z., Cardounel, A.J., Brook, R.D., Devlin, R., Hwang, J.S., Zweier, J.L., Chen, L.C., and Rajagopalan, S. (2008). Air pollution exposure potentiates hypertension through reactive oxygen species-mediated activation of Rho/ROCK. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 28, 1760.
155. Jalil, J., Lavandero, S., Chiong, M., and Ocaranza, M.P. (2005). Rho/Rho ki-nase signal transduction pathway in cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular remodeling. Rev. Esp. Cardiol. 58, 951-961. (Pubitemid 41419170)
156. Kwon, S., and George, S.C. (1999). Synergistic cytokine-induced nitric oxide production in human alveolar epithelial cells. Nitric Oxide 3, 348-357. (Pubitemid 29406763)
157. Brook, R.D., Urch, B., Dvonch, J.T., Bard, R.L., Speck, M., Keeler, G., Morishita, M., Marsik, F.J., Kamal, A.S., Kaciroti, N., Harkema, J., Corey, P., Silverman, F., Gold, D.R., Wellenius, G., Mittleman, M.A., Rajagopalan, S., and Brooky, J.R. (2009). Insights into the mechanisms and mediators of the effects of air pollution exposure on blood pressure and vascular function in healthy humans. Hypertens. 54, 659-667.
158. Peretz, A., Sullivan, J.H., Leotta, D.F., Trenga, C.A., Sands, F.N., Allen, J., Carl-sten, C., Wilkinson, C.W., Gill, E.A., and Kaufman, J.D. (2008). Diesel exhaust inhalation elicits acute vasoconstriction in vivo. Environ. Health Perspect. 116, 937-942. (Pubitemid 351943902)
159. Thomson, E., Goegan, P., Kumarathasan, P., and Vincent, R. (2004). Air pollutants increase gene expression of the vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 in the lungs. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1689, 75-82. (Pubitemid 38670505)
160. Bouthillier, L., Vincent, R., Goegan, P., Adamson, I.Y., Bjarnason, S., Stewart, M., Guenette, J., Potvin, M., and Kumarathasan, P. (1998). Acute effects of inhaled urban particles and ozone: Lung morphology, macrophage activity, and plasma endothelin-1. Am. J. Pathol. 153, 1873-1884. (Pubitemid 28550674)
161. Calderón-Garcidueñas, L., Vincent, R., Mora-Tiscareño, A., Franco-Lira, M., Henŕquez-Roldán, C., Barragán- Mej́a, G., Garrido-Garća, L., Camacho-Reyes, L., Valencia-Salazar, G., Paredes, R., Romero, L., Osnaya, H., Villareal-Calderón, R., Torres-Jardón, R., Hazucha, M.J., and Reed, W. (2007). Elevated plasma levels endothelin-1 and pulmonary arterial pressure in children exposed to air pollution. Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 1248-1253. (Pubitemid 351802360)
162. Brook, R.D., Brook, J.R., Urch, B., Vincent, R., Rajagopalan, S., and Silverman, F. (2002). Inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and ozone causes acute arterial vasoconstriction in healthy adults. Circul. 105, 1534-1536. (Pubitemid 34297626)
163. Dzau, V., and Pratt, R. (1986). Renin-angiotensin system: Biology, physiology and pharmacology. New York, Raven Press.
164. Bartoli, C.R., Wellenius, G.A., Diaz, E.A., Lawrence, J., Coull, B.A., Akiyama, I., Lee, L.M., Okabe, K., Verrier, R.L., and Godleski, J.J. (2009). Mechanisms of inhaled fine particulate air pollution-induced arterial blood pressure changes. Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 361-366.
165. Li, Z., Carter, J.D., Dailey, L.A., and Huang, Y.-C. (2005). Pollutant particles produce vasoconstriction and enhance MAPK signalling via angiotensin type 1 receptor. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 1009-1014. (Pubitemid 41149630)
166. Peters, A., Dockery, D., Muller, J.E., and Mittleman, M.A. (2001). Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of myocardial infarction. Circul. 103, 2810-2815.
167. Peters, A., von Klot, S., Heier, M., Trentinaglia, B.S., Hörmann, A., and Wich-mann, E. (2004). Exposure to traffic and the onset of myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 387, 1721-1730. (Pubitemid 39383207)
168. Cárdenas, M., Vallejo, M., Romano-Riquer, P., Ruiz-Velasco, S., Ferreira-Vidal, A., and Hermosillo, A.G. (2008). Personal exposure to PM2.5 air pollution and heart rate variability in subjects with positive or negative head-up tilt test. Environ. Res. 108, 1-6.
169. Pope, A.C., Muhlestein, J.B., May, H.T., Renlund, D.G., Anderson, J.L., and Horne, B.D. (2006). Ischemic heart disease events triggered by short-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Circul. 114, 2443-2448. (Pubitemid 44901516)
170. Zanobetti, A., and Schwartz, J. (2005). The effect of particulate air pollution on emergency admissions for myocardial infarction: A multicity case-crossover analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 978-982. (Pubitemid 41149625)
171. Wellenius, G.A., Schwartz, J., and Mittleman, M.A. (2005). Air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in medicare beneficiaries. Stroke 36, 2549-2553.
172. Nemmar, A., Nemery, B., Hoylaerts, M.F., and Vermylen, J. (2002). Air pollution and thrombosis: An experimental approach. Pathophysiol. Haemost. Thromb. 32, 349-350. (Pubitemid 37490569)
173. Peters, A., Doring, A., Wichmann, H.-E., and Koenig, W. (1997). Increased plasma viscosity during an air pollution episode: A link to mortality. Lancet, 349, 1582-1587. (Pubitemid 27229137)
174. Baccarelli, A., Zanobetti, A., Martinelli, I., Grillo, P., Hou, L., Giacomini, S., Bonzini, M., Lanzani, G., Mannucci, P.M., Bertazzi, P.A., and Schwartz, J. (2007). Effects of exposure to air pollution on blood coagulation. J. Thromb. Haemost. 5, 252-260. (Pubitemid 46139447)
175. Vermylen, J., and Hoylaerts, M.F. (2007). The procoagulant effects of air pollution. J. Thromb. Haemost. 5, 250-251. (Pubitemid 46139446)
176. Pope, A.C., Hansen, M.L., Long, R.W., Nielsen, K.R., Eatough, N.L., Wilson, W.E., and Eatough, D.J. (2004). Ambient particulate air pollution, heart rate variability, and blood markers of inflammation in a panel of elderly subjects. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 339-345. (Pubitemid 38351397)
177. Rückerl, R., Ibaldi-Mulli, A., Koenig, W., Schneider, A., Woelke, G., Cyrys, J., Heinrich, J., Marder, V., Frampton, M., Wichmann, H.E., and Peters, A. (2006). Air pollution and markers of inflammation and coagulation in patients with coronary heart disease. Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 173, 432-441. (Pubitemid 43228332)
178. Tamagawa, E., Bai, N., Morimoto, K., Gray, C., Mui, T., Yatera, K., Yhang, X., Xing, L., Li, Y., Laher, I., Sin, D.D., Man, S.F., and van Eeden, S.F. (2008). Par-ticulate matter exposure induces persistent lung inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 295, 79-85.
179. Rückerl, R., Phipps, R.P., Schneider, A., Frampton, M., Cyrys, J., Oberdörster, G., Wichmann, H.E., and Peters, A. (2007). Ultrafine particles and platelet activation in patients with coronary heart disease-results from a prospective panel study. Part. Fib. Toxicol. 4, 1.
180. Brook, R.D., Brook, J.R., and Rajagopalan, S. (2003). Air pollution: The heart of the problem. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 5, 32-39.
181. Bagate, K., Meiring, J.J., Gerlofs-Nijland, M.E., Cassee, F.R., Wiegand, H., Osornio-Vargas, A., and Borm, P.J. (2006). Ambient particulate matter affects cardiac recovery in a Langendorff ischemia model. Inhal. Toxicol. 18, 633-643. (Pubitemid 44178419)
182. Horton, J.W., Maass, D., White, J., and Sanders, B. (2000). Nitric oxid modulation of TNF-alpha-induced cardiac contractile dysfunction is concentration dependent. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 278, H1955-H1965. (Pubitemid 30439209)
183. Engler, R., and Covell, J.W. (1987). Granulocytes cause reperfusion ventricular dysfunction after 15-minute ischemia in the dog. Circ. Res. 61, 20-28. (Pubitemid 17123078)
184. Xia, T., Kovochich, M., and Nel, A.E. (2007). Impairment of mitochondrial function by particulate matter (PM) and their toxic components: Implications for PM-induced cardiovascular and lung disease. Front. Biosci. 12, 1238-1246. (Pubitemid 46846829)
185. Shubeita, H.E., McDonough, P.M., Harris, A.N., Knowlton, K.U., Glembotski, C.C., Brown, J.H., and Chien, K.R. (1990). Endothelin induction of inositol phospholipid hydrolysis, sarcomere assembly and cardiac gene expression in ventricular myocytes. A paracrine mechanism for myocardial cell hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 265, 20555-20562. (Pubitemid 120014043)
186. Sadoshima, J., and Izumo, S. (1993). Molecular characterization of angiotensin II-induced hypertrophy of cardiac myocytes and hyperplasia of cardiac fibrob-lasts. Critical role of the AR1 receptor subtype. Circ. Res. 73, 413-423. (Pubitemid 23238726)
187. Sonneberg, H. (1987). On the physiological role of atrial natriuretic factor. Klin. Wochenschr. 65 (Suppl. 8), 8-13.
188. Pozzi, R., De Berardis, B., Paoletty, L., and Guastadisegni, C. (2005). Winter urban air particles from Rome (Italy): Effects on the monocytic-macrophagic RAW 264.7 cell line. Environ. Res. 99, 344-354. (Pubitemid 41676844)
189. Valavanidis, A., Fiotakis, K., Bakeas, E., and Vlachogianni, T. (2005). Electron paramagnetic resonance study of the generation of reactive oxygen species catalysed by transition metals and quinoid redox cycling by inhalable ambient particulate matter. Redox. Rep. 10, 37-51. (Pubitemid 41556829)
190. Shi, T., Knaapen, A.M., Begerow, J., Birmili, W., Borm, P.J., and Schins, R.P. (2003). Temporal variation of hydroxyl radical generation and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine formation by coarse and fine particulate matter. Occup. Environ. Med. 60, 315-321. (Pubitemid 36532484)
191. Salonen, R.O., Halinen, A.J., Pennanen, A.S., Hirvonen, M.R., Sillanpaa, M., Hillamo, R., Shi, T., Borm, P., Sundell, E., Koskentalo, T., and Aarnio, P. (2004). Chemical and in vitro toxicological characterization of wintertime and springtime urban-air particles with an aerodynamic diameter lower than 10 microm in Helsinki. Scand. J. Work. Environ. Health (Suppl. 2), 80-90. (Pubitemid 39255799)
192. Pan, C.J., Schmitz, D.A., Cho, A.K., Froines, J., and Fukuto, J.M. (2004). Inherent redox properties of diesel exhaust particles: Catalysis of the generation of reactive oxygen species by biological reductants. Toxicol. Sci. 81, 225-232. (Pubitemid 39199880)
193. Becker, S., Mundandhara, S., Devlin, R.B., and Madden, M. (2005). Regulation of cytokine production in human alveolar macrophages and airway epithelial cells in response to ambient air pollution particles: Further mechanistic studies. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 207, S269-S275. (Pubitemid 41265525)
194. Gu, Z.W., Keane, M.J., Ong, T.-M., and Wallace, W.E. (2005). Diesel exhaust particulate matter dispersed in a phospholipid surfactant induces chromosal aberrations and micronuclei but not 6-thioguanine-resistant gene mutation in V79 cells. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 68, 431-444. (Pubitemid 40250738)
195. Valentin, J.P., Hoffmann, P., De Clerck, F., Hammond, T.G., and Hondeghem, L. (2004). Review of the predictive value of the Langendorff heart model (Screenit system) in assessing the proarrhythmic potential of drugs. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Meth. 49, 171-181. (Pubitemid 38686655)
196. Lawrence, C.L., Pollard, C.E., Hammond, T.G., and Valentin, J.P. (2005). Non-clinical proarrhythmia models: Predicting Torsade de Pointes. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Meth. 52, 46-59. (Pubitemid 41008629)
197. Simkhovich, B.Z., Marjoram, P., Kleinman, M.T., and Kloner, R.A. (2007). Direct and acute cardiotoxicity of ultrafine particles in young adult and old rat hearts. Basic. Res. Cardiol. 102, 467-475. (Pubitemid 47578391)
198. Wold, L.E., Simkhovich, B.Z., Kleinman, M.T., Nordlie, M.A., Dow, J.S., Sioutas, C., and Kloner, R.A. (2006). In vivo and in vitro models to test the hypothesis of particle induced effects on cardiac function and arrhythmias. Cardiovasc. Toxicol. 6, 69-78. (Pubitemid 44127954)
199. Totlandsdal, A.I., Skomedal, T., Lag, M., Osnes, J.-B., and Refsnes, M. (2008). Pro-inflammatory potential of ultrafine particles in mono-and co-cultures on primary cardiac cells. Toxicol. 247, 23-32.
200. Meyer, T., Sartipy, P., Blind, F., Leisgen, C., and Guenther, E. (2007). New cell models and assays in cardiac safety profiling. Expert Opin. Drug. Metab. Toxicol. 3, 507-514.
201. Jones, S.P., and Kennedy, S.W. (2009). Chicken cardiomyocyte cultures-a new approach for studying effects of halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons in the avian heart. Toxicol. Sci. 109, 66-74.
202. Knuckles, T.L., and Dreher, K.L. (2007). Fine oil combustion particle bioavail-able constituents induce molecular profiles of oxidative stress, altered function, and cellular injury in cardiomyocytes. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 70, 1824-1837. (Pubitemid 47575100)
203. Totlandsdal, A.I., Refsnes, M., Skomedal, T., Osnes, J.-B., Schwarze, P.E., and Lag, M. (2008). Particle-induced cytokine responses in cardiac cell cultures-the effect of particles versus soluble mediators released by particle-exposed lung cells. Toxicol. Sci. 106, 233-241.
204. Kimes, B.W., and Brandt, B.L. (1976). Properties of a clonal muscle cell line from rat heart. Exp. Cell. Res. 98, 367-381.
205. Hescheler, J., Meyer, R., Plant, S., Krautwurst, D., Rosenthal, W., and Schultz, G. (1991). Morphological, biochemical, and electrophysiological characterizations of a clonal cell (H9c2) line from rat heart. Circ. Res. 69, 1476-1486.
206. Chaudhary, K.W., Barrezueta, N.X., Bauchmann, M.B., Milici, A.J., Beckius, G., Stedman, D.B., Hambor, J.E., Blake, W.L., McNeish, A.J., Bahinski, A., and Cezar, G.G. (2006). Embryonic stem cells in predictive cardiotoxicity: Laser capture microscopy enables assay development. Toxicol. Sci. 90, 149-158. (Pubitemid 43264735)
207. Kettenhofen, R., and Bohlen, H. (2008). Preclinical assessment of cardiac tox-icity. Drug Discov. Today, 13, 702-707.
208. Meyer, T., Sartipy, P., Blind, F., Leisgen, C., and Guenther, E. (2007). New cell models and assays in cardiac safety profiling. Expert. Opin. Drug. Metab. Toxicol. 3, 507-517. (Pubitemid 351324960)
209. Furuyama, A., Hirano, S., Koike, E., and Kobayashi, T. (2006). Induction of oxidative stress and inhibition of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 production in endothelial cells following exposure to organic extracts of diesel exhaust particles and urban fine particles. Arch. Toxicol. 80, 154-162. (Pubitemid 43320258)
210. Becker, S., Soukup, J.M., Gilmour, M.I., and Devlin, R.B. (1996). Stimulation of human and rat alveolar macrophages by urban air particulates: Effects of oxidant radical generation and cytokine production. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 141, 637-648. (Pubitemid 27046390)
211. Hetland, R.B., Cassee, F.R., Lag, M., Refsnes, M., Dybing, E., and Schwarze, P.E. (2005). Cytokine release from alveolar macrophages exposed to ambient particulate matter: Heterogeneity in relation to size, city and season. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2:4.
212. Soukup, J.M., and Becker, S. (2001). Human alveolar macrophage responses to air pollution particulates are associated with insoluble components of coarse material, including particulate endotoxin. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 171, 20-26. (Pubitemid 32182291)
213. Samet, J.M., Reed, W., Ghio, A.J., Devlin, R.B., Carter, J.D., Dailey, L.A., Bromberg, P.A., and Madden, M.C. (1996). Induction of prostaglandin H syn-thase 2 in human airway epithelial cells exposed to residual oil fly ash. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 141, 159-168. (Pubitemid 26414362)
214. Amakawa, K., Terashima, T., Matsizaki, T., Matsumaru, A., Sagai, M., and Ya-maguchi, K. (2003). Suppressive effects of diesel exhaust particles on cytokine release from human and murine alveolar macrophages. Exp. Lung. Res. 29, 149-164. (Pubitemid 36469977)
215. Jalava, P.I., Salonen, R.O., Hälinen, A.I., Penttinen, P., Pennanen, A.S., Sil-lanpää, M., Sandell, E., Hillamo, R., and Hirvonen, M.-R. (2006). In vitro inflammatory and cytotoxic effects of size-segregated particulate samples collected during long-range transport of wildfire smoke to Helsinki. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 215, 341-353. (Pubitemid 44313957)
216. Diociaiuti, M., Balduzzi, M., De Berardis, B., Cattani, G., Stacchini, G., Ziemacki, G., Marconi, A., and Paoletti, L. (2001). The two PM(2.5) (fine) and PM(2.5-10) (coarse) fractions: Evidence of different biological activity. Environ. Res. 86, 254-262.
217. Tal, T.L., Bromberg, P.A., Kim, Y., and Samet, J.M. (2008). Epidermal growth factor receptor activation by diesel particles is mediated by tyrosine phos-phatase inhibition. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 15, 382-388.
218. 2.5 collected from Cache Valley Utah on genes associated with the inflammatory response in human lung cells. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 70, 1731-1744. (Pubitemid 47450883)
219. Fujii, T., Hayashi, S., Hogg, J.C., Vincent, R., and van Eeden, S.F. (2001). Particulate matter induces cytokine expression in human bronchial epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 25, 265-271. (Pubitemid 32918906)
220. Ning, Y., Tao, F., Qin, G., Imrich, A., Godlsmith, C.-A., Yang, Z., and Kobzik, L. (2004). Particle-epithelial interaction: Effect of priming and bystander neu-trophils on interleukin-8 release. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 30, 744-750. (Pubitemid 38591227)
221. Ramgolam, K., Chevaillier, S., Marano, F., Baeza-Squiban, A., and Martinon, L. (2008). Proinflammatory effect of fine and ultrafine particulate matter using size-resolved urban aerosols from Paris. Chemosphere 72, 1340-1346.
222. Imrich, A., Ning, Y.Y., Lawrence, J., Coull, B., Gitin, E., Knutson, M., and Kobzik, L. (2007). Alveolar macrophage cytokine response to air pollution particles: Oxidant mechanisms. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 218, 256-264. (Pubitemid 46185507)
223. 2.5 components in the release of amphiregulin by human airway epithelial cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2007, 155-164. (Pubitemid 46075174)
224. Vabulas, R.M., Ahmad-Nejad, P., Ghose, S., Kirschning, C.J., Issels, R.D., and Wagner, H. (2002). HSP70 as endogenous stimulus of the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor signal pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 15107-15112. (Pubitemid 34952589)
225. Becker, S., Dailey, L., Soukup, J.M., Silbajoris, R., and Devlin, R.B. (2005). TLR-2 is involved in airway epithelial cell response to air pollution particles. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 203, 45-52. (Pubitemid 40208365)
226. Imrich, A., Ning, Y., and Kobzik, L. (2000). Insoluble components of concentrated ar particulate alveolar macrophage responses in vitro. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 167, 140-150.
227. Kamdar, O., Le, W., Zhang, J., Ghio, A.J., Rosen, G.D., and Upadhyay, D. (2008). Air pollution induces enhanced mitochondrial oxidative stress in cystic fibrosis airway epithelium. FEBS Lett. 582, 3601-3606.
228. 3 nanoparticles on oxidative stress in cultured lung epithelial cells. Part. Fibre. Toxicol. 9, 4.
229. Smith, K.R., Vernath, J.M., Hu, A.A., Lighty, J.S., and Aust, A.E. (2000). Interleukin-8 levels in human lung epithelial cells are increased in response to coal fly ash and vary with the bioavailability of iron, as a function of particle size and source of coal. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 13, 118-125. (Pubitemid 30115551)
230. Payne, J.P., Kemp, S.J., Dewar, A., Goldstraw, P., Kendall, M., Chen, L.C., and Tetley, T.D. (2004). Effects of airborne World Trade Center dust on cytokine release by primary human lung cells in vitro. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 46, 420-427. (Pubitemid 38623679)
231. Brandenberger, C., Rothen-Ruthishauser, B., Blank, F., Gehr, P., and Muhlfeld, C. (2009). Particles induce apical plasma membrane enlargement in epithelial lung cell line depending on particle surface area dose. Respir. Res. 12, 10:22.
232. Anseth, J.W., Goffin, A.J., Fuller, G.G., Ghio, A.J., Kao, P.N., and Upadhyay, D. (2005). Lung surfactant gelation induced by epithelial cells exposed to air pollution or oxidative stress. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 33, 161-168. (Pubitemid 41473053)
233. Raunio, H., Hakkola, J., Hukkanen, J., Lassila, A., Päivärinta, K., Pelkonen, O., Anttila, S., Piipari, R., Boobis, A., and Edwards, R.J. (1999). Expression of xenobiotic-metabolizing CYPs in human pulmonary tissue. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 51, 412-417. (Pubitemid 29334377)
234. Hukkanen, J., Lassila, A., Päivärinta, K., Valanne, S., Sarpo, S., Hakkola, J., Pelkonen, O., and Raunio, H. (2000). Induction and regulation of xenobiotic-metabolizing cytochrome P450s in the human A549 lung adenocarcinoma cell line. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 22, 360-366. (Pubitemid 30343363)
235. 2.5) in human lung epithelial A549 cells. Canc. Lett. 270, 144-155.
236. 2.5): Physic-ochemical characterization and metabolic activation of the organice fraction in human lung epithelial cells (A549). Environ. Res. 105, 212-223. (Pubitemid 47376690)
237. Castell, J.V., Donato, M.T., and Gómez-Lechón, M.J. (2005). Metabolism and bioactivation of toxicants in the lung. The in vitro cellular approach. Exp. Toxicol. Path. 57, 189-204. (Pubitemid 40884492)
238. 2.5)-induced gene expression of volatile organic compounds and/or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-metabolizing enzymes in an in vitro coculture model. Toxicol. in vitro, 23, 37-46.
239. 2.5). Toxicol. 244, 220-230.
240. 2.5) in human epithelial lung cells (L132) in culture. Toxicol. 225, 12-24. (Pubitemid 44026640)
241. Yun, Y.-P., Lee, J.Y., Ahn, E.K., Lee, K.H., Yoon, Y.K., and Lim, Y. (2009). Diesel exhaust particles induce apoptosis via p53 and Mdm2 in J774A.1 macrophage cell line. Toxicol. in vitro, 23, 21-28.
242. Hirota, R., Akimura, K., and Nakamura, H. (2008). In vitro toxicity evaluation of diesel exhaust particles on human eosinophilic cell. Toxicol. in vitro, 22, 988-994.
243. Veranth, J.M., Cutler, N.S., Kaser, E.G., Reilly, C.A., and Yost, G.S. (2008). Effects of cell type and culture media on interleukin-6 secretion in response to environmental particles. Toxicol. in vitro, 22, 498-509.
244. Kemp, S.J., Thorley, A.J., Gorelik, J., Seckl, M.J., O'Hare, M.J., Arcaro, A., Korchev, Y., Goldstraw, P., and Tetley, T.D. (2008). Immortalization of human alveolar epithelial cells to investigate nanoparticle uptake. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 39, 591-597.
245. Oberdörster, G., Oberdörster, E., and Oberdörster, J. (2005). Nanotoxicology: An emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 823-839. (Pubitemid 40984181)
246. Oberdörster, G., Oberdörster, E., and Oberdörster, J. (2005). Concepts of nanoparticle dose metric and response metric. Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 290.
247. Donaldson, K., Borm, P.J., Oberdörster, G., Pinkerton, K.E., Stone V., and Tran, C.L. (2008). Concordance between in vitro and in vivo dosimetry in the proinflammatory effects of low-toxicity, low-solubility particles: The key role of the proximal alveolar region. Inhal. Toxicol. 20, 53-62. (Pubitemid 351194913)
248. Donaldson, K., Borm, P.J.A., Castanova, V., and Gulumian, M. (2008). The limits of testing particle-mediated oxidative stress in vitro in predicting diverse pathologies: Relevance for testing of nanoparticles. Partic. Fibre Toxicol. 6:13.
249. Mitschik, S., Schierl, R., Nowak, D., and Jörres, R.A. (2008). Effects of particulate matter on cytokine production in vitro: A comparative analysis of published studies. Inhal. Toxicol. 20, 399-414. (Pubitemid 351317157)
250. Lu, S., Duffin, R., Poland, C., Daly, P., Murphy, F., Drost, E., MacNee, W., Stone, V., and Donaldson, K. (2009). Efficacy of simple short-term in vitro assays for predicting the potential of metal oxide nanoparticles to cause pulmonary inflammation. Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 241-247.
251. Alfaro-Moreno, E., Nawrot, T.S., Vanaudenaerde, B.M., Hoylaerts, M.F., Vanoir-beek, J.A., Nemery, B., and Hoet, P.H. (2008). Co-cultures of multiple cell types mimic pulmonary cell communication in response to urban PM10. Eur. Respir. J. 32, 1184-1194.