Cardiovascular effects of fine and ultrafine particles

Journal of Aerosol Medicine: Deposition, Clearance, and Effects in the Lung

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 1-22

  Schulz, Holger ^a   Harder, Volker ^a   Ibald Mulli, Angela ^a,d   Khandoga, Andrej ^c   Koenig, Wolfgang ^b   Krombach, Fritz ^c   Radykewicz, Roman ^a   Stampfl, Andreas ^a   Thorand, Barbara ^a   Peters, Annette ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ULM   (Germany)

^c LUDWIG MAXIMILIANS UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AIR POLLUTION; AIRBORNE PARTICLE; AMBIENT AIR; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY; BLOOD CLOTTING; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECT; DISEASE EXACERBATION; EXPOSURE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART DISEASE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LUNG ENDOTHELIUM; MICROANGIOPATHY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; PARTICLE SIZE; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; REVIEW;

AIR POLLUTION; ANIMALS; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; LUNG; PARTICLE SIZE; RESPIRATION DISORDERS;

EID: 20044395769     PISSN: 08942684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/jam.2005.18.1     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Samet, J.M., S.L. Zeger, F. Dominici, et al. 2000. The National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study. Part II: Morbidity and mortality from air pollution in the United States (Rep. No. 94 Part II). North Andover MA: Flagship Press.
2. Health Effects Institute. 2003. Revised analysis of time-series studies of air pollution and health (Rep. No. Special Report). Boston, MA: Health Effects Institute.
3. Peters, A., S. Perz, A. Döring, et al. 1999. Increases in heart rate during an air pollution episode. Am. J. Epidemiol. 150:1094-1098.
4. Gold, D.R., A. Litonjua, J. Schwartz, et al. 2002. Ambient pollution and heart rate variability. Circulation 101:1267-1273.
5. Devlin, R.B., A.J. Ghio, H. Kehrl, et al. 2003. Elderly humans exposed to concentrated air pollution particles have decreased heart rate variability. Eur. Respir. J. (Suppl.) 40:76s-80s.
6. Brook, R.D., J.R. Brook, B. Urch, et al. 2002. Inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and ozone causes acute arterial vasoconstriction in healthy adults. Circulation 105:1534-1536.
7. Ibald-Mulli, A., J. Stieber, H.E. Wichmann, et al. 2001. Effects of air pollution on blood pressure: a population-based approach. Am. J. Public Health 91:571-577.
8. Peters, A., A. Döring, H.E. Wichmann, et al. 1997. Increased plasma viscosity during the 1985 air pollution episode: a link to mortality? Lancet 349:1582-1587.
9. Schwartz, J., and R. Morris. 1995. Air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular disease in Detroit, Michigan. Am. J. Epidemiol. 142:23-35.
10. Peters, A., E. Liu, R.L. Verrier, et al. 2000a. Air pollution and incidence of cardiac arrhythmia. Epidemiology 11:11-17.
11. Morris, R.D., E.N. Naumova, and R.L. Munasinghe. 1995. Ambient air pollution and hospitalization for congestive heart failure among elderly people in seven large US cities. Am. J. Public Health 85:1361-1365.
12. Peters, A., M. Fröhlich, A. Döring, et al. 2001. Particulate air pollution is associated with an acute phase response in men. Eur. Heart J. 22:1198-1204.
13. The World Health Report. 2002. Reducing Risks Promoting Healthy Life. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
14. World Heart Federation web site [On-line]. Available: www.worldheart.org/introduction.
15. The Global Burden of Disease: A comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020. 1996. Harvard School of Public Health, Boston.
16. Yusuf, S., S. Reddy, S. Ounpuu, et al. 2001. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases. Part I: General considerations, the epidemiologic transition, risk factors, and impact of urbanization. Circulation 104:2746-2753.
17. Elisaf, M. 2001. The treatment of coronary heart disease: an update. Part 1: An overview of the risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 17:18-26.
18. Evans, A., H. Tolonen, H.W. Hense, et al. 2001. Trends in coronary risk factors in the WHO MONICA project. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30:S35-S40.
19. Bonow, R.O., L.A. Smaha, S.C. Smith, et al. 2002. World Heart Day 2002. The International Burden of Cardiovascular Disease: Responding to the Emerging Global Epidemic. Circulation 106:1602-1605.
20. World Health Organization. 2000. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. WHO Technical Report Series No. 894, Geneva, Switzerland.
21. World Health Organization web site [On-line]. Available: www.who.int/nut/obs.htm.
22. World Health Organization web site. Obesity and Overweight [On-line]. Available: www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/gs_obesity.pdf.
23. Naghavi, M., P. Libby, E. Falk, et al. 2003a. From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: a call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: Part I. Circulation 108:1664-1672.
24. Naghavi, M., P. Libby, E. Falk, et al. 2003b. From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: a call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: Part II. Circulation 108:1772-1778.
25. Glass, C.K., and J.L. Witztum. 2001. Atherosclerosis. The road ahead. Cell 104:503-516.
26. Ross, R. 1999 Atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 340:115-123.
27. Muller, J.E., G.S. Abela, R.W. Nesto, et al. 1994. Triggers, acute risk factors and vulnerable plaques: the lexicon of a new frontier. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 23:809-813.
28. Newby, D.E., R.A. Wright, C. Labinjoh, et al. 1999. Endothelial dysfunction, impaired endogenous fibrinolysis, and cigarette smoking: a mechanism for arterial thrombosis and myocardial infarction. Circulation 99:1411-1415.
29. Seaton, A., W. MacNee, K. Donaldson, et al. 1995. Particulate air pollution and acute health effects. Lancet 345:176-178.
30. Donaldson, K., V. Stone, A. Seaton, et al. 2001. Ambient particle inhalation and the cardiovascular system: potential mechanisms. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl 4):523-527.
31. Donaldson, K., and C.L. Tran. 2002. Inflammation caused by particles and fibers. Inhal. Toxicol. 14:5-27.
32. Donaldson, K., V. Stone, P.J. Borm, et al. 2003. Oxidative stress and calcium signaling in the adverse effects of environmental particles (PM(10)). Free Radic. Biol. Med. 34:1369-1382.
33. Utell, M.J., M.F. Frampton, W. Zareba, et al. 2002. Cardiovascular effects associated with air pollution: potential mechanisms and methods of testing. Inhal. Toxicol. 14:1231-1247.
34. Danesh, J., P. Whincup, M. Walker, et al. 2000. Low grade inflammation and coronary heart disease: prospective study and updated meta-analyses. BMJ 321:199-204.
35. Koenig, W., M. Sund, B. Filipiak, et al. 1998. Plasma viscosity and the risk of coronary heart disease: Results from the MONICA-Augsburg cohort study, 1984 to 1992. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 18:768-772.
36. Peters, A., H.E. Wichmann, and W. Koenig. 2000. Air pollution exposure influences cardiovascular risk factors: A link to mortality? In U. Heinrich, and U. Mohr, eds. Relationships between acute and chronic effects of air pollution. International Life Sciences Institute Press: Washington, DC.
37. Pekkanen, J., E.J. Brunner, H.R. Anderson, et al. 2000. Daily concentrations of air pollution and plasma fibrinogen in London. Occup. Environ. Med. 57:818-822.
38. Schwartz, J. 2001. Air pollution and blood markers of cardiovascular risk. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl 3):405-409.
39. Koenig, W., M. Sund, M. Frohlich, et al. 1999. C-Reactive protein, a sensitive marker of inflammation, predicts future risk of coronary heart disease in initially healthy middle-aged men: results from the MONICA (Monitoring Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease) Augsburg Cohort Study, 1984 to 1992. Circulation 99:237-242.
40. Utell, M.J., and M.W. Frampton. 2000. Acute health effects of ambient air pollution: the ultrafine particle hypothesis. J. Aerosol Med. 13:355-359.
41. Seaton, A., A. Soutar, V. Crawford, et al. 1999. Particulate air pollution and the blood. Thorax 54:1027-1032.
42. Pope, C.A., M.L. Hansen, R.W. Long, et al. 2003. Ambient particulate air pollution, heart rate variability, and blood markers of inflammation in a panel of elderly subjects. Environ. Health Perspect. doi:10.1289/ehp.6588 [Online 12 November 2003].
43. Huang, Y.C., A.J. Ghio, J. Stonehuerner, et al. 2003. The role of soluble components in ambient fine particles-induced changes in human lungs and blood. Inhal. Toxicol. 15:327-342.
44. Ghio, A.J., C. Kim, and R.B. Devlin. 2000. Concentrated ambient air particles induce mild pulmonary inflammation in healthy human volunteers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162:981-988.
45. Frampton, M.W. 2001. Systemic and cardiovascular effects of airway injury and inflammation: ultrafine particle exposure in humans. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl 4):529-532.
46. Salvi, S., A. Blomberg, B. Rudell, et al. 1999. Acute inflammatory responses in the airways and peripheral blood after short-term exposure to diesel exhaust in healthy human volunteers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care. Med. 159:702-709.
47. Suwa, T., J.C. Hogg, K.B. Quinlan, et al. 2002. Particulate air pollution induces progression of atherosclerosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 39:935-942.
48. Kreyling, W.G., M. Semmler, F. Erbe, et al. 2002. Translocation of ultrafine insoluble iridium particles from lung epithelium to extrapulmonary organs is size dependent but very low. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A65:1513-1530.
49. Takenaka, S., E. Karg, C. Roth, et al. 2001. Pulmonary and systemic distribution of inhaled ultrafine silver particles in rats. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl 4):547-551.
50. Oberdorster, G., Z. Sharp, V. Atudorei, et al. 2002. Extrapulmonary translocation of ultrafine carbon particles following whole-body inhalation exposure of rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A65:1531-1543.
51. Nemmar, A., H. Vanbilloen, M.F. Hoylaerts, et al. 2001. Passage of intratracheally instilled ultrafine particles from the lung into the systemic circulation in hamster. Am. J. Respir. Crit Care Med. 164:1665-1668.
52. Nemmar, A., M.F. Hoylaerts, P.H. Hoet, et al. 2002. Ultrafine particles affect experimental thrombosis in an in vivo hamster model. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 166:998-1004.
53. Nemmar, A., P.H. Hoet, D. Dinsdale, et al. 2003. Diesel exhaust particles in lung acutely enhance experimental peripheral thrombosis. Circulation 107:1202-1208.
54. Nemmar, A., M.F. Hoylaerts, P.H. Hoet, et al. 2003. Size effect of intratracheally instilled particles on pulmonary inflammation and vascular thrombosis. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 186:38-45.
55. Nemmar, A., B. Nemery, P.H. Hoet, et al. 2003. Pulmonary inflammation and thrombogenicity caused by diesel particles in hamsters: role of histamine. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 168:1366-1372.
56. Khandoga, A., A. Stampfl, S. Takenaka, et al. 2004. Ultrafine particles exert prothrombotic but not inflammatory effects on the hepatic microcirculation in healthy mice in vivo. Circulation 109:1320-1325.
57. Nemmar, A., P.H. Hoet, B. Vanquickenborne, et al. 2002. Passage of inhaled particles into the blood circulation in humans. Circulation 105:411-414.
58. Zareba, W., A. Nomura, and J.P. Couderc. 2001. Cardiovascular effects of air pollution: what to measure in ECG? Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl 4):533-538.
59. Singer, D.H., and Z. Ori. 1995. Changes in heart rate variability associated with sudden cardiac death. In M. Malik, and A.J. Camm, eds. Heart Rate Variability. Futura Publishing Company, Inc., Armonk, NY, 429-448.
60. Nolan, J., P.D. Batin, R. Andrews, et al. 1998. Prospective study of heart rate variability and mortality in chronic heart failure. Circulation 98:1510-1516.
61. Widdicombe, J., and L.Y. Lee. 2001. Airway reflexes, autonomic function, and cardiovascular responses. Environ. Health Perspect. 109(Suppl 4):579-584.
62. Hoek, G. 2003. Daily mortality and air pollution in The Netherlands. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health. Special Report, 133-142. Boston, MA, Health Effects Institute.
63. Spix, C., and H.E. Wichmann. 1996. Daily mortality and air pollutants: findings from Koln, Germany. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 50:S52-S58.
64. Le Tertre, A., S. Medina, E. Samoli, et al. 2000. Short-term effects of particulate air pollution on cardiovascular diseases in eight European cities. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 56:773-779.
65. Linn, W.S., H. Gong, K.W. Clark, et al. 1999. Day-to-day particulate exposure and health changes in Los Angeles area residents with severe lung disease. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 49:108-115.
66. Ibald-Mulli, A., K.L. Timonen, T. Lanki, et al. 2003. Effects of particulate air pollution on blood pressure and heart rate in subjects with cardiovascular disease: a multi-centre approach. Environm. Health Perspect. doi:10.1289/ehp.6523 [Online 1 December 2003].
67. Brauer, M., S.T. Ebelt, T.V. Fisher, et al. 2001. Exposure of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients to particles: respiratory and cardiovascular health effects. J. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 11:490-500.
68. Gong, H., W.S. Linn, C. Sioutas, et al. 2003. Controlled exposures of healthy and asthmatic volunteers to concentrated ambient fine particles in Los Angeles. Inhal. Toxicol. 15:305-352.
69. Pope, C.A., III, D.W. Dockery, R.E. Kanner, et al. 1999a. Oxygen saturation, pulse rate, and particulate air pollution. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159:365-372.
70. Magari, S.R., R. Hauser, J. Schwartz, et al. 2001. Association of heart rate variability with occupational and environmental exposure to particulate air pollution. Circulation 104:986-991.
71. Gold, D.R., A. Litonjua, J. Schwartz, et al. 2000. Ambient pollution and heart rate variability. Circulation 101:1267-1273.
72. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. 1996. Heart Rate Variability. Circulation 93, 1043-1065.
73. Creason, J., L. Neas, D. Walsh, et al. 2001. Particulate matter and heart rate variability among elderly retirees: the Baltimore 1998 PM study. J. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 11:116-122.
74. Liao, D., J. Creason, C. Shy, et al. 1999. Daily variation of particulate air pollution and poor cardiac autonomic control in the elderly. Environ. Health Perspect. 107:521-525.
75. Pope, C.A., III, R.L. Verrier, E.G. Lovett, et al. 1999. Heart rate variability associated with particulate air pollution. Am. Heart J. 138:890-899.
76. Pope, C.A., D.J. Eatough, D.R. Gold, et al. 2001. Acute exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and heart rate variability. Environ. Health Perspect. 109:711-716.
77. Magari, S.R., J. Schwartz, P.L. Williams, et al. 2002. The association of particulate air metal concentrations with heart rate variability. Environ. Health Perspect. 110:875-880.
78. Tunnicliffe, W.S., M.F. Hilton, R.M. Harrison, et al. 2001. The effects of sulphur dioxide exposure on indices of heart rate variability in normal and asthmatic adults. Eur. Respir. J. 17:604-608.
79. Tarkiainen T.H., K.L. Timonen, E.J. Vanninen, et al. 2003. Effect of acute carbon monoxide exposure on heart rate variability in patients with coronary artery disease. Clin. Physiol. Funct. Imaging 23:98-102.
80. Timonen, K.L., A. Bernard, B. Brunekreef, et al. 2001. Daily variation of particulate air pollution and heart rate variability and urinary concentrations of lung Clara cell protein CC16. The ULTRA Study. Epidemiology 12(Suppl. 4):A62.
81. Ibald-Mulli, A, W. Zareba, R. Rückerl, et al. 2003. Effects of particulate air pollution on heart rate variability in patients with coronary heart disease Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. A333.
82. Peters, A., D.W. Dockery, J.E. Muller, et al. 2001. Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of myocardial infarction. Circulation 103:2810-2815.
83. Henneberger, A., W. Zareba, A. Ibald-Mulli, et al. 2003. Repolarization changes induced by air pollution in ischemic heart disease patients (submitted).
84. Pekkanen, J., A. Peters, G. Hoek, et al. 2002. Particulate air pollution and risk of ST-segment depression during repeated submaximal exercise tests among subjects with coronary heart disease: the Exposure and Risk Assessment for Fine and Ultrafine Particles in Ambient Air (ULTRA) study. Circulation 106:933-938.
85. Gordon, T., C. Nadziejko, R. Schlesinger, et al. 1998. Pulmonary and cardiovascular effects of acute exposure to concentrated ambient particulate matter in rats. Toxicol. Lett. 96,97:285-288.
86. Gordon, T., C. Nadziejko, L.C. Chen, et al. 2000. Effects of concentrated ambient particles in rats and hamsters: an exploratory study. Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 93:5-34.
87. Wichers, L.B., J.P. Nolan, D.W. Winsett, et al. 2003. Effects of acute exposure to concentrated ambient particulates on cardiopulmonary, thermoregulatory, and biochemical parameters in healthy and monocrotaline- treated Sprague-Dawley rats. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167:A107.
88. Campen, M.J., J.P. Nolan, M.C.J. Schladweiler, et al. 2001. Cardiovascular and thermoregulatory effects of inhaled PM-associated transition metals: a potential interaction between nickel and vanadium sulfate. Toxicol. Sci. 64:243-252.
89. Campen, M.J., J.P. Nolan, M.C. Schladweiler, et al. 2002. Cardiac and thermoregulatory effects of instilled particulate matter-associated transition metals in healthy and cardiopulmonary-compromised rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A65:1615-1631.
90. Cheng, T.J., J.S. Hwang, P.Y. Wang, et al. 2003. Effects of concentrated ambient particles on heart rate and blood pressure in pulmonary hypertensive rats. Environ. Health Perspect. 111:147-150.
91. Godleski, J.J., R.L. Verrier, P. Koutrakis, et al. 2000. Mechanisms of morbidity and mortality from exposure to ambient air particles. Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 91:5-88.
92. Watkinson, W.P., M.J. Campen, J.P. Nolan, et al. 2000. Cardiovascular effects following exposure to particulate matter in healthy and cardiopulmonary-compromised rats. In U. Heinrich, and U. Mohr, eds. Relationships between Acute and Chronic Effects of Air Pollution. Washington, DC, ILSI Press, 447-463.
93. Watkinson, W.P., M.J. Campen, L.B. Wichers, et al. 2003. Cardiac and thermoregulatory responses to inhaled pollutants in healthy and compromised rodents: modulation via interaction with environmental factors. Environ. Res. 92:35-47.
94. Muggenburg, B.A., J.M. Benson, E.B. Barr, et al. 2003. Short-term inhalation of particulate transition metals has little effect on the electrocardiograms of dogs having preexisting cardiac abnormalities. Inhal. Toxicol. 15:357-371.
95. Nolan, J.P., L.B. Wichers, D.W. Winsett, et al. 2003. Effects of acute exposure to concentrated ambient particulates on cardiopulmonary, thermoregulatory, and biochemical parameters in old spontaneously hypertensive rats. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167:A108.
96. Vincent, R., P. Kumarathasan, P. Goegan, et al. 2001. Inhalation toxicology of urban ambient particulate matter: acute cardiovascular effects in rats. Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 104:5-54.
97. Wellenius, G.A., B.A. Coull, J.L. Godleski, et al. 2003. Inhalation of concentrated ambient air particles exacerbates myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs. Environ. Health Perspect. 111:402-408.
98. Wellenius, G.A., P.H.N. Saldiva, J.R.F. Batalha, et al. 2002. Electrocardiographic changes during exposure to residual oil fly ash (ROFA) particles in a rat model of myocardial infarction. Toxicol. Sci. 66:327-335.
99. Kodavanti, U.P., M.C. Schladweiler, A.D. Ledbetter, et al. 2000. The spontaneously hypertensive rat as a model of human cardiovascular disease: evidence of exacerbated cardiopulmonary injury and oxidative stress from inhaled emission particulate matter. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 164:250-263.
100. Muggenburg, B.A., E.B. Barr, Y.S. Cheng, et al. 2000. Effect of inhaled residual oil fly ash on the electrocardiogram of dogs. Inhal Toxicol. 12:189-208.
101. Watkinson, W.P., M.J. Campen, and D.L. Costa. 1998. Cardiac arrhythmia induction after exposure to residual oil fly ash particles in a rodent model of pulmonary hypertension. Toxicol. Sci. 41:209-216.
102. Kodavanti, U.P., C.F. Moyer, A.D. Ledbetter, et al. 2003. Inhaled environmental combustion particles cause myocardial injury in the Wistar Kyoto rat. Toxicol. Sci. 237-245.
103. Moyer, C.F., U.P. Kodavanti, J.K. Haseman, et al. 2002. Systemic vascular disease in male B6C3F1 mice exposed to particulate matter by inhalation: studies conducted by the National Toxicology Program. Toxicol. Pathol. 30:427-434.
104. Tankersley, C.G., S.E. Flanders, K.H. Mai, et al. 2003. Particle-induced gene expression profiles in young and senescent mice. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167:A038.
105. Kapicka C.L., S.C. Montamat, R.D. Olson, et al. 2003. Species comparison of adenosine A1 receptors in isolated mammalian atrial and ventricular myocardium. Life Sci. 9:2825-2838.
106. Louch W.E., G.R. Ferrier, and S.E. Howlett. 2002. Changes in excitation-contraction coupling in an isolated ventricular myocyte model of cardiac stunning. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. 283:H800-H810.
107. Hepburn, N.C., J. Nolan, R.M. Fenn, et al. 1994. Cardiac effects of sodium stibogluconate: myocardial, electrophysiological and biochemical studies. QJM 87:465-472.
108. Dam, E., and A. Stampfl. 2000. Influence of antimony III on the intracellular free calcium in myocardial cells measured by means of Fura-2. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 361:R148.
109. 2+ mobilization during excitation-contraction in cultured cardiac myocytes exposed to antimony. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 146:104-115.
110. Wey H.E., D. Richards, M.A. Tirmenstein, et al. 1997. The role of intracellular calcium in antimony-induced toxicity in cultured cardiac myocytes. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 145:202-210.
111. Kodavanti, U.P., M.C.J. Schladweiler, A.D. Ledbetter, et al. 2002. Pulmonary and systemic effects of zinc-containing emission particles in three rat strains: multiple exposure scenarios. Toxicol. Sci. 70:73-85.
112. Nadziejko, C., K. Fang, L.C. Chen, et al. 2002. Effect of concentrated ambient particulate matter on blood coagulation parameters in rats. Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 111:7-29.
113. Gardner, S.Y., J.R. Lehmann, and D.L. Costa. 2000. Oil fly ash induced elevation of plasma fibrinogen levels in rats. Toxicol. Sci. 56:175-180.
114. Kodavanti, U.P., M.C.J. Schladweiler, and A.D. Ledbetter. 2002. Temporal association between pulmonary and systemic effects of particulate matter in healthy and cardiovascular compromised rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A65:1545-1569.
115. Elder, A.C.P., R. Gelein, M. Azadniv, et al. 2002. Systemic interactions between inhaled ultrafine particles and endotoxin. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 46:231-234.
116. Ulrich, M.M.W., G.M. Alink, P. Kumarathasan, et al. 2002. Health effects and time course of particulate matter on the cardiopulmonary system in rats with lung inflammation. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A65:1571-1595.
117. Clarke, R.W., B. Coull, U. Reinisch, et al. 2000. Inhaled concentrated ambient particles are associated with hematologic and bronchoalveolar lavage changes in canines. Environ. Health Perspect. 108:1179-1187.
118. Bouthillier, L., R. Vincent, P. Goegan, et al. 1998. Acute effects of inhaled urban particles and ozone: lung morphology, macrophage activity, and plasma endothelin-1. Am. J. Pathol. 153:1873-1884.
119. Holguin, F., M. Tellez-Rojo, M. Hernandez, et al. 2003. Air pollution and heart rate variability among the elderly in Mexico City. Epidemiology 14:521-527.
120. Toda, N., N. Tsukue, H. Tsubone, et al. 2001. Effects of diesel exhaust particles on blood pressure in rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A63:429-435.