Thoughts for Food: Brain Mechanisms and Peripheral Energy Balance

Neuron

Volumn 51, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 691-702

  Abizaid, Alfonso ^a   Gao, Qian ^a   Horvath, Tamas L ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERMEDIN; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; GHRELIN; LEPTIN; MELANIN CONCENTRATING HORMONE; MELANOCORTIN; MELANOCORTIN 4 RECEPTOR; NEUROPEPTIDE Y; OREXIN; THYROTROPIN;

ARCUATE NUCLEUS; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; CLOCK GENE; ENERGY BALANCE; FOOD INTAKE; GENE; GENE MUTATION; HYPOTHALAMUS; INSOMNIA; KNOCKOUT MOUSE; LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS; LOCOMOTION; LOCUS CERULEUS; LONG TERM DEPRESSION; LONG TERM POTENTIATION; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM; NONHUMAN; NORADRENERGIC NERVE; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SATIETY; SLEEP WAKING CYCLE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; ZONA INCERTA;

ANIMALS; APPETITE REGULATION; BRAIN; EATING; FOOD; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 33748523869     PISSN: 08966273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.08.025     Document Type: Review

References (171)

1. Abe H., Honma S., Namihira M., Masubuchi S., Ikeda M., Ebihara S., and Honma K. Clock gene expressions in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and other areas of the brain during rhythm splitting in CS mice. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 87 (2001) 92-99
2. Abizaid A., Liu Z.W., Andrews Z.B., Shanabrough M.S., Borok E., Elmsworth J., Roth R.H., Sleeman M.W., Picciotto M., Tschop M., et al. Ghrelin modulates the activity and synaptic input organization of midbrain dopamine neurons while promoting appetite. J. Clin. Invest. (2006) in press
3. Adan R.A., Cone R.D., Burbach J.P., and Gispen W.H. Differential effects of melanocortin peptides on neural melanocortin receptors. Mol. Pharmacol. 46 (1994) 1182-1190
4. Alon T., and Friedman J.M. Late-onset leanness in mice with targeted ablation of melanin concentrating hormone neurons. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006) 389-397
5. Anand B.K., and Brobeck J.R. Localization of a feeding center in the hypothalamus of the rat. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 77 (1951) 323-324
6. Bagnasco M., Dube M.G., Kalra P.S., and Kalra S.P. Evidence for the existence of distinct central appetite, energy expenditure, and ghrelin stimulation pathways as revealed by hypothalamic site-specific leptin gene therapy. Endocrinology 143 (2002) 4409-4421
7. Bailey A.R., Von Englehardt N., Leng G., Smith R.G., and Dickson S.L. Growth hormone secretagogue activation of the arcuate nucleus and brainstem occurs via a non-noradrenergic pathway. J. Neuroendocrinol. 12 (2000) 191-197
8. Balthasar N., Coppari R., McMinn J., Liu S.M., Lee C.E., Tang V., Kenny C.D., McGovern R.A., Chua Jr. S.C., Elmquist J.K., and Lowell B.B. Leptin receptor signaling in POMC neurons is required for normal body weight homeostasis. Neuron 42 (2004) 983-991
9. Balthasar N., Dalgaard L.T., Lee C.E., Yu J., Funahashi H., Williams T., Ferreira M., Tang V., McGovern R.A., Kenny C.D., et al. Divergence of melanocortin pathways in the control of food intake and energy expenditure. Cell 123 (2005) 493-505
10. Baskin D.G., Hahn T.M., and Schwartz M.W. Leptin sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus. Horm. Metab. Res. 31 (1999) 345-350
11. Bates S.H., and Myers Jr. M.G. The role of leptin receptor signaling in feeding and neuroendocrine function. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 14 (2003) 447-452
12. Bellinger L.L., and Bernardis L.L. The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and its role in ingestive behavior and body weight regulation: lessons learned from lesioning studies. Physiol. Behav. 76 (2002) 431-442
13. Benoit S., Schwartz M., Baskin D., Woods S.C., and Seeley R.J. CNS melanocortin system involvement in the regulation of food intake. Horm. Behav. 37 (2000) 299-305
14. Berridge K.C. Food reward: brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 20 (1996) 1-25
15. Berthoud H.R. Multiple neural systems controlling food intake and body weight. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 26 (2002) 393-428
16. Biebermann H., Castaneda T.R., van Landeghem F., von Deimling A., Escher F., Brabant G., Hebebrand J., Hinney A., Tschop M.H., Gruters A., and Krude H. A role for beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in human body-weight regulation. Cell Metab. 3 (2006) 141-146
17. Boston B.A., Blaydon K.M., Varnerin J., and Cone R.D. Independent and additive effects of central POMC and leptin pathways on murine obesity. Science 278 (1997) 1641-1644
18. Bouali S.M., Fournier A., St-Pierre S., and Jolicoeur F.B. Effects of NPY and NPY2-36 on body temperature and food intake following administration into hypothalamic nuclei. Brain Res. Bull. 36 (1995) 131-135
19. Brobeck J.R. Mechanisms of the development of obesity in animals with hypothalamic lesions. Physiol. Rev. 26 (1946) 541-559
20. Brobeck J.R., Tepperman J., and Long C.N.H. Experimental hypothalamic hyperphagia in the albino rat. Yale J. Biol. Med. 15 (1943) 831-853
21. Broberger C., De Lecea L., Sutcliffe J.G., and Hokfelt T. Hypocretin/orexin- and melanin-concentrating hormone-expressing cells form distinct populations in the rodent lateral hypothalamus: relationship to the neuropeptide Y and agouti gene-related protein systems. J. Comp. Neurol. 402 (1998) 460-474
22. Broberger C., Johansen J., Johansson C., Schalling M., and Hokfelt T. The neuropeptide Y/agouti gene-related protein (AGRP) brain circuitry in normal, anorectic, and monosodium glutamate-treated mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 (1998) 15043-15048
23. Buijs R.M., van Eden C.G., Goncharuk V.D., and Kalsbeek A. The biological clock tunes the organs of the body: timing by hormones and the autonomic nervous system. J. Endocrinol. 177 (2003) 17-26
24. Cannon C.M., and Palmiter R.D. Reward without dopamine. J. Neurosci. 23 (2003) 10827-10831
25. Canteras N.S., Simerly R.B., and Swanson L.W. Organization of projections from the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus: a Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin study in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 348 (1994) 41-79
26. Chemelli R.M., Willie J.T., Sinton C.M., Elmquist J.K., Scammell T., Lee C., Richardson J.A., Williams S.C., Xiong Y., Kisanuki Y., et al. Narcolepsy in orexin knockout mice: molecular genetics of sleep regulation. Cell 98 (1999) 437-451
27. Chou T.C., Bjorkum A.A., Gaus S.E., Lu J., Scammell T.E., and Saper C.B. Afferents to the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus. J. Neurosci. 22 (2002) 977-990
28. Chou T.C., Scammell T.E., Gooley J.J., Gaus S.E., Saper C.B., and Lu J. Critical role of dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus in a wide range of behavioral circadian rhythms. J. Neurosci. 23 (2003) 10691-10702
29. Chronwall B.M., Chase T.N., and O'Donohue T.L. Coexistence of neuropeptide Y and somatostatin in rat and human cortical and rat hypothalamic neurons. Neurosci. Lett. 52 (1984) 213-217
30. Clark J.T., Kalra P.S., Crowley W.R., and Kalra S.P. Neuropeptide Y and human pancreatic polypeptide stimulate feeding behavior in rats. Endocrinology 115 (1984) 427-429
31. Clifton P.G., Vickers S.P., and Somerville E.M. Little and often: ingestive behavior patterns following hippocampal lesions in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 112 (1998) 502-511
32. Coleman D.L. Diabetes-obesity syndromes in mice. Diabetes 31 (1982) 1-6
33. Cone R.D. Anatomy and regulation of the central melanocortin system. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 571-578
34. Cone R.D., Cowley M.A., Butler A.A., Fan W., Marks D.L., and Low M.J. The arcuate nucleus as a conduit for diverse signals relevant to energy homeostasis. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25 Suppl 5 (2001) S63-S67
35. Couce M.E., Burguera B., Parisi J.E., Jensen M.D., and Lloyd R.V. Localization of leptin receptor in the human brain. Neuroendocrinology 66 (1997) 145-150
36. Cowley M.A., Pronchuk N., Fan W., Dinulescu D.M., Colmers W.F., and Cone R.D. Integration of NPY, AGRP, and melanocortin signals in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: evidence of a cellular basis for the adipostat. Neuron 24 (1999) 155-163
37. Cowley M.A., Smart J.L., Rubinstein M., Cerdan M.G., Diano S., Horvath T.L., Cone R.D., and Low M.J. Leptin activates anorexigenic POMC neurons through a neural network in the arcuate nucleus. Nature 411 (2001) 480-484
38. Davis A.M., Seney M.L., Stallings N.R., Zhao L., Parker K.L., and Tobet S.A. Loss of steroidogenic factor 1 alters cellular topography in the mouse ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. J. Neurobiol. 60 (2004) 424-436
39. de Lecea L., Kilduff T.S., Peyron C., Gao X., Foye P.E., Danielson P.E., Fukuhara C., Battenberg E.L., Gautvik V.T., Bartlett II F.S., et al. The hypocretins: hypothalamus-specific peptides with neuroexcitatory activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95 (1998) 322-327
40. Dhillon H., Zigman J.M., Ye C., Lee C.E., McGovern R.A., Tang V., Kenny C.D., Christiansen L.M., White R.D., Edelstein E.A., et al. Leptin directly activates SF1 neurons in the VMH, and this action by leptin is required for normal body-weight homeostasis. Neuron 49 (2006) 191-203
41. Diano S., Horvath B., Urbanski H.F., Sotonyi P., and Horvath T.L. Fasting activates the nonhuman primate hypocretin (orexin) system and its postsynaptic targets. Endocrinology 144 (2003) 3774-3778
42. Dickson S.L., and Luckman S.M. Induction of c-fos messenger ribonucleic acid in neuropeptide Y and growth hormone (GH)-releasing factor neurons in the rat arcuate nucleus following systemic injection of the GH secretagogue, GH-releasing peptide-6. Endocrinology 138 (1997) 771-777
43. Dube M.G., Kalra S.P., and Kalra P.S. Food intake elicited by central administration of orexins/hypocretins: identification of hypothalamic sites of action. Brain Res. 842 (1999) 473-477
44. Edwards C.M., Abusnana S., Sunter D., Murphy K.G., Ghatei M.A., and Bloom S.R. The effect of the orexins on food intake: comparison with neuropeptide Y, melanin-concentrating hormone and galanin. J. Endocrinol. 160 (1999) R7-R12
45. Elias C.F., Saper C.B., Maratos-Flier E., Tritos N.A., Lee C., Kelly J., Tatro J.B., Hoffman G.E., Ollmann M.M., Barsh G.S., et al. Chemically defined projections linking the mediobasal hypothalamus and the lateral hypothalamic area. J. Comp. Neurol. 402 (1998) 442-459
46. Elias C.F., Kelly J.F., Lee C.E., Ahima R.S., Drucker D.J., Saper C.B., and Elmquist J.K. Chemical characterization of leptin-activated neurons in the rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 423 (2000) 261-281
47. Ellacott K.L., and Cone R.D. The central melanocortin system and the integration of short- and long-term regulators of energy homeostasis. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 59 (2004) 395-408
48. Elmquist J.K., Maratos-Flier E., Saper C.B., and Flier J.S. Unraveling the central nervous system pathways underlying responses to leptin. Nat. Neurosci. 1 (1998) 445-450
49. Elmquist J.K., Elias C.F., and Saper C.B. From lesions to leptin: hypothalamic control of food intake and body weight. Neuron 22 (1999) 221-232
50. Erickson J.C., Hollopeter G., and Palmiter R.D. Attenuation of the obesity syndrome of ob/ob mice by the loss of neuropeptide Y. Science 274 (1996) 1704-1707
51. Fan W., Boston B.A., Kesterson R.A., Hruby V.J., and Cone R.D. Role of melanocortinergic neurons in feeding and the agouti obesity syndrome. Nature 385 (1997) 165-168
52. Fei H., Okano H.J., Li C., Lee G.H., Zhao C., Darnell R., and Friedman J.M. Anatomic localization of alternatively spliced leptin receptors (Ob-R) in mouse brain and other tissues. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 (1997) 7001-7005
53. Figlewicz D.P. Adiposity signals and food reward: expanding the CNS roles of insulin and leptin. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 284 (2003) R882-R892
54. Friedman J.M., and Halaas J.L. Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature 395 (1998) 763-770
55. Fulton S., Woodside B., and Shizgal P. Modulation of brain reward circuitry by leptin. Science 287 (2000) 125-128
56. Gao X.B., and van den Pol A.N. Melanin concentrating hormone depresses synaptic activity of glutamate and GABA neurons from rat lateral hypothalamus. J. Physiol. 533 (2001) 237-252
57. Garcia-Segura L.M., Chowen J.A., Parducz A., and Naftolin F. Gonadal hormones as promoters of structural synaptic plasticity: cellular mechanisms. Prog. Neurobiol. 44 (1994) 279-307
58. Gooley J.J., Schomer A., and Saper C.B. The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus is critical for the expression of food-entrainable circadian rhythms. Nat. Neurosci. 9 (2006) 398-407
59. Grill H.J., and Kaplan J.M. Interoceptive and integrative contributions of forebrain and brainstem to energy balance control. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25 Suppl 5 (2001) S73-S77
60. Grill H.J., and Kaplan J.M. The neuroanatomical axis for control of energy balance. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 23 (2002) 2-40
61. Gropp E., Shanabrough M., Borok E., Xu A.W., Janoschek R., Buch T., Plum L., Balthasar N., Hampel B., Waisman A., et al. Agouti-related peptide-expressing neurons are mandatory for feeding. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 1289-1291
62. Guan X.M., Yu H., Palyha O.C., McKee K.K., Feighner S.D., Sirinathsinghji D.J., Smith R.G., Van der Ploeg L.H., and Howard A.D. Distribution of mRNA encoding the growth hormone secretagogue receptor in brain and peripheral tissues. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 48 (1997) 23-29
63. Guan J.L., Uehara K., Lu S., Wang Q.P., Funahashi H., Sakurai T., Yanagizawa M., and Shioda S. Reciprocal synaptic relationships between orexin- and melanin-concentrating hormone-containing neurons in the rat lateral hypothalamus: a novel circuit implicated in feeding regulation. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 26 (2002) 1523-1532
64. Hahn T.M., Breininger J.F., Baskin D.G., and Schwartz M.W. Coexpression of Agrp and NPY in fasting-activated hypothalamic neurons. Nat. Neurosci. 1 (1998) 271-272
65. Hakansson M.L., Brown H., Ghilardi N., Skoda R.C., and Meister B. Leptin receptor immunoreactivity in chemically defined target neurons of the hypothalamus. J. Neurosci. 18 (1998) 559-572
66. Hara J., Beuckmann C.T., Nambu T., Willie J.T., Chemelli R.M., Sinton C.M., Sugiyama F., Yagami K., Goto K., Yanagisawa M., and Sakurai T. Genetic ablation of orexin neurons in mice results in narcolepsy, hypophagia, and obesity. Neuron 30 (2001) 345-354
67. Harrold J.A., Widdowson P.S., and Williams G. Altered energy balance causes selective changes in melanocortin-4(MC4-R), but not melanocortin-3 (MC3-R), receptors in specific hypothalamic regions: further evidence that activation of MC4-R is a physiological inhibitor of feeding. Diabetes 48 (1999) 267-271
68. Hastings M.H., Reddy A.B., Garabette M., King V.M., Chahad-Ehlers S., O'Brien J., and Maywood E.S. Expression of clock gene products in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in relation to circadian behaviour. Novartis Found. Symp. 253 (2003) 203-217
69. Hentges S.T., Nishiyama M., Overstreet L.S., Stenzel-Poore M., Williams J.T., and Low M.J. GABA release from proopiomelanocortin neurons. J. Neurosci. 24 (2004) 1578-1583
70. Hetherington A.W., and Ranson S.W. Hypothalamic lesions and adipocity in the rat. Anat. Rec. 78 (1940) 149
71. Hetherington A.W., and Ranson S.W. The relation of various hypothalamic lesions to adiposity in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 76 (1942) 475-499
72. Hewson A.K., and Dickson S.L. Systemic administration of ghrelin induces Fos and Egr-1 proteins in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus of fasted and fed rats. J. Neuroendocrinol. 12 (2000) 1047-1049
73. Hnasko T.S., Szczypka M.S., Alaynick W.A., During M.J., and Palmiter R.D. A role for dopamine in feeding responses produced by orexigenic agents. Brain Res. 1023 (2004) 309-318
74. Horvath T.L., and Diano S. The floating blueprint of hypothalamic feeding circuits. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5 (2004) 662-667
75. Horvath T.L., and Gao X.B. Inpur organization and plasticity of hypocretin neurons: Possible clues for obesity's association with insomnia. Cell Metab. 1 (2005) 279-286
76. Horvath T.L., Naftolin F., Kalra S.P., and Leranth C. Neuropeptide-Y innervation of beta-endorphin-containing cells in the rat mediobasal hypothalamus: a light and electron microscopic double immunostaining analysis. Endocrinology 131 (1992) 2461-2467
77. Horvath T.L., Bechmann I., Naftolin F., Kalra S.P., and Leranth C. Heterogeneity in the neuropeptide Y-containing neurons of the rat arcuate nucleus: GABAergic and non-GABAergic subpopulations. Brain Res. 756 (1997) 283-286
78. Horvath T.L., Diano S., and van den Pol A.N. Synaptic interaction between hypocretin (orexin) and neuropeptide Y cells in the rodent and primate hypothalamus: a novel circuit implicated in metabolic and endocrine regulations. J. Neurosci. 19 (1999) 1072-1087
79. Horvath T.L., Diano S., Sotonyi P., Heiman M., and Tschop M. Minireview: ghrelin and the regulation of energy balance-a hypothalamic perspective. Endocrinology 142 (2001) 4163-4169
80. Huang X.F., Koutcherov I., Lin S., Wang H.Q., and Storlien L. Localization of leptin receptor mRNA expression in mouse brain. Neuroreport 7 (1996) 2635-2638
81. Jerlhag E., Egecioglu E., Dickson S.L., Andersson M., Svensson L., and Engel J.A. Ghrelin stimulates locomotor activity and accumbal dopamine-overflow via central cholinergic systems in mice: implications for its involvement in brain reward. Addict. Biol. 11 (2006) 45-54
82. Kalra S.P., Dube M.G., Pu S., Xu B., Horvath T.L., and Kalra P.S. Interacting appetite-regulating pathways in the hypothalamic regulation of body weight. Endocr. Rev. 20 (1999) 68-100
83. Kennedy A.R., Todd J.F., Stanley S.A., Abbott C.R., Small C.J., Ghatei M.A., and Bloom S.R. Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) suppresses thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) release, in vivo and in vitro, via the hypothalamus and the pituitary. Endocrinology 142 (2001) 3265-3268
84. King B.M. The rise, fall, and resurrection of the ventromedial hypothalamus in the regulation of feeding behavior and body weight. Physiol. Behav. 87 (2006) 221-244
85. Kishi T., Aschkenasi C.J., Lee C.E., Mountjoy K.G., Saper C.B., and Elmquist J.K. Expression of melanocortin 4 receptor mRNA in the central nervous system of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 457 (2003) 213-235
86. Komori T., Morikawa Y., Nanjo K., and Senba E. Induction of brain-derived neurotrophic factor by leptin in the ventromedial hypothalamus. Neuroscience 139 (2006) 1107-1115
87. Lee Y.S., Challis B.G., Thompson D.A., Yeo G.S., Keogh J.M., Madonna M.E., Wraight V., Sims M., Vatin V., Meyre D., et al. A POMC variant implicates beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in the control of human energy balance. Cell Metab. 3 (2006) 135-140
88. Li Y.Z., and Davidowa H. Food deprivation decreases responsiveness of ventromedial hypothalamic neurons to melanocortins. J. Neurosci. Res. 77 (2004) 596-602
89. Lopez-Valpuesta F.J., Nyce J.W., Griffin-Biggs T.A., Ice J.C., and Myers R.D. Antisense to NPY-Y1 demonstrates that Y1 receptors in the hypothalamus underlie NPY hypothermia and feeding in rats. Proc. Biol. Sci. 263 (1996) 881-886
90. Lu X.Y., Bagnol D., Burke S., Akil H., and Watson S.J. Differential distribution and regulation of OX1 and OX2 orexin/hypocretin receptor messenger RNA in the brain upon fasting. Horm. Behav. 37 (2000) 335-344
91. Ludwig D.S., Mountjoy K.G., Tatro J.B., Gillette J.A., Frederich R.C., Flier J.S., and Maratos-Flier E. Melanin-concentrating hormone: a functional melanocortin antagonist in the hypothalamus. Am. J. Physiol. 274 (1998) E627-E633
92. Luquet S., Perez F.A., Hnasko T.S., and Palmiter R.D. NPY/AgRP neurons are essential for feeding in adult mice but can be ablated in neonates. Science 310 (2005) 683-685
93. Lynn R.B., Cao G.Y., Considine R.V., Hyde T.M., and Caro J.F. Autoradiographic localization of leptin binding in the choroid plexus of ob/ob and db/db mice. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 219 (1996) 884-889
94. Majdic G., Young M., Gomez-Sanchez E., Anderson P., Szczepaniak L.S., Dobbins R.L., McGarry J.D., and Parker K.L. Knockout mice lacking steroidogenic factor 1 are a novel genetic model of hypothalamic obesity. Endocrinology 143 (2002) 607-614
95. Malenka R.C., and Bear M.F. LTP and LTD: an embarrassment of riches. Neuron 44 (2004) 5-21
96. Maywood E.S., O'Brien J.A., and Hastings M.H. Expression of mCLOCK and other circadian clock-relevant proteins in the mouse suprachiasmatic nuclei. J. Neuroendocrinol. 15 (2003) 329-334
97. Mercer J.G., Hoggard N., Williams L.M., Lawrence C.B., Hannah L.T., and Trayhurn P. Localization of leptin receptor mRNA and the long form splice variant (Ob-Rb) in mouse hypothalamus and adjacent brain regions by in situ hybridization. FEBS Lett. 387 (1996) 113-116
98. Mitchell V., Bouret S., Beauvillain J.C., Schilling A., Perret M., Kordon C., and Epelbaum J. Comparative distribution of mRNA encoding the growth hormone secretagogue-receptor (GHS-R) in Microcebus murinus (Primate, lemurian) and rat forebrain and pituitary. J. Comp. Neurol. 429 (2001) 469-489
99. Miyata S., Nakashima T., and Kiyohara T. Structural dynamics of neural plasticity in the supraoptic nucleus of the rat hypothalamus during dehydration and rehydration. Brain Res. Bull. 34 (1994) 169-175
100. Morin L.P., and Allen C.N. The circadian visual system, 2005. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 51 (2005) 1-60
101. Morley J.E., Hernandez E.N., and Flood J.F. Neuropeptide Y increases food intake in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 253 (1987) R516-R522
102. Mountjoy K.G., Mortrud M.T., Low M.J., Simerly R.B., and Cone R.D. Localization of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4-R) in neuroendocrine and autonomic control circuits in the brain. Mol. Endocrinol. 8 (1994) 1298-1308
103. Nakagawa T., Ono-Kishino M., Sugaru E., Yamanaka M., Taiji M., and Noguchi H. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) regulates glucose and energy metabolism in diabetic mice. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 18 (2002) 185-191
104. Nakagawa T., Ogawa Y., Ebihara K., Yamanaka M., Tsuchida A., Taiji M., Noguchi H., and Nakao K. Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in rodent models of leptin resistance. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 27 (2003) 557-565
105. Obici S., and Rossetti L. Minireview: nutrient sensing and the regulation of insulin action and energy balance. Endocrinology 144 (2003) 5172-5178
106. Ollmann M.M., Wilson B.D., Yang Y.K., Kerns J.A., Chen Y., Gantz I., and Barsh G.S. Antagonism of central melanocortin receptors in vitro and in vivo by agouti-related protein. Science 278 (1997) 135-138
107. Olshansky S.J., Passaro D.J., Hershow R.C., Layden J., Carnes B.A., Brody J., Hayflick L., Butler R.N., Allison D.B., and Ludwig D.S. A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century. N. Engl. J. Med. 352 (2005) 1138-1145
108. Parducz A., Szilagyi T., Hoyk S., Naftolin F., and Garcia-Segura L.M. Neuroplastic changes in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus: the estradiol effect is accompanied by increased exoendocytotic activity of neuronal membranes. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 16 (1996) 259-269
109. Parducz A., Hoyk Z., Kis Z., and Garcia-Segura L.M. Hormonal enhancement of neuronal firing is linked to structural remodelling of excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Eur. J. Neurosci. 16 (2002) 665-670
110. Parker K.L., Rice D.A., Lala D.S., Ikeda Y., Luo X., Wong M., Bakke M., Zhao L., Frigeri C., Hanley N.A., et al. Steroidogenic factor 1: an essential mediator of endocrine development. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 57 (2002) 19-36
111. Peyron C., Tighe D.K., van den Pol A.N., de Lecea L., Heller H.C., Sutcliffe J.G., and Kilduff T.S. Neurons containing hypocretin (orexin) project to multiple neuronal systems. J. Neurosci. 18 (1998) 9996-10015
112. Pinto S., Roseberry A.G., Liu H., Diano S., Shanabrough M., Cai X., Friedman J.M., and Horvath T.L. Rapid rewiring of arcuate nucleus feeding circuits by leptin. Science 304 (2004) 110-115
113. Qian S., Chen H., Weingarth D., Trumbauer M.E., Novi D.E., Guan X., Yu H., Shen Z., Feng Y., Frazier E., et al. Neither agouti-related protein nor neuropeptide Y is critically required for the regulation of energy homeostasis in mice. Mol. Cell. Biol. 22 (2002) 5027-5035
114. Qu D., Ludwig D.S., Gammeltoft S., Piper M., Pelleymounter M.A., Cullen M.J., Mathes W.F., Przypek R., Kanarek R., and Maratos-Flier E. A role for melanin-concentrating hormone in the central regulation of feeding behaviour. Nature 380 (1996) 243-247
115. Quillan J.M., Sadee W., Wei E.T., Jimenez C., Ji L., and Chang J.K. A synthetic human Agouti-related protein-(83-132)-NH2 fragment is a potent inhibitor of melanocortin receptor function. FEBS Lett. 428 (1998) 59-62
116. Riediger T., Traebert M., Schmid H.A., Scheel C., Lutz T.A., and Scharrer E. Site-specific effects of ghrelin on the neuronal activity in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. Neurosci. Lett. 341 (2003) 151-155
117. Rios M., Fan G., Fekete C., Kelly J., Bates B., Kuehn R., Lechan R.M., and Jaenisch R. Conditional deletion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the postnatal brain leads to obesity and hyperactivity. Mol. Endocrinol. 15 (2001) 1748-1757
118. Rollins B.L., Stines S.G., McGuire H.B., and King B.M. Effects of amygdala lesions on body weight, conditioned taste aversion, and neophobia. Physiol. Behav. 72 (2001) 735-742
119. Rossi M., Kim M.S., Morgan D.G., Small C.J., Edwards C.M., Sunter D., Abusnana S., Goldstone A.P., Russell S.H., Stanley S.A., et al. A C-terminal fragment of Agouti-related protein increases feeding and antagonizes the effect of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone in vivo. Endocrinology 139 (1998) 4428-4431
120. Sahm U.G., Qarawi M.A., Olivier G.W., Ahmed A.R., Branch S.K., Moss S.H., and Pouton C.W. The melanocortin (MC3) receptor from rat hypothalamus: photoaffinity labelling and binding of alanine-substituted alpha-MSH analogues. FEBS Lett. 350 (1994) 29-32
121. Sahu A. Interactions of neuropeptide Y, hypocretin-I (orexin A) and melanin-concentrating hormone on feeding in rats. Brain Res. 944 (2002) 232-238
122. Sahu A., Kalra P.S., and Kalra S.P. Food deprivation and ingestion induce reciprocal changes in neuropeptide Y concentrations in the paraventricular nucleus. Peptides 9 (1988) 83-86
123. Sahu A., Kalra S.P., Crowley W.R., and Kalra P.S. Evidence that NPY-containing neurons in the brainstem project into selected hypothalamic nuclei: implication in feeding behavior. Brain Res. 457 (1988) 376-378
124. Saito Y., Cheng M., Leslie F.M., and Civelli O. Expression of the melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) receptor mRNA in the rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 435 (2001) 26-40
125. Sakurai T., Amemiya A., Ishii M., Matsuzaki I., Chemelli R.M., Tanaka H., Williams S.C., Richardson J.A., Kozlowski G.P., Wilson S., et al. Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior. Cell 92 (1998) 573-585
126. Sakurai T., Nagata R., Yamanaka A., Kawamura H., Tsujino N., Muraki Y., Kageyama H., Kunita S., Takahashi S., Goto K., et al. Input of orexin/hypocretin neurons revealed by a genetically encoded tracer in mice. Neuron 46 (2005) 297-308
127. Sanacora G., Kershaw M., Finkelstein J.A., and White J.D. Increased hypothalamic content of preproneuropeptide Y messenger ribonucleic acid in genetically obese Zucker rats and its regulation by food deprivation. Endocrinology 127 (1990) 730-737
128. Saper C.B., Swanson L.W., and Cowan W.M. The efferent connections of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 169 (1976) 409-442
129. Schwartz M.W., Woods S.C., Porte Jr. D., Seeley R.J., and Baskin D.G. Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 404 (2000) 661-671
130. Seeley R.J., Drazen D.L., and Clegg D.J. The critical role of the melanocortin system in the control of energy balance. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 24 (2004) 133-149
131. Segal J.P., Stallings N.R., Lee C.E., Zhao L., Socci N., Viale A., Harris T.M., Soares M.B., Childs G., Elmquist J.K., et al. Use of laser-capture microdissection for the identification of marker genes for the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus. J. Neurosci. 25 (2005) 4181-4188
132. Shimada M., Tritos N.A., Lowell B.B., Flier J.S., and Maratos-Flier E. Mice lacking melanin-concentrating hormone are hypophagic and lean. Nature 396 (1998) 670-674
133. Shioda S., Funahashi H., Nakajo S., Yada T., Maruta O., and Nakai Y. Immunohistochemical localization of leptin receptor in the rat brain. Neurosci. Lett. 243 (1998) 41-44
134. Small D.M., Jones-Gotman M., and Dagher A. Feeding-induced dopamine release in dorsal striatum correlates with meal pleasantness ratings in healthy human volunteers. Neuroimage 19 (2003) 1709-1715
135. Sotak B.N., Hnasko T.S., Robinson S., Kremer E.J., and Palmiter R.D. Dysregulation of dopamine signaling in the dorsal striatum inhibits feeding. Brain Res. 1061 (2005) 88-96
136. Stein C.J., and Colditz G.A. The epidemic of obesity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (2004) 2522-2525
137. Stellar E. The physiology of motivation. Psychol. Rev. 61 (1954) 5-22
138. Stern J.E., and Armstrong W.E. Reorganization of the dendritic trees of oxytocin and vasopressin neurons of the rat supraoptic nucleus during lactation. J. Neurosci. 18 (1998) 841-853
139. Sternson S.M., Shepherd G.M., and Friedman J.M. Topographic mapping of VMH → arcuate nucleus microcircuits and their reorganization by fasting. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 1356-1363
140. Sumova A., Bendova Z., Sladek M., Kovacikova Z., and Illnerova H. Seasonal molecular timekeeping within the rat circadian clock. Physiol. Res. 53 Suppl 1 (2004) S167-S176
141. Szczypka M.S., Mandel R.J., Donahue B.A., Snyder R.O., Leff S.E., and Palmiter R.D. Viral gene delivery selectively restores feeding and prevents lethality of dopamine-deficient mice. Neuron 22 (1999) 167-178
142. Szczypka M.S., Rainey M.A., Kim D.S., Alaynick W.A., Marck B.T., Matsumoto A.M., and Palmiter R.D. Feeding behavior in dopamine-deficient mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 (1999) 12138-12143
143. Szczypka M.S., Rainey M.A., and Palmiter R.D. Dopamine is required for hyperphagia in Lep(ob/ob) mice. Nat. Genet. 25 (2000) 102-104
144. Szczypka M.S., Kwok K., Brot M.D., Marck B.T., Matsumoto A.M., Donahue B.A., and Palmiter R.D. Dopamine production in the caudate putamen restores feeding in dopamine-deficient mice. Neuron 30 (2001) 819-828
145. Tejwani G.A., and Richard III C.W. Effect of electrolytic and chemical ventromedial hypothalamic lesions on food intake, body weight, analgesia and the CNS opioid peptides in rats and mice. NIDA Res. Monogr. 75 (1986) 497-500
146. ter Horst G.J., and Luiten P.G. The projections of the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus in the rat. Brain Res. Bull. 16 (1986) 231-248
147. Theodosis D.T., Piet R., Poulain D.A., and Oliet S.H. Neuronal, glial and synaptic remodeling in the adult hypothalamus: functional consequences and role of cell surface and extracellular matrix adhesion molecules. Neurochem. Int. 45 (2004) 491-501
148. Torrealba F., Yanagisawa M., and Saper C.B. Colocalization of orexin a and glutamate immunoreactivity in axon terminals in the tuberomammillary nucleus in rats. Neuroscience 119 (2003) 1033-1044
149. Toshinai K., Date Y., Murakami N., Shimada M., Mondal M.S., Shimbara T., Guan J.L., Wang Q.P., Funahashi H., Sakurai T., et al. Ghrelin-induced food intake is mediated via the orexin pathway. Endocrinology 144 (2003) 1506-1512
150. Traebert M., Riediger T., Whitebread S., Scharrer E., and Schmid H.A. Ghrelin acts on leptin-responsive neurones in the rat arcuate nucleus. J. Neuroendocrinol. 14 (2002) 580-586
151. Tritos N.A., Vicent D., Gillette J., Ludwig D.S., Flier E.S., and Maratos-Flier E. Functional interactions between melanin-concentrating hormone, neuropeptide Y, and anorectic neuropeptides in the rat hypothalamus. Diabetes 47 (1998) 1687-1692
152. Tritos N.A., Mastaitis J.W., Kokkotou E., and Maratos-Flier E. Characterization of melanin concentrating hormone and preproorexin expression in the murine hypothalamus. Brain Res. 895 (2001) 160-166
153. Tsuchida A., Nonomura T., Nakagawa T., Itakura Y., Ono-Kishino M., Yamanaka M., Sugaru E., Taiji M., and Noguchi H. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor ameliorates lipid metabolism in diabetic mice. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 4 (2002) 262-269
154. Turek F.W., Joshu C., Kohsaka A., Lin E., Ivanova G., McDearmon E., Laposky A., Losee-Olson S., Easton A., Jensen D.R., et al. Obesity and metabolic syndrome in circadian Clock mutant mice. Science 308 (2005) 1043-1045
155. van den Pol A.N. Weighing the role of hypothalamic feeding neurotransmitters. Neuron 40 (2003) 1059-1061
156. van den Pol A.N., Acuna-Goycolea C., Clark K.R., and Ghosh P.K. Physiological properties of hypothalamic MCH neurons identified with selective expression of reporter gene after recombinant virus infection. Neuron 42 (2004) 635-652
157. Volkow N.D., and Wise R.A. How can drug addiction help us understand obesity?. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005) 555-560
158. Wellman P.J., Davis K.W., and Nation J.R. Augmentation of cocaine hyperactivity in rats by systemic ghrelin. Regul. Pept. 125 (2005) 151-154
159. Wilding J.P., Gilbey S.G., Bailey C.J., Batt R.A., Williams G., Ghatei M.A., and Bloom S.R. Increased neuropeptide-Y messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and decreased neurotensin mRNA in the hypothalamus of the obese (ob/ob) mouse. Endocrinology 132 (1993) 1939-1944
160. Willie J.T., Chemelli R.M., Sinton C.M., Tokita S., Williams S.C., Kisanuki Y.Y., Marcus J.N., Lee C., Elmquist J.K., Kohlmeier K.A., et al. Distinct narcolepsy syndromes in Orexin receptor-2 and Orexin null mice: molecular genetic dissection of Non-REM and REM sleep regulatory processes. Neuron 38 (2003) 715-730
161. Wise R.A. Brain reward circuitry: insights from unsensed incentives. Neuron 36 (2002) 229-240
162. Wisialowski T., Parker R., Preston E., Sainsbury A., Kraegen E., Herzog H., and Cooney G. Adrenalectomy reduces neuropeptide Y-induced insulin release and NPY receptor expression in the rat ventromedial hypothalamus. J. Clin. Invest. 105 (2000) 1253-1259
163. Xiong J.J., Karsch F.J., and Lehman M.N. Evidence for seasonal plasticity in the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) system of the ewe: changes in synaptic inputs onto GnRH neurons. Endocrinology 138 (1997) 1240-1250
164. Xu B., Goulding E.H., Zang K., Cepoi D., Cone R.D., Jones K.R., Tecott L.H., and Reichardt L.F. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor regulates energy balance downstream of melanocortin-4 receptor. Nat. Neurosci. 6 (2003) 736-742
165. Yamanaka A., Kunii K., Nambu T., Tsujino N., Sakai A., Matsuzaki I., Miwa Y., Goto K., and Sakurai T. Orexin-induced food intake involves neuropeptide Y pathway. Brain Res. 859 (2000) 404-409
166. Yi C.X., van der Vliet J., Dai J., Yin G., Ru L., and Buijs R.M. Ventromedial arcuate nucleus communicates peripheral metabolic information to the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Endocrinology 147 (2006) 283-294
167. Zaborszky L., and Makara G.B. Intrahypothalamic connections: an electron microscopic study in the rat. Exp. Brain Res. 34 (1979) 201-215
168. Zhang Y., Proenca R., Maffei M., Barone M., Leopold L., and Friedman J.M. Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature 372 (1994) 425-432
169. Zigman J.M., Jones J.E., Lee C.E., Saper C.B., and Elmquist J.K. Expression of ghrelin receptor mRNA in the rat and the mouse brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 494 (2006) 528-548
170. Zsarnovszky A., Horvath T.L., Garcia-Segura L.M., Horvath B., and Naftolin F. Oestrogen-induced changes in the synaptology of the monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) arcuate nucleus during gonadotropin feedback. J. Neuroendocrinol. 13 (2001) 22-28
171. Zucker T.F., and Zucker L.M. Fat accretion and growth in the rat. J. Nutr. 80 (1963) 6-19