Air pollution and health

Lancet

Volumn 360, Issue 9341, 2002, Pages 1233-1242

  Brunekreef, Bert ^a   Holgate, Stephen T ^b  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b SOUTHAMPTON GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NITROGEN DIOXIDE; OZONE; SULFUR DIOXIDE;

AIR POLLUTANT; AIR POLLUTION; AIR QUALITY CONTROL; AMBIENT AIR; ASTHMA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CAUSE OF DEATH; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; HEALTH STATUS; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; INHALATION; MORBIDITY; PARTICULATE MATTER; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 0037136933     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11274-8     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Ministry of Health. Mortality and morbidity during the London fog of December 1952. Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects No 95. London: HMSO, 1954.
2. Nemery B., Hoet P.H., Nemmar A. The Meuse Valley fog of 1930: an air pollution disaster. Lancet. 357:2001;704-708.
3. Firket J. Fog along the Meuse Valley. Trans Faraday Soc. 32:1936;1192-1197.
4. Bell M.L., Davis D.L. Reassessment of the lethal London fog of 1952: novel indicators of acute and chronic consequences of acute exposure to air pollution. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 3):2001;389-394.
5. Anon. An anti-smog bottle. BMJ 1955; 231: 1135.
6. Goldsmith C.A., Kobzik L. Particulate air pollution and asthma: a review of epidemiological and biological studies. Rev Environ Health. 14:1999;121-134.
7. Koenig J.Q. Air pollution and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 104:1999;717-722.
8. Nicolai T. Air pollution and respiratory disease in children: what is the clinically relevant impact? Pediatr Pulmonol Suppl. 18:1999;9-13.
9. Pope C.A. III. Mortality and air pollution: associations persist with continued advances in research methodology. Environ Health Perspect. 107:1999;613-614.
10. Donaldson K., Gilmour M.I., MacNee W. Asthma and PM10. Respir Res. 1:2000;12-15.
11. Gordon T., Reibman J. Cardiovascular toxicity of inhaled ambient particulate matter. Toxicol Sci. 56:2000;2-4.
12. Nyberg B.F., Pershagen G. Epidemiologic studies on the health effects of ambient particulate air pollution. Scand J Work Environ Health. 26:(suppl 1):2000;49-89.
13. Pope C.A. 3rd. Epidemiol fine particulate air Pollut Hum health: biologic mechanisms and who's at risk? Environ Health Perspect. 108:(suppl 4):2000;713-723.
14. Takafuji S., Nakagawa T. Air pollution and allergy. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 10:2000;5-10.
15. Dockery D.W. Epidemiologic evidence of cardiovascular effects of particulate air pollution. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 4):2001;483-486.
16. Donaldson K., Stone V., Seaton A., MacNee W. Ambient particle inhalation and the cardiovascular system: potential mechanisms. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 4):2001;523-527.
17. Gilmour M.I., Daniels M., McCrillis R.C., Winsett D., Selgrade M.K. Air pollutant-enhanced respiratory disease in experimental animals. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 4):2001;619-622.
18. Oberdorster G. Pulmonary effects of inhaled ultrafine particles. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 74:2001;1-8.
19. Peden D.B. Air pollution in asthma: effect of pollutants on airway inflammation. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 87:2001;12-17.
20. Sunyer J. Urban air pollution and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a review. Eur Respir J. 17:2001;1024-1033.
21. Sydbom A., Blomberg A., Parnia S., et al. Health effects of diesel exhaust emissions. Eur Respir J. 17:2001;733-746.
22. Thurston G.D., Ito K. Epidemiological studies of acute ozone exposures and mortality. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 11:2001;286-294.
23. Holland W.W., Bennett A.E., Cameron I.R., et al. Health effects of particulate pollution: reappraising the evidence. Am J Epidemiol. 110:1979;527-659.
24. Wichmann H.E., Mueller W., Allhoff P., et al. Health effects during a smog episode in West Germany in 1985. Environ Health Perspect. 79:1989;89-99.
25. Dassen W., Brunekreef B., Hoek G., et al. Decline in children's pulmonary function during an air pollution episode. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 36:1986;1223-1227.
26. Ostro B. A search for a threshold in the relationship of air pollution to mortality: a reanalysis of data on London winters. Environ Health Perspect. 58:1984;397-399.
27. Schwartz J., Marcus A. Mortality and air pollution in London: a time series analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 131:1990;185-194.
28. Dockery D.W., Pope C.A. 3rd, Xu X., et al. An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. N Engl J Med. 329:1993;1753-1759.
29. Pope C.A. 3rd, Thun M.J., Namboodiri M.M., et al. Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of US adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 151:1995;669-674.
30. Abbey D.E., Nishino N., McDonnell W.F., et al. Long-term inhalable particles and other air pollutants related to mortality in nonsmokers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 159:1999;373-382.
31. Brunekreef B. Air pollution and life expectancy: is there a relation? Occup Environ Med. 54:1997;781-784.
32. Pope C.A. 3rd, Burnett R.T., Thun M.J., et al. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA. 287:2002;1132-1141.
33. Nyberg F., Gustavsson P., Jarup L., et al. Urban air pollution and lung cancer in Stockholm. Epidemiology. 11:2000;487-495.
34. Brunekreef B. All but quiet on the particulate front. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 159:1999;354-356.
35. Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Goldbohm S, Fischer P, Brandt P. Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study. Lancet (in press).
36. McMichael A.J., Smith K.R. Seeking a global perspective on air pollution and health. Epidemiology. 10:1999;1-4.
37. Smith K.R., Samet J.M., Romieu I., Bruce N. Indoor air pollution in developing countries and acute lower respiratory infections in children. Thorax. 55:2000;518-532.
38. Ezzati M., Kammen D. Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion and acute respiratory infections in Kenya: an exposure-response study. Lancet. 358:2001;619-624.
39. Vichit-Vadakan N., Ostro B.D., Chestnut L.G., et al. Air pollution and respiratory symptoms: results from three panel studies in Bangkok, Thailand. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 3):2001;381-387.
40. Ostro B., Chestnut L., Vichit-Vadakan N., Laixuthai A. The impact of particulate matter on daily mortality in Bangkok, Thailand. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 49:1999;100-107.
41. WHO. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, 2nd edn. WHO Reg Publ Eur Ser 2000; 91: 1-287.
42. Katsouyanni K., Zmirou D., Spix C., et al. Short-term effects of air pollution on health: a European approach using epidemiological time-series data. The APHEA project: background, objectives, design. Eur Respir J. 8:1995;1030-1038.
43. Katsouyanni K., Touloumi G., Samoli E., et al. Confounding and effect modification in the short-term effects of ambient particles on total mortality: results from 29 European cities within the APHEA2 project. Epidemiology. 12:2001;521-531.
44. Atkinson R.W., Anderson H.R., Sunyer J., et al. Acute effects of particulate air pollution on respiratory admissions: results from APHEA 2 project. Air Pollution and Health: a European Approach. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 164:2001;1860-1866.
45. Le Tertre A, Medina S, Samoli E, et al. Short term effects of particulate air pollution on cardiovascular diseases in eight European cities. J Epidemiol Community Health (in press).
46. Touloumi G., Katsouyanni K., Zmirou D., et al. Short-term effects of ambient oxidant exposure on mortality: a combined analysis within the APHEA project. Air Pollution and Health: a European Approach. Am J Epidemiol. 146:1997;177-185.
47. Samet J.M., Dominici F., Zeger S.L., Schwartz J., Dockery D.W. The National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study. Part I: methods and methodologic issues. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 75:2000;5-14.
48. Samet J.M., Dominici F., Curriero F.C., Coursac I., Zeger S.L. Fine particulate air pollution and mortality in 20 US cities, 1987-1994. N Engl J Med. 343:2000;1742-1749.
49. Zanobetti A., Schwartz J., Dockery D.W. Airborne particles are a risk factor for hospital admissions for heart and lung disease. Environ Health Perspect. 108:2000;1071-1077.
50. Pope C.A. 3rd, Dockery D.W., Spengler J.D., Raizenne M.E. Respiratory health and PM10 pollution: a daily time series analysis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 144:1991;668-674.
51. Pope C.A. 3rd, Dockery D.W. Acute health effects of PM10 pollution on symptomatic and asymptomatic children. Am Rev Respir Dis. 145:1992;1123-1128.
52. Roemer W., Hoek G., Brunekreef B., et al. Daily variations in air pollution and respiratory health in a multicentre study: the PEACE project. Pollution Effects on Asthmatic Children in Europe. Eur Respir J. 12:1998;1354-1361.
53. Roemer W., Hoek G., Brunekreef B. Pollution effects on asthmatic children in Europe, the PEACE study. Clin Exp Allergy. 30:2000;1067-1075.
54. Peters A., Doring A., Wichmann H.E., Koenig W. Increased plasma viscosity during an air pollution episode: a link to mortality? Lancet. 349:1997;1582-1587.
55. Peters A., Frohlich M., Doring A., et al. Particulate air pollution is associated with an acute phase response in men; results from the MONICA-Augsburg Study. Eur Heart J. 22:2001;1198-1204.
56. Peters A., Perz S., Doring A., et al. Increases in heart rate during an air pollution episode. Am J Epidemiol. 150:1999;1094-1098.
57. Peters A., Liu E., Verrier R.L., et al. Air pollution and incidence of cardiac arrhythmia. Epidemiology. 11:2000;11-17.
58. Peters A., Dockery D.W., Muller J.E., Mittleman M.A. Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of myocardial infarction. Circulation. 103:2001;2810-2815.
59. Ackermann-Liebrich U., Leuenberger P., Schwartz J., et al. Lung function and long term exposure to air pollutants in Switzerland. Study on Air Pollution and Lung Diseases in Adults (SAPALDIA) Team. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 155:1997;122-129.
60. Zemp E., Elsasser S., Schindler C., et al. Long-term ambient air pollution and respiratory symptoms in adults (SAPALDIA study). Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 159:1999;1257-1266.
61. Braun-Fahrlander C., Vuille J.C., Sennhauser F.H., et al. Respiratory health and long-term exposure to air pollutants in Swiss schoolchildren. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 155:1997;1042-1049.
62. Dockery D.W., Cunningham J., Damokosh A.I., et al. Health effects of acid aerosols on North American children: respiratory symptoms. Environ Health Perspect. 104:1996;500-505.
63. Raizenne M., Neas L.M., Damokosh A.I., et al. Health effects of acid aerosols on North American children: pulmonary function. Environ Health Perspect. 104:1996;506-514.
64. Spengler J.D., Koutrakis P., Dockery D.W., Raizenne M., Speizer F.E. Health effects of acid aerosols on North American children: air pollution exposures. Environ Health Perspect. 104:1996;492-499.
65. Gauderman W.J., McConnell R., Gilliland F., et al. Association between air pollution and lung function growth in southern California children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 162:2000;1383-1390.
66. Avol E.L., Gauderman W.J., Tan S.M., London S.J., Peters J.M. Respiratory effects of relocating to areas of differing air pollution levels. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 164:2001;2067-2072.
67. Kaur B., Anderson H.R., Austin J., et al. Prevalence of asthma symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment in 12-14 year old children across Great Britain (international study of asthma and allergies in childhood, ISAAC UK). BMJ. 316:1998;118-124.
68. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Steering Committee . Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. Lancet. 351:1998;1225-1232.
69. McDonnell W.F., Abbey D.E., Nishino N., Lebowitz M.D. Long-term ambient ozone concentration and the incidence of asthma in nonsmoking adults: the AHSMOG Study. Environ Res. 80:1999;110-121.
70. McConnell R., Berhane K., Gilliland F., et al. Asthma in exercising children exposed to ozone: a cohort study. Lancet. 359:2002;386-391.
71. Rahman I., MacNee W. Oxidative stress and regulation of glutathione in lung inflammation. Eur Respir J. 16:2000;534-554.
72. Bayram H., Sapsford R.J., Abdelaziz M.M., Khair O.A. Effect of ozone and nitrogen dioxide on the release of proinflammatory mediators from bronchial epithelial cells of nonatopic nonasthmatic subjects and atopic asthmatic patients in vitro. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 107:2001;287-294.
73. Mochitate K., Katagiri K., Miura T. Impairment of microbial billing and superoxide-producing activities of alveolar macrophages by a low level of ozone. J Health Sci. 47:2001;302-309.
74. Nichols B.G., Woods J.S., Luchtel D.L., Corral J., Koenig J.Q. Effects of ozone exposure on nuclear factor-kappaB activation and tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression in human nasal epithelial cells. Toxicol Sci. 60:2001;356-362.
75. Bassett D., Elbon-Copp C., Otterbein S., et al. Inflammatory cell availability affects ozone-induced lung damage. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 64:2001;547-565.
76. Jorres R., Nowak D., Magnussen H. The effect of ozone exposure on allergen responsiveness in subjects with asthma or rhinitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 153:1996;56-64.
77. Kleeberger S.R., Levitt R.C., Zhang L.Y., et al. Linkage analysis of susceptibility to ozone-induced lung inflammation in inbred mice. Nat Genet. 17:1997;475-478.
78. Cho H.Y., Zhang L.Y., Kleeberger S.R. Ozone-induced lung inflammation and hyperreactivity are mediated via tumor necrosis factor-alpha receptors. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 280:2001;L537-L546.
79. Bergamaschi E., Palma G. D.e, Mozzoni P., et al. Polymorphism of quinone-metabolizing enzymes and susceptibility to ozone-induced acute effects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 163:2001;1426-1431.
80. Mudway I.S., Krishna M.T., Frew A.J., et al. Compromised concentrations of ascorbate in fluid lining the respiratory tract in human subjects after exposure to ozone. Occup Environ Med. 56:1999;473-481.
81. Samet J.M., Hatch G.E., Horstman D., et al. Effect of antioxidant supplementation on ozone-induced lung injury in human subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 164:2001;819-825.
82. Holz O., Jorres R.A., Timm P., et al. Ozone-induced airway inflammatory changes differ between individuals and are reproducible. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 159:1999;776-784.
83. Schelegle E.S., Eldridge M.W., Cross C.E., Walby W.F., Adams W.C. Differential effects of airway anesthesia on ozone-induced pulmonary responses in human subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 163:2001;1121-1127.
84. Jorres R.A., Holtz O., Zachgo P., et al. The effect of repeated ozone exposures on inflammatory markers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and mucosal biopsies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 161:2000;1855-1861.
85. Blomberg A., Krishna M.T., Bocchino V., et al. The inflammatory effects of 2 ppm NO2 on the airways of healthy subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 156:1997;418-424.
86. Sandstrom T., Helleday R., Bjermer L., Stjernberg N. Effects of repeated exposure to 4 ppm nitrogen dioxide on bronchoalveolar lymphocyte subsets and macrophages in healthy men. Eur Respir J. 5:1992;1092-1096.
87. Frampton M.W., Smeglin A.M., Roberts N.J. Jr, Finkelstein J.N., Morrow P.E., Utell M.J. Nitrogen dioxide exposure in vivo and human alveolar macrophage inactivation of influenza virus in vitro. Environ Res. 48:1989;179-192.
88. 2) and respiratory disease risk. Rev Environ Health. 13:1998;73-90.
89. Tunnicliffe W.S., Burge P.S., Ayres J.G. Effect of domestic concentrations of nitrogen dioxide on airway responses to inhaled allergen in asthmatic patients. Lancet. 344:1994;1733-1736.
90. Fujii T., Hayashi S., Hogg J.C., Vincent R., Van Eeden S.F. Particulate matter induces cytokine expression in human bronchial epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 25:2001;265-271.
91. Lundborg M., Johard U., Lastbom L., Gerde P., Camner P. Human alveolar macrophage phagocytic function is impaired by aggregates of ultrafine carbon particles. Environ Res. 86:2001;244-253.
92. Stearns R.C., Paulauskis J.D., Godleski J.J. Endocytosis of ultrafine particles by A549 cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 24:2001;108-115.
93. Renwick L.C., Donaldson K., Clouter A. Impairment of alveolar macrophage phagocytosis by ultrafine particles. Toxicol Appl Pharm. 172:2001;119-127.
94. Beck-Speier I., Dayal N., Karg E., et al. Agglomerates of ultrafine particles of elemental carbon and TiO2 induce generation of lipid mediators in alveolar macrophages. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 4):2001;613-618.
95. Dellinger B., Pryor W.A., Cueto R., et al. Role of free radicals in the toxicity of airborne fine particulate matter. Chem Res Toxicol. 14:2001;1371-1377.
96. Sun G., Crissman K., Norwood J., et al. Oxidative interactions of synthetic lung epithelial lining fluid with metal-containing particulate matter. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 281:2001;L807-L815.
97. Van Eeden S.F., Tan W.C., Suwa T., et al. Cytokines involved in the systemic inflammatory response induced by exposure to particulate matter air pollutants (PM(10)). Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 164:2001;826-830.
98. Salvi S.S., Nordenhall C., Blomberg A., et al. Acute exposure to diesel exhaust increases IL-8 and GRO-alpha production in healthy human airways. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 161:2000;550-557.
99. Salvi S., Blomberg A., Rudell B., et al. Acute inflammatory responses in the airways and peripheral blood after short-term exposure to diesel exhaust in healthy human volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 159:1999;702-709.
100. Mukae H., Vincent R., Quinlan K., et al. The effect of repeated exposure to particulate air pollution (PM10) on the bone marrow. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 163:2001;201-209.
101. Wu W., Samet J.M., Ghio A.J., Devlin R.B. Activation of the EGF receptor signaling pathway in airway epithelial cells exposed to Utah Valley PM. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 281:2001;L483-L489.
102. Puddicombe S.M., Davies D.E. The role of MAP kinases in intracellular signal transduction in bronchial epithelium. Clin Exp Allergy. 30:2000;7-11.
103. Seaton A., Soutar A., Crawford V., et al. Particulate air pollution and the blood. Thorax. 54:1999;1027-1032.
104. Hashimoto K., Ishii Y., Uchida Y., et al. Exposure to diesel exhaust exacerbates allergen-induced airway responses in guinea pigs. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 164:2001;1957-1963.
105. Fujieda S., Diaz-Sanchez D., Saxon A. Combined nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles and allergen induces in vivo IgE isotype switching. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 19:1998;507-512.
106. Nel A.E., Diaz-Sanchez D., Ng D., Hiura T., Saxon A. Enhancement of allergic inflammation by the interaction between diesel exhaust particles and the immune system. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 102:1998;539-554.
107. Brown D.M., Wilson M.R., MacNee W., Stone V., Donaldson K. Size-dependent proinflammatory effects of ultrafine polystyrene particles: a role for surface area and oxidative stress in the enhanced activity of ultrafines. Toxicol Appl Pharm. 175:2001;191-199.
108. Cakmak S., Burnett R.T., Krewski D. Methods for detecting and estimating population threshold concentrations for air pollution-related mortality with exposure measurement error. Risk Anal. 19:1999;487-496.
109. Daniels M.J., Dominici F., Samet J.M., Zeger S.L. Estimating particulate matter-mortality dose-response curves and threshold levels: an analysis of daily time-series for the 20 largest US cities. Am J Epidemiol. 152:2000;397-406.
110. Brunekreef B., Dockery D.W., Krzyzanowski M. Epidemiologic studies on short-term effects of low levels of major ambient air pollution components. Environ Health Perspect. 103:(suppl 2):1995;3-13.
111. McMichael A.J., Anderson H.R., Brunekreef B., Cohen A.J. Inappropriate use of daily mortality analyses to estimate longer-term mortality effects of air pollution. Int J Epidemiol. 27:1998;450-453.
112. Schwartz J. Harvesting and long term exposure effects in the relation between air pollution and mortality. Am J Epidemiol. 151:2000;440-448.
113. Schwartz J. Is there harvesting in the association of airborne particles with daily deaths and hospital admissions? Epidemiology. 12:2001;55-61.
114. Zanobetti A., Schwartz J., Samoli E., et al. The temporal pattern of mortality responses to air pollution: a multicity assessment of mortality displacement. Epidemiology. 13:2002;87-93.
115. Zeger S.L., Dominici F., Samet J. Harvesting-resistant estimates of air pollution effects on mortality. Epidemiology. 10:1999;171-175.
116. Schwartz J. What are people dying of on high air pollution days? Environ Res. 64:1994;26-35.
117. Janssen N.A., Hartog J.J. de, Hoek G., et al. Personal exposure to fine particulate matter in elderly subjects: relation between personal, indoor, and outdoor concentrations. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 50:2000;1133-1143.
118. Sarnat J.A., Schwartz J., Catalano P.J., Suh H.H. Gaseous pollutants in particulate matter epidemiology: confounders or surrogates? Environ Health Perspect. 109:2001;1053-1061.
119. Rijnders E., Janssen N.A., Vliet P.H. van, Brunekreef B. Personal and outdoor nitrogen dioxide concentrations in relation to degree of urbanization and traffic density. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 3):2001;411-417.
120. Oglesby L., Kunzli N., Roosli M., et al. Validity of ambient levels of fine particles as surrogate for personal exposure to outdoor air pollution - results of the European EXPOLIS-EAS Study (Swiss Center Basel). J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 50:2000;1251-1261.
121. Hoek G., Fischer P., Van Den Brandt P., Goldbohm S., Brunekreef B. Estimation of long-term average exposure to outdoor air pollution for a cohort study on mortality. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 11:2001;459-469.
122. Seaton A., MacNee W., Donaldson K., Godden D. Particulate air pollution and acute health effects. Lancet. 345:1995;176-178.
123. Peters A., Wichmann H.E., Tuch T., Heinrich J., Heyder J. Respiratory effects are associated with the number of ultrafine particles. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 155:1997;1376-1383.
124. Penttinen P., Timonen K.L., Tiittanen P., et al. Number concentration and size of particles in urban air: effects on spirometric lung function in adult asthmatic subjects. Environ Health Perspect. 109:2001;319-323.
125. van Vliet P., Knape M., de Hartog J., et al. Motor vehicle exhaust and chronic respiratory symptoms in children living near freeways. Environ Res. 74:1997;122-132.
126. Janssen N.A., Schwartz J., Zanobetti A., Suh H.H. Air conditioning and source-specific particles as modifiers of the effect of PM(10) on hospital admissions for heart and lung disease. Environ Health Perspect. 110:2002;43-49.
127. Roemer W.H., van Wijnen J.H. Daily mortality and air pollution along busy streets in Amsterdam, 1987-1998. Epidemiology. 12:2001;649-653.
128. Laden F., Neas L.M., Dockery D.W., Schwartz J. Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six US cities. Environ Health Perspect. 108:2000;941-947.
129. Ghio A.J., Devlin R.B. Inflammatory lung injury after bronchial instillation of air pollution particles. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 164:2001;704-708.
130. Schwartz J., Dockery D.W., Neas L.M. Is daily mortality associated specifically with fine particles? J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 46:1996;927-939.
131. Schwartz J., Neas L.M. Fine particles are more strongly associated than coarse particles with acute respiratory health effects in schoolchildren. Epidemiology. 11:2000;6-10.
132. McDonnell W.F., Nishino-Ishikawa N., Petersen F.F., Chen L.H., Abbey D.E. Relationships of mortality with the fine and coarse fractions of long-term ambient PM10 concentrations in nonsmokers. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 10:2000;427-436.
133. Smith R.L., Spitzner D., Kim Y., Fuentes M. Threshold dependence of mortality effects for fine and coarse particles in Phoenix, Arizona. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 50:2000;1367-1379.
134. Anderson H.R., Bremner S.A., Atkinson R.W., Harrison R.M., Walters S. Particulate matter and daily mortality and hospital admissions in the west Midlands conurbation of the United Kingdom: associations with fine and coarse particles, black smoke and sulphate. Occup Environ Med. 58:2001;504-510.
135. Pope C.A. 3rd. Respiratory disease associated with community air pollution and a steel mill. Utah Val Am J Public Health. 79:1989;623-628.
136. Pope C.A. 3rd. Particulate pollution and health: a review of the Utah valley experience. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 6:1996;23-34.
137. Friedman M.S., Powell K.E., Hutwagner L., Graham L.M., Teague W.G. Impact of changes in transportation and commuting behaviors during the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on air quality and childhood asthma. JAMA. 285:2001;897-905.
138. Heinrich J., Hoelscher B., Wichmann H.E. Decline of ambient air pollution and respiratory symptoms in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 161:2000;1930-1936.
139. Schwartz J., Dockery D.W. Increased mortality in Philadelphia associated with daily air pollution concentrations. Am Rev Respir Dis. 145:1992;600-604.
140. Kelsall J.E., Samet J.M., Zeger S.L., Xu J. Air pollution and mortality in Philadelphia, 1974-1988. Am J Epidemiol. 146:1997;750-762.
141. Krewski D, Burnett R, Goldberg MS, et al. Reanalysis of the Harvard six cities study and the American Cancer Society study of particulate air pollution and mortality: Health Effects Institute special report. Boston: Health Effects Institute, 2000.
142. Samet J., Zeger S., Kelsall J., Xu J., Kalkstein L. Does weather confound or modify the association of particulate air pollution with mortality? An analysis of the Philadelphia data, 1973-1980. Environ Res. 77:1998;9-19.
143. Pope C.A. 3rd, Kalkstein L.S. Synoptic weather modeling and estimates of the exposure-response relationship between daily mortality and particulate air pollution. Environ Health Perspect. 104:1996;414-420.
144. Burnett R., Ma R., Jerrett M., et al. The spatial association between community air pollution and mortality: a new method of analyzing correlated geographic cohort data. Environ Health Perspect. 109:(suppl 3):2001;375-380.
145. Greenbaum D.S., Bachmann J.D., Krewski D., et al. Particulate air pollution standards and morbidity and mortality: case study. Am J Epidemiol. 154:2001;S78-S90.
146. Kunzli N., Kaiser R., Medina S., et al. Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: a European assessment. Lancet. 356:2000;795-801.
147. Hollander A.E. de, Melse J.M., Lebret E., Kramers P.G. An aggregate public health indicator to represent the impact of multiple environmental exposures. Epidemiology. 10:1999;606-617.