The influence of genetic polymorphisms on population variability in six xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes

Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health - Part B: Critical Reviews

Volumn 12, Issue 5-6, 2009, Pages 307-333

  Ginsberg, Gary ^a   Smolenski, Susan ^a   Neafsey, Patricia ^b   Hattis, Dale ^c   Walker, Katy ^c   Guyton, Kathryn Z ^d   Johns, Douglas O ^d   Sonawane, Babasaheb ^d  

^a CDC   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

^c CLARK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACYLTRANSFERASE; ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE ISOENZYME 2; ARYLAMINE ACETYLTRANSFERASE; CYTOCHROME P450 2D6; CYTOCHROME P450 2E1; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE M1; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE P1; GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE T1; ORGANOPHOSPHATE PESTICIDE; XENOBIOTIC AGENT;

ALLELE; CANCER RISK; COLON CANCER; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; GASTROINTESTINAL TUMOR; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GENOTYPE; HUMAN; MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY; MONTE CARLO METHOD; NONHUMAN; PHENOTYPE; POPULATION DISTRIBUTION; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ENZYMES; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY; MONTE CARLO METHOD; POLYMORPHISM, GENETIC; XENOBIOTICS;

EID: 75749137388     PISSN: 10937404     EISSN: 15216950     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10937400903158318     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Agundez J., Ledesma, M., and Ladero, J. 1995. Prevalence of CYP2D6 gene duplication and its repercussion on the oxidative phenotype in a white population. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 57:265-269.
2. Avard, D., and Joly, M. 2008. Improved understanding of genetic and genomic influences on drug disposition and action: implications for children. Paediatr. Drugs 10:275-278.
3. Bernardini, S., Hirvonen, A., Pelin, K., and Norppa, H. 1998. Induction of sister chromatid exchange by 1,2-epoxy-3-butene in cultured human lymphocytes: Influence of GSTT1 genotype. Carcinogenesis 2:377-380. (Pubitemid 28375437)
4. Bertilsson, L., Lou, Y.-Q., Du, Y.-L., Liu, Y., Kuang, T.-Y., Liao, X.-M, Wang, K.-Y., Reviriego, J., Iselius, L., and Sjoquist, F. 1992. Pronounced differences between native Chinese and Swedish populations in the polymorphic hydroxylations of debrisoquin and S-mephenytoin. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 51:388-397.
5. Blatter-Garin, M., James, R., Dussoix, P., Blanche, H., Passa, P., Froguel, P., and Ruiz, J. 1997. Paraoxonase polymorphism Met-Leu55 is associated with modified serum concentrations of the enzyme. A possible link between the paraoxonase gene and increased risk of cardiovascular disease in diabetes. J. Clin. Invest. 99:62-66.
6. Bois, F. Y., Krowech, G., and Zeise, L. 1995. Modeling human interindividual variability in metabolism and risk: The example of 4-aminobiphenyl. Risk Anal. 15:205213.
7. Bolt, H. M., and Thier, R. 2006. Relevance of the deletion polymorphisms of the glutathione S-transferases GSTT1 and GSTM1 in pharmacology and toxicology. Curr. Drug Metab. 7:613-628.
8. Brophy, V., Jarvik, G., Richter, R., Rozek, L., Schellenberg, G., and Furlong, C. 2000. Analysis of paraoxonase (PON1) L55M status requires both genotype and phenotype. Pharmacogenetics 10:453-460.
9. Bruhn, C., Brockmöller, J., Cascorbi, I., Roots, I., and Borchert, H.-H. 1999. Correlation between genotype and phenotype of the human arylamine N-acetyltransferase Type 1 (NAT1). Biochem. Pharmacol. 58:1759-1764.
10. Bruning, T., Lammert, M., Kempkes, M., Thier, R., Golka, K., and Bolt, H. M. 1997. Influence of polymorphisms of GSTM1 and GSTT1 for risk of renal cell cancer in workers with long-term high occupational exposure to trichloroethene. Arch. Toxicol. 71:596-599.
11. Carriere V., Berthou, F., Baird, S., Belloc, C., Beaune, P., and de Waziers, I. 1996. Human Cytochrome P450 2E1: From genotype to phenotype. Pharmacogenetics 6:203-211. (Pubitemid 26226312)
12. Cascorbi, I. 2006. Genetic basis of toxic reactions to drugs and chemicals. Toxicol. Lett. 162:16-28.
13. Cascorbi, I. 2003. Pharmacogenetics of cytochrome p4502D6: Genetic background and clinical implication. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 33(suppl. 2): 17-22.
14. Cascorbi, I., Drakoulis, N., Brockmöller, J., Mauer, A., Sperling, K., and Roots, I. 1995. Arylamine N-acetyltransferase (NAT2) mutations and their allelic linkage in unrelated caucasian individuals: Correlation with phenotypic activity. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 57:581-592.
15. Chen, Y. C., Peng, G. S., Wang, M. F., Tsao, T. P., and Yin, S. J. 2008. Polymorphism of ethanol-metabolism genes and alcoholism: Correlation of allelic variations with the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic consequences. Chem. Biol. Interact. 10.1016/ j.cbi.2008.10.029.
16. Chen, J., Kumar, M., Chan, W., Berkowitz, G., and Wetmur, J. G. 2003. Increased influence of genetic variation on PON1 activity in neonates. Environ. Health Perspect. 111:1403-1409.
17. Christensen, P. M., Gotzsche, P. C., and Brosen, K. 1997. The sparteine/debrisoquine (CYP2D6) oxidation polymorphism and the risk of lung cancer: A meta-analysis. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 51:389-393.
18. Corley, R. A., Mendrala, A. L., Smith, F. A., Staats, D. A., Gargas, M. L., Conolly, R. B., Anderson, M. E., and Reitz, R. H. 1990. Development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for chloroform. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 103:512-527.
19. Costa, L., Li, W., Richter, R., Shih, D., Lusis, A., and Furlong, C. 1999. The role of paraoxonase (PON1) in the detoxication of organophosphates and its human polymorphism. Chem. Biol. Interact. 119-120:429-438.
20. Costa, L. G., Vitalone, A., Cole, T. B., and Furlong, C. E. 2005. Modulation of paraoxonase (PON1) activity. Biochem. Pharmacol. 69:541-550.
21. Dalen, P., Dahl, J.-L., Eichelbaum, M., Bertilsson, L., and Wilkinson, G. R. 1999. Disposition of debrisoquine in Caucasians with different CYP2D6-genotypes including those with multiple genes. Pharmacogenetics 9:697-706.
22. Davies, H., Richter, R., Keifer, M., Broomfield, C., Sowalla, J., and Furlong, C. 1996. The effect of the human serum paraoxonase polymorphism is reversed with diazoxon, soma and sarin. Nat. Genet. 14:334-336.
23. DePalma, G., Manini, P., Mozzoni, P., Andreoli, R., Bergamaschi, E., Cavazzini, S., Franchini, I., and Mutti, A. 2001. Polymorphism of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes and excretion of styrene-specific mercapturic acids. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 14:1393-1400.
24. Dong, H., Haining, R. L., Thummel, K. E., Rettie, A. E., and Nelson, S. D. 2000. Involvement of human cytochrome P450 2D6 in the bioactivation of acetaminophen. Drug Metab. Dispos. 28:1397-1400.
25. Eaton, D. 2000. Biotransformation enzyme polymorphism and pesticide susceptibility. Neurotoxicology 21:101-112.
26. Eng, M. Y., Luczak, S. E., and Wall, T. L. 2007. ALDH2, ADH1B, and ADH1C genotypes in Asians: a literature review. Alcohol Res. Health 30:22-27.
27. El-Masri, H. A., Bell, D. A., and Portier, C. J. 1999. Effects of glutathione transferase theta polymorphism on the risk estimates of dichloromethane to humans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 158:221-230.
28. Evans, W. E., and Relling, M. V. 1999. Pharmacogenomics: translating functional genomics into rational therapeutics. Science 286:487-491.
29. Foster, P., Blackburn, D. M., Moore, R. B., and Lloyd, S. C. 1986. Testicular toxicity of 2- methoxyacetaldehyde, a possible metabolite of ethylene glycol monomethyl ether in the rat. Toxicol. Lett. 32:73-80.
30. Furlong, C. E. 2002. Comments on genetic and developmental variability of sensitivity to chlorpyrifos/chlorpyrifos oxon exposure as modulated by plasma paraoxonase (PON1). Comments provided to U.S. EPA SAP on chlorpyrifos. http://www.epa.gov/scipoly/sap/ 2002/june/chlorphyr.pdf
31. Furlong, C., Li, W.-F., Brophy, V., Jarvik, P., Richter, R., Shih, D., Lusis, A., and Costa, L. 2000. The PON1 gene and detoxication. Neurotoxicology 21:581-588.
32. Gentry, P. R., Hack, C. E., Haber, L., Maier, A., and Clewell, H. J. 2002. An approach for the quantitative consideration of genetic polymorphism data in chemical risk assessment: examples with warfarin and parathion. Toxicol. Sci. 70:120-139.
33. Gilham, D., Cairns, W., Paine, M., Modi, S., Poulsom, R., Roberts, G., and Wolf. C. . 1997. Metabolism of MPTP by cytochrome P4502D6 and the demonstration of 2D6 mRNA in human foetal and adult brain by in situ hybridization. Xenobiotica 27:111-125.
34. Ginsberg, G., Smolenski, S., Hattis, D., and Sonawane, B. 2002. Population distribution of aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 genetic polymorphism: Implications for risk assessment. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 36:297-309.
35. Golka, K., Schmidt, T., Seidel, T., Dietrich, H., Roemer, H. C., Lohlein, D., Reckwitz, T., Sokeland, J., Weistenhofer, W., Blaszkewicz, M., and Selinski, S. 2008. The influence of polymorphisms of glutathione S-transferases M1 and M3 on the development of human urothelial cancer. J. Toxicol. Envoron. Health A 71:881-886.
36. Goode, E. L., Ulrich, C. M., and Potter, J. D. 2002. Polymorphisms in DNA repair genes and associations with cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11:1513-1530.
37. Grant, D. M., Hughes, N. C., Janezic, S. A., Goodfellow, G. H., Chen, H. J., Gaedigk, A., Yu, V. L., and Grewal, R. 1997. Human acetyltransferase polymorphisms. Mutat. Res. 376:61-70.
38. Guengerich, F., Kim, D., and Iwasaki, M. 1991. Role of human cytochrome P-450IIE1 in the oxidation of many low molecular weight cancer suspects. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 4:168-179.
39. Haber, L. T., Maier, A., Gentry, P. R., Clewell, H. J., and Dourson, M. L. 2002. Genetic polymorphisms in assessing interindividual variability in delivered dose. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 35:177-197.
40. Hanoika, N., Tanaka-Kagawa, T., Miyata, Y., Makino, Y., Ohno, A., Yoda, R., Jinno, H., and Ando, M. 2003. Functional characterization of three human cytochrome p450 2E1 variants with amino acid substitutions. Xenobiotica 33:575-586.
41. Hassett, C., Aicher, L., Sidhu, J. S., and Omiecinski, C. J. 1994. Human microsomal epoxide hydrolase: Genetic polymorphism and functional expression in vitro of amino acid variants. Hum. Mol. Genet. 3:421-428.
42. Hattis, D., and Barlow, K. 1996. Human interindividual variability. In Cancer Risks-Technical and Management Challenges. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 2:194-220.
43. Hattis, D., Banati, P., and Goble, R. 1999. Distributions of individual susceptibility among humans for toxic effects: for what fraction of which kinds of chemicals and effects does the traditional 10-fold factor provide how much protection? Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 895:286-316.
44. Hayes, J. D., Flanagan, J. U., and Jowsey, I. R. 2005. Glutathione transferases. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 45:51-88.
45. Hein, D. W. 2006. N-Acetyltransferase 2 genetic polymorphism: Effects of carcinogen and haplotype on urinary bladder cancer risk. Oncogene 25:1649-1658.
46. Hein, D. W., Doll, M. A., Rustan, T. D., and Ferguson, R. J. 1995. Metabolic activation of N-hydroxyarylamines and N-hydroxyarylamides by 16 recombinant human NAT2 allozymes: Effects of specific NAT2 nucleic acid substitutions. Cancer Res. 55:3531-3536.
47. Hein, D. W., McQueen, C. A., Grant, D. M., Goodfellow, G. H., Kadlubar, F., and Weber, W. W. 2000a. Pharmacogenetics of the arylamine N-acetyltransferases: A symposium in honor of Wendell W. Weber. Drug Metab. Dispos. 28:1425-1432.
48. Hein, D. W., Doll, M. A., Fretland, A. J., Leff, M. A., Webb, S. J., Xiao, G. H., Devanaboyina, U.-S., Nangju, N. A., and Feng, Y. 2000b. Molecular genetics and epidemiology of the NAT1 and NAT2 acetylation polymorphisms. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 9:29-42.
49. Helzlsouer, K., Selmin, O., Huang, H., Strickland, P., Hoffman, S., Alberg, A., Watson, M., Comstock, G., and Bell, D. 1998. Association between glutathione S-transferase M1, P1, and T1 genetic polymorphisms and development of breast cancer. JNCI 90:484-485.
50. Hirvonen, A., and Pelkonen, O. 2001. Measurement of drug metabolizing enzyme polymorphism as indicators of susceptibility. In Environmental health criteria: Biomarkers in risk assessment: Validity and validation 222:146-201. Geneva: WHO/IPCS.
51. Hu, X., Herzog, C., Zimniak, P., and Singh, S. V. 1999. Differential protection against benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxideinduced DNA damage in HepG2 cells stably transfected with allelic variants of p class human glutathione S-transferase. Cancer Res. 59:2358-2362.
52. Hughes, N. C., Janezic, S. A., McQueen, K. L., Jewett, M. A. S., Castranio, T., Bell, D. A., and Grant, D. M. 1998. Identification and characterization of variant alleles of human acetyltransferase NAT1 with defective function using p-aminosalicylate as an in-vivo and in-vitro probe. Pharmacogenetics 8:55-66.
53. Ingelman-Sundberg, M. 1998. Functional consequences of polymorphism of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes. Toxicol. Lett. 102-103: 155-160.
54. Ingelman-Sundberg, M. 2005. Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6): Clinical consequences, evolutionary aspects and functional diversity. Pharmacogenom. J. 5:6-13.
55. International Programme on Chemical Safety. 2005. Chemical-specific adjustment factors for interspecies differences and human variability: Guidance document for use of data in dose/concentration-response assessment. Harmonization Project Document No. 2. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, International Programme on Chemical Safety.
56. Jarvik, G., Rozek, L., Brophy, V., Hatsukami, T., Richter, R., Schellenberg, G., and Furlong, C. 2000. Paraoxonase (PON1) phenotype is a better predictor of vascular disease than is PON1192 or PON155 genotype. Arterioscler. Thomb. Vasc. Biol. 20:2441-2447.
57. Jonsson, F., and Johanson, G. 2001. A Bayesian analysis of the influence of GSTT1 polymorphism on the cancer risk estimate for dichloromethane. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 174:99-112.
58. Kato, S., Bowmann E. D., Harrington, A. M., Blomeke, B., and Shields, P. G. 1995. Human lung carcinogen-DNA adduct levels mediated by genetic polymorphisms in vivo. JNCI 87:902-907.
59. Kawamoto, T., Koga, M., Murata, K., Matsuda, S., and Kodama, Y. 1995. Effects of ALDH2, CYP1A1, and CYP2E1 genetic polymorphisms and smoking and drinking habits on toluene metabolism in humans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 133:295-304.
60. Kedderis, G. L. 1997. Extrapolation of in vitro enzyme induction data to humans in vivo. Chem. Biol. Interact. 107:109-121.
61. Kim, J. S., Kim, Y. J., Kim, T. Y., Song, J. Y., Cho, Y. H., Park, Y. C., and Chung, H. W. 2005. Association of ALDH2 polymorphism with sensitivity to acetaldehyde-induced micronuclei and facial flushing after alcohol intake. Toxicology 210:169-174.
62. Kim, B. S., and Smialowicz, R. J. 1997. The role of metabolism in 2-methoxyethanol-induced suppression of in vitro polyclonal antibody responses by rat and mouse lymphocytes. Toxicology 123:227-239.
63. Kim, R., O'Shea, D., and Wilkinson, G. 1995. Interindividual variability of chlorzoxazone 6-hydroxylation in men and women and its relationship to cyp2E1 genetic polymorphisms. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 57:645-666.
64. Kitagawa, K., Kawamoto, T., Kunugita, N., Tsukiyama, T., Okamoto, K., Yoshida, A., Nakayama, K., and Nakayama, K. 2000. Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) 2 associates with oxidation of methoxyacetaldehyde; In vitro analysis with liver subcellular fraction derived from human and aldh2 gene targeting mouse. FEBS Lett. 476:306-311.
65. Klyosov, A. A., Rashkovetsky, L. G., Tahir, M. K., and Keung, W. M. 1996. Possible role of liver cytosolic and mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenases in acetaldehyde metabolism. Biochemistry 35:4445-4456.
66. La Du, B., Billecke, S., Hsu, C., Haley, R., and Broomfield, C. 2001. Serum paraoxonase (PON1) isozymes: the quantitative analysis of isozymes affecting individual sensitivity to environmental chemicals. Drug Metab. Dispos. 29:566-569.
67. Landi, S. 2000. Mammalian class theta GST and differential susceptibility to carcinogens: A review. Mutat. Res. 463:247-283.
68. Landi, S., Norppa, H., Frenzilli, G., Cipollini, G., Ponzanelli, I., Barale, R., and Hirvonen, A. 1998. Individual sensitivity to cytogenetic effects of 1,2:3,4-diepoxybutane in cultured human lymphocytes: Influence of glutathione S-transferase M1, P1 and T1 genotypes. Pharmacogenetics 8:461-471.
69. Larson, R. A., Wang, Y. X., Banerjee, M., Wiemels, H., Hartford, C., LeBeau, M. M.. and Smith, M. T. 1999. Prevalence of the inactivation C-609→T polymorphism in the NAD(P)H;quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) gene in patients with primary and therapy-related meyloid leukemia. Blood 94:803-807.
70. Leathart, J., London, S. J., Steward, A., Adams, J. D., Idle, J. R., and Daly, A. K. 1998. CYP2D6 phenotype-genotype relationships in African-Americans and Caucasians in Los Angeles. Pharmacogenetics 8:529-541.
71. Li, W., Costa, L., Richter, R., Hagen, T., Shih, D., Tward, A., Lusis, A., and Furlong, C. 2000. Catalytic efficiency determines the in-vivo efficacy of PON1 for detoxifying organophosphorus compounds. Pharmacogenetics 10:767-779.
72. Lieber, C. 1997. Cytochrome P-4502E1: Its physiological and pathological role. Physiol. Rev. 77:517-544.
73. Lipscomb, J. C. 2003. How differences in enzyme expression can translate into pharmacokinetic variance and susceptibility to toxicity. J. Child. Health 1:189-202.
74. Lipscomb, J. C., and Kedderis, G. L. 2002. Incorporating human interindividual biotransformation variance in health risk assessment. Sci. Total Environ. 288:13-21.
75. Lipscomb, J., Garrett, C., and Snawder, J. 1997. Cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism of trichloroethylene: interindividual differences in humans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 142:311-318.
76. Lipscomb, JC., Teuschler, LK., Swartout, J., Popken, D., Cox, T., and Kedderis, G. L. 2003. The impact of cytochrome P450 2E1-dependent metabolic variance on risk-relevant pharmacokinetic outcome in humans. Risk Anal. 23:1221-1238.
77. Lunn, R. M., Helzlsouer, K. J., Parshad, R., Umbach, D. M., Harris, E. L., Sanford, K. K., and Bell, D. A. 2000. XPD polymorphisms: Effects on DNA repair proficiency. Carcinogenesis 21:551-555.
78. Ma, H., An, J., Hsie, A. W., and Au, W. W. 1993. Mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of 2-methoxyethanol and its metabolites in Chinese hamster cells (the CHO and AS52/GPT assays). Mutat. Res. 298:219-225.
79. Mahgoub, A., Idle, J. R., Dring, L. G., Lancaster, R., and Smith, R. L. 1977. Polymorphic hydroxylation of debrisoquine in man. Lancet 2:584-586.
80. McCarver, D., Byun, R., Hines, R., Hichme, M., and Wegenek, W. 1998. A genetic polymorhism in the regulatory sequences of human Cyp2E1: Association with increased chlorzoxazone hydroxylation in the presence of obesity and ethanol intake. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 152:276-281.
81. McLellan, R., Oscarson, M., Alexandrie, A., Seidegard, J., Evans, D., Rannug, A., and Ingelman-Sundberg, M. 1997. Characterization of a human glutathione S-transferase μ cluster containing a duplicated GSTM1 gene that causes ultrarapid enzyme activity. Mol. Pharmacol. 52:958-965.
82. Miller, M. S., McCarver, D. G., Bell, D. A., Eaton, D. L., and Goldstein, J. A. 1997. Genetic polymorphisms in human drug metabolic enzymes. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 40:1-14.
83. Miller, M. C., Mohrenweiser, H. W., and Bell, D. A. 2001. Genetic variability in susceptibility and response to toxicants. Toxicol. Lett. 120:269-280.
84. Mizoi, Y., Yamamoto, K., Ueno, Y., Fukunaga, T., and Harada, S. 1994. Involvement of genetic polymorphism of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases in individual variation of alcohol metabolism. Alcohol Alcoholism 29:707-710.
85. Moran, J. L., Siegel, D., and Ross, D. 1999. A potential mechanism underlying the increased susceptibility of individuals with a polymorphism in NADPH:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) to benzene toxicity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:8150-8155.
86. Nakajima, T., and Aoyama, T. 2000. Polymorphism of drug-metabolizing enzymes in relation to individual susceptibility to industrial chemicals. Ind. Health 38:143-152.
87. National Research Council. 2000. Scientific frontiers in developmental toxicology and risk assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
88. Nebert, D. W. 1991. Polymorphism of human CYP2D genes involved in drug metabolism possible relationship to individual cancer risk. Cancer Cell 3:93-96.
89. Nebert, D. W., and Roe, A. L. 2001. Ethnic and genetic differences in metabolism genes and risk of toxicity and cancer. Sci. Total Environ. 274:93-102.
90. Nedelcheva, V., Gut, I., Soucek, P., Tichavska, B., Tynkova, L., Mraz, J., Guengerich, F., and Ingelman-Sundberg, M. 1999. Metabolism of benzene in human liver microsomes: Individual variations in relation to CYP2E1 expression. Arch. Toxicol. 73:33-40.
91. Norppa, H., Hirvonen, A., Jarventaus, H., UuskOula, M., Tasa, G., OjajOarvi, A., and Sorsa, M. 1995. Role of GSTT1 and GSTM1 genotypes in determining individual sensitivity to sister chromatid exchange induction by diepoxybutane in cultured human lymphocytes. Carcinogenesis 16:1261-1264.
92. Okumura, K., Kita, T., Chikazawa, S., Komada, F., Iwakaw, S., and Tanigawara, Y. 1997. Genotyping of N-acetylation polymorphism and correlation with procainamide metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 61:509-517.
93. Ollikainen, T., Hirvonen, A., and Norppa, H. 1998. Influence of GSTT1 genotype on sister chromatid exchange induction by styrene-7, 8-oxide in cultured human lymphocytes. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 31:311-315 (Pubitemid 28308460)
94. Patten, C., Smith, T., Murphy, S., Wang, M., Lee, J., Tynes, R., Koch, P., and Yang, C. 1996. Kinetic analysis of the activation of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone by heterologously expressed human P450 enzymes and the effect of P450-specific chemical inhibitors on this activation in human liver microsomes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 333:127-138.
95. Raimundo, S., Toscano, C., Klein, K., Griese, E. U., Eichelbaum, M., Schwab, M., and Zanger, UM. 2004. A novel intronic mutation, 2988G>A, with high predictivity for impaired function of cytochrome P450 2D6 in white subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 76:128-138.
96. Reitz, R. H., Gargas, M. L., Mendrala, A. L., and Schumann, A. M. 1996. In vivo and in vitro studies of perchloroethylene metabolism for physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling in rats, mice, and humans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 136:289-306.
97. Reitz, R. H., Mendrala, A. L., and Guengerich, F. P. 1989. In vitro metabolism of methylene chloride in human and animal tissues: Use in physiologically based pharmacokinetic models. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 97:230-246.
98. Renwick, A. G. 1998. Toxicokinetics in infants and children in relation to the ADI and TDI. Food Addit. Contam. 15:17-35.
99. Renwick, A. G., and Lazarus, N. R. 1998. Human variability and noncancer risk assessment-An analysis of the default uncertainty factor. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 27:3-20.
100. Roemer, H. C., Weistenhofer, W., Lohlein, D., Geller, F., Blomeke, B., and Golka, K. 2008. N-Acetyltransferase 1 in colon and rectal cancer cases from an industrialized area. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 71: 902-905.
101. Rojas, M., Alexandrov, K., Cascorbi, I., Brockmoller, J., Likhachev, A., Pozharisski, K., Bouvier, G., Auburtin, G., Mayer, L., Kopp-Schneider, A., Roots, I., and Bartsch, H. 1998. High benzo[a]pyrene diol-epoxide DNA adduct levels in lung and blood cells from individuals with combined CYP1A1 MspI/MspI-GSTM1*0/*0 genotypes. Pharmacogenetics 8:109-118.
102. Rothman, N., Smith, M. T., Hayes, R. D., Hoener, B., Campleman, S., Li, G. L., Dosemeci, M., Linet, M., Zhang, L., Xi, L., Wacholder, S., Lu, W., Meyer, K. B., Titenko-Holland, N., Stewart, J. T., Yin, S., and Ross, D. 1997. Benzene poisoning, a risk factor for hematological malignancy, is associated with the NQO1 609C-T mutation and rapid fractional excretion of chlorzoxazone. Cancer Res. 57:2839-2842.
103. Sachse, C., Brockmoller, J., Bauer, S., and Roots, I. 1997. Cytochrome P450 2D6 variants in a Caucasian population: Allele frequencies and phenotypic consequences. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 60:284-295.
104. Sams, C., Mason, H. J., and Rawbone, R. 2000. Evidence for the activation of organophosphate pesticides by cytochromes P450 3A4 and 2D6 in human liver microsomes. Toxicol. Lett. 116:217-221.
105. Seidegard J., and Ekstrom G. 1997. The role of human glutathione transferases and epoxide hydrolases in the metabolism of xenobiotics. Environ. Health Perspect. 105:791-799.
106. Shih, D., Gu, L., and Xia, Y. 1998. Mice lacking serum paraoxonase are susceptible to organophosphate toxicity and atherosclerosis. Nature 394:284-287.
107. Shimada, T., Tsumura, F., and Yamazaki, H. 1999. Prediction of human liver microsomal oxidations of 7-ethoxycoumarin and chlorzoxazone with kinetic parameters of recombinant cytochrome P-450 enzymes. Drug Metab. Dispos. 27:1274-1280.
108. Smolen, A., Eckerson, H., Gan, K., Hailat, N., and LaDu, B. 1991. Characteristics of the genetically determined polymorphic forms of human serum paraoxonase/arylesterase. Drug Metab. Dispos. 19:107-112.
109. Sprenger, R., Schlagenhaufer, R., Kerb, R., Bruhn, C., Brockmoller, J., Roots, I., and Brinkmann, U. 2000. Characterization of the glutathione S-transferase GSTT1 deletion: Discrimination of all genotypes by polymerase chain reaction indicates a trimodular genotype-phenotype correlation. Pharmacogenetics 10:557-565.
110. Srivastava, S. K., Singhal, S. S., Hu, X., Awasthi, Y. C., Zimniak, P., and Singh, S. V. 1999. Differential catalytic efficiency of allelic variants of human glutathione S-transferase Pi in catalyzing the glutathione conjugation of thiotepa1. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 366:89-94.
111. Stucker, I., Hirvonin A., deWaziers, I., Cabelguenne, A., Mitrunen, K., Cenee, S., Koum-Besson, E., Hemon, D., Beaune, P., and Loriot, MA. 2002. Genetic polymorphisms of glutathione S-transferases as modulators of lung cancer susceptibility. Carcinogenesis 23:1475-1481. (Pubitemid 35012427)
112. Taningher, M., Malacarne, D., Izzotti, A., Ugolini, D., and Parodi, S. 1999. Drug metabolism polymorphisms as modulators of cancer susceptibility. Mutat. Res. 436:227-261.
113. Tateishi T., Chida, M., Ariyoshi, N., Mizorogi, Y., Kamataki, T., and Kobayashi, S. 1999. Analysis of the CYP2D6 gene in relation to dextromethorphan O-demethylation capacity in a Japanese population. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 65:570-575.
114. Teeguarden, J. G., Bogdanffy, M. S., Covington, T. R., Tan, C., and Jarabek, A. M. 2008. A PBPK model for evaluating the impact of aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphisms on comparative rat and human nasal tissue acetaldehyde dosimetry. Inhal. Toxicol. 20:375-390.
115. Thier, R., Wiebel, F., Hinkel, A., Burger, A., Bruning, T., Morgenroth, K., Senge, T., Wilhelm, M., and Schulz, T. 1998. Species differences in the glutathione transferase GSTT1-1 activity towards the model substrates methyl chloride and dichloromethane in liver and kidney. Arch. Toxicol. 72:622-629.
116. Their, R., Balkenhol, H., Lewalter, J., Selinski, S., Dommermuth, A., and Bolt, H. M. 2001. Influence of polymorphisms of the human glutathione transferases and cytochrome P450 2E1 enzyme on the metabolism and toxicity of ethylene oxide and acrylonitrile. Mutat. Res. 482:41-46.
117. Thier, R., Bruning, T., Roos, P. H., Rihs, H. P., Golka, K., Ko, Y., and Bolt, H. M. 2003. Markers of genetic susceptibility in human environmental hygiene and toxicology: The role of selected CYP, NAT and GST genes. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 206:149-171.
118. Toscano, C., Klein, K., Blievernicht, J., Schaeffeler, E., Saussele, T., Raimundo, S., Eichelbaum, M., Schwab, M., and Zanger, UM. 2006. Impaired expression of CYP2D6 in intermediate metabolizers carrying the *41 allele caused by the intronic SNP 2988G>A: Evidence for modulation of splicing events. Pharmacogenet. Genom. 16:755-766.
119. Traver, R. D., Hoikoshi, T., Danenberg, K. D., Stadlbauer, T. H. W., Danenberg, P. V., Ross, D., and Gibson, N. W. 1992. NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase gene expression in human colon carcinoma cells: characterization of a mutation which modulates DT-diaphorase activity and mitomycin sensitivity. Cancer Res. 52:797-802.
120. Uchimoto, T., Itoga, S., Nezu, M., Sunaga, M., Tomonaga, T., and Nomura, F. 2007. Role of the genetic polymorphisms in the 5' flanking region for transcriptional regulation of the human CYP2E1 gene. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 31:36S-42S.
121. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2004. IRIS profile for boron and compounds. http://www.epa.gov/ncea/iris/subst/0410.htm (accessed December 16, 2008).
122. Vasiliou, V., and Pappa, A. 2000. Polymorphisms of human aldehyde dehydrogenases. Pharmacology 61:192-198.
123. Venkatakrishnan, K., Von Molpke, L. L., Court, M. H., Harmatz, J. S., Crespi, C. L., and Greenblatt, D. J. 2000. Comparison between cytochrome P-450 (CYP) content and relative activity approaches to scaling from cDNA-expressed CYPs to human liver microsomes: Ratios of accessory proteins as sources of discrepancies between the approaches. Drug Metab. Dispos. 28:1493-1504.
124. Vitarius, J., and Sultatos, L. 1994. Kinetic mechanism of the detoxification of the organophosphate paraoxon by human serum A-esterase. Drug Metab. Dispos. 22:472-478. (Pubitemid 24158549)
125. Vodicka, P., Soucek, P., Tates, A., Dusinska, M., Sarmanova, J., Zamecnikova, M., Vodickova, L., Koskinen, M., de Zwart, F., Natarajan, A., and Hemminki, K. 2001. Association between genetic polymorphisms and biomarkers in styrene-exposed workers. Mutat. Res. 482:89-103.
126. Watanabe, J., Hayashi, S., and Nakachi, K. 1994. Different regulation and expression of the human CYP2E1 gene due to Rsa I polymorphism in the 5'-flanking region. J. Biochem. 116:32-326.
127. Watson, M. A., Stewart, R. K., Graeme, B. J. S., Massey, T. E., and Bell, D. A. 1998. Human glutathione S-transferase P1 polymorphisms: Relationship to lung tissue enzyme activity and population frequency distribution. Carcinogenesis 19:275-280.
128. Whalen, R., and Boyer, T. 1998. Human glutathione S-transferase. Semin. Liver Dis. 18:345-358.
129. Weistenhofer, W., Blaskzkewicz, M., Bolt, H. M. and Golka, K. 2008. N-Acetyltransferase-2 and medical history in bladder cancer cases with a suspected occupational disease (BK 1301) in Germany. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 71:906-910.
130. Windmill, K. F., McKinnon, R. A., Zhu, X., Gaedigk, A., Grant, D. M., and McManus, M. E. 1997. The role of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in arylamine toxicity and carcinogenesis: Functional and localization studies. Mutat. Res. 376:153-160.
131. Wormhoudt, L., Commandeur, J., and Vermeulen, N. 1999. Genetic polymorphisms of human N-acetyltransferase, cytochrome P450, glutathione-S-transferase, and epoxide hydrolase enzymes: relevance to xenobiotic metabolism and toxicity. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 29:59-124.
132. Yamazaki, H., Guo, Z., and Guengerich, F. P. 1995. Selectivity of cytochrome P4502E1 in chlorzoxazone 6-hydroxylation. Drug Metab. Dispos. 23:438-440.
133. Yokoyama, A., Muramatsu, T., Ohmori, T., Yokoyama, T., Okuyama, K., Takahashi, H., Hasegawa, Y., Higuchi, S., Maruyama, K., Shirakura, K., and Ishii, H. 1998. Alcohol-related cancers and aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 in Japanese alcoholics. Carcinogenesis 19:1383-1387.
134. Yokoyama, A., Muramatsu, T., Omori, T., Yokoyama, T., Matsushita, S., Higuchi, S., Maruyama, K., and Ishii, H. 2001. Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase gene polymorphisms and oropharyngolaryngeal, esophageal and stomach cancers in Japanese alcoholics. Carcinogenesis 22:433-439.
135. Zanger, U. M., Raimundo, S., and Eichelbaum, M. 2004. Cytochrome P450 2D6: Overview and update on pharmacology, genetics, biochemistry. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 369:23-37.
136. Zimmermann, A., Blaszkewicz, M., Roth, G., Seidel, T., Dietrich, H., Schutschkow, O., Bolt, H. M., and Golka, K. 2008. UDPglucuronosyltransferase 2B7 C802T (His268Tyr) polymorphism in bladder cancer cases. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 71:911-914. (Pubitemid 352000696)