Quantitative in vivo cell-surface receptor imaging in oncology: Kinetic modeling and paired-agent principles from nuclear medicine and optical imaging

Physics in Medicine and Biology

Volumn 60, Issue 14, 2015, Pages R239-R269

  Tichauer, Kenneth M ^a   Wang, Yu ^b   Pogue, Brian W ^c   Liu, Jonathan T C ^b  

^a Illinois Institute of Technology   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^c DARTMOUTH COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

cancer; fluorescence; molecular imaging; PET; SPECT; tracer kinetics

Indexed keywords

CELL MEMBRANES; CELLS; CYTOLOGY; DISEASES; FLUORESCENCE; KINETIC THEORY; KINETICS; NUCLEAR MEDICINE; ONCOLOGY; POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATES; TISSUE; TISSUE ENGINEERING; TUMORS;

CANCER; CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS; OPTICAL MOLECULAR IMAGING; RECEPTOR EXPRESSION; SPECT; TRACER KINETIC MODELING; TRACER KINETICS; VASCULAR PERMEABILITY;

MOLECULAR IMAGING;

CELL SURFACE RECEPTOR; RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL AGENT;

ANIMAL; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; FLUORESCENCE IMAGING; HUMAN; METABOLISM; NEOPLASM; NUCLEAR MEDICINE; PROCEDURES; SCINTISCANNING;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEOPLASMS; NUCLEAR MEDICINE; OPTICAL IMAGING; RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING; RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS; RECEPTORS, CELL SURFACE;

EID: 84936080704     PISSN: 00319155     EISSN: 13616560     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/60/14/R239     Document Type: Review

References (208)

1. Allen T M and Cullis P R 2004 Drug delivery systems: entering the mainstream Science 303 1818-22
2. Annis D A, Shipps G W Jr, Deng Y, Popovici-Muller J, Siddiqui M A, Curran P J, Gowen M and Windsor W T 2007 Method for quantitative protein-ligand affinity measurements in compound mixtures Anal. Chem. 79 4538-42
3. Ardeshirpour Y, Hassan M, Zielinski R, Horton J, Capala J, Gandjbakhche A H and Chernomordik V 2014 In vivo assessment of HER2 receptor density in HER2-positive tumors by near-infrared imaging, using repeated injections of the fluorescent probe Technol. Cancer Res. Treat. 13 427-34
4. Baeten J, Haller J, Shih H and Ntziachristos V 2009 In vivo investigation of breast cancer progression by use of an internal control Neoplasia 11 220-7
5. 11C]erlotinib positron emission tomography for in vivo evaluation of EGF receptor mutational status Clin. Cancer Res. 19 183-93
6. Bai M and Bornhop D J 2012 Recent advances in receptor-targeted fluorescent probes for in vivo cancer imaging Curr. Med. Chem. 19 4742-58
7. Baloch Z W, LiVolsi V A, Asa S L, Rosai J, Merino M J, Randolph G, Vielh P, DeMay R M, Sidawy M K and Frable W J 2008 Diagnostic terminology and morphologic criteria for cytologic diagnosis of thyroid lesions: a synopsis of the National Cancer Institute Thyroid Fine-Needle Aspiration State of the Science Conference Diagn. Cytopathol. 36 425-37
8. Barrett P H, Bell B M, Cobelli C, Golde H, Schumitzky A, Vicini P and Foster D M 1998 SAAM II: simulation, analysis, and modeling software for tracer and pharmacokinetic studies Metab.: Clin. Exp. 47 484-92
9. Bartlett D W, Su H, Hildebrandt I J, Weber W A and Davis M E 2007 Impact of tumor-specific targeting on the biodistribution and efficacy of siRNA nanoparticles measured by multimodality in vivo imaging Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104 15549-54
10. 18F-fluoro-5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (FDHT) in prostate tumors as measured by PET J. Nucl. Med. 51 183-92
11. 18F]galacto-RGD positron emission tomography for imaging of αvβ3 expression on the neovasculature in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck Clin. Cancer Res. 13 6610-6
12. 18F-galacto-RGD in cancer patients J. Nucl. Med. 46 1333-41
13. Behnke J, Mach J P, Buchegger F, Carrel S, Delaloye B and De Tribolet N 1988 In vivo localisation of radiolabelled monoclonal antibody in human gliomas Br. J. Neurosurg. 2 193-7
14. Blasberg R G, Nakagawa H, Bourdon M A, Groothuis D R, Patlak C S and Bigner D D 1987 Regional localization of a glioma-associated antigen defined by monoclonal antibody 81C6 in vivo: kinetics and implications for diagnosis and therapy Cancer Res. 47 4432-43 (PMID: 3607773)
15. Blau M, Johnson A C and Pressman D 1958 p-Iodobenzoyl groups as a paired label for in vivo protein distribution studies; specific localization of anti-tissue antibodies Int. J. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 3 217-25
16. Boerman O C and Oyen W J G 2011 Immuno-PET of cancer: a revival of antibody imaging J. Nucl. Med. 52 1171-2
17. Boone C W, Church E C and McAllister R M 1973a Testing by the 'paired-label' antibody binding technique for feline leukemia virus-induced cell surface antigens (FeLV-CSA) on the surface of human rhabdomyosarcoma cells releasing RD-114 virus Virology 55 157-62
18. Boone C W, Gordin F and Kawakami T G 1973b Surface antigens on cat leukemic cells induced by feline leukemia virus: area density and antibody-binding affinity J. Virol. 11 515-9
19. Bourdon M A, Coleman R E, Blasberg R G, Groothuis D R and Bigner D D 1984 Monoclonal antibody localization in subcutaneous and intracranial human glioma xenografts: paired-label and imaging analysis Anticancer Res. 4 133-40
20. Brannon-Peppas L and Blanchette J O 2012 Nanoparticle and targeted systems for cancer therapy Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 64 206-12
21. Brown E B, Campbell R B, Tsuzuki Y, Xu L, Carmeliet P, Fukumura D and Jain R K 2001 In vivo measurement of gene expression, angiogenesis and physiological function in tumors using multiphoton laser scanning microscopy Nat. Med. 7 864-8
22. Brown J M and Giaccia A J 1998 The unique physiology of solid tumors: opportunities (and problems) for cancer therapy Cancer Res. 58 1408-16 (PMID: 9537241)
23. Buchegger F, Haskell C M, Schreyer M, Scazziga B R, Randin S, Carrel S and Mach J P 1983 Radiolabeled fragments of monoclonal antibodies against carcinoembryonic antigen for localization of human colon carcinoma grafted into nude mice J. Exp. Med. 158 413-27
24. 18F-N-fluoroacetyl-N-(2,5-dimethoxybenzyl)-2-phenoxyaniline J. Nucl. Med. 52 107-14
25. Chatal J F, Bourdoiseau M, Fumoleau P, Douillard J Y, Kremer M, Curtet C and Le Mevel B 1983 Use of radio-labelled monoclonal antibodies for the scintigraphic detection of human colorectal cancers Bull. du Cancer 70 103-7
26. Chattopadhyay N, Fonge H, Cai Z, Scollard D, Lechtman E, Done S J, Pignol J P and Reilly R M 2012 Role of antibody-mediated tumor targeting and route of administration in nanoparticle tumor accumulation in vivo Mol. Pharm. 9 2168-79
27. 124I-labeled cG250 based on positron emission tomography imaging and nonlinear immunokinetic modeling: in vivo carbonic anhydrase IX receptor binding and internalization in mouse xenografts of clear-cell renal cell carcinoma Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 41 985-94
28. Chernomordik V, Hassan M, Lee S B, Zielinski R, Gandjbakhche A and Capala J 2010 Quantitative analysis of HER2 receptor expression in vivo by near-infrared optical imaging Mol. Imaging 9 192-200
29. Choi H S and Frangioni J V 2010 Nanoparticles for biomedical imaging: fundamentals of clinical translation Mol. Imaging 9 291-310
30. Daghighian F, Pentlow K S, Larson S M, Graham M C, DiResta G R, Yeh S D, Macapinlac H, Finn R D, Arbit E and Cheung N K 1993 Development of a method to measure kinetics of radiolabelled monoclonal antibody in human tumour with applications to microdosimetry: positron emission tomography studies of iodine-124 labelled 3F8 monoclonal antibody in glioma Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 20 402-9
31. Davis S C, Pogue B W, Springett R, Leussler C, Mazurkewitz P, Tuttle S B, Gibbs-Strauss S L, Jiang S S, Dehghani H and Paulsen K D 2008 Magnetic resonance-coupled fluorescence tomography scanner for molecular imaging of tissue Rev. Sci. Instrum. 79 064302
32. Davis S C, Samkoe K S, Tichauer K M, Sexton K J, Gunn J R, Deharvengt S J, Hasan T and Pogue B W 2013 Dynamic dual-tracer MRI-guided fluorescence tomography to quantify receptor density in vivo Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110 9025-30
33. de Wiele C V, Boersma H, Dierckx R A, De Spiegeleer B, Van Waarde A and Elsinga P H 2008 Growth factor/peptide receptor imaging for the development of targeted therapy in oncology Curr. Pharm. Des. 14 3340-7
34. DeMarzo A M, Nelson W G, Isaacs W B and Epstein J I 2003 Pathological and molecular aspects of prostate cancer Lancet 361 955-64
35. Demignot S, Pimm M V and Baldwin R W 1990 Comparison of biodistribution of 791T/36 monoclonal antibody and its Fab/c fragment in BALB/c mice and nude mice bearing human tumor xenografts Cancer Res. 50 2936-42
36. DiMasi J A, Hansen R W and Grabowski H G 2003 The price of innovation: new estimates of drug development costs J. Health Econ. 22 151-85
37. Dimitrakopoulou-Strauss A, Georgoulias V, Eisenhut M, Herth F, Koukouraki S, Macke H R, Haberkorn U and Strauss L G 2006 Quantitative assessment of SSTR2 expression in patients with non-small cell lung cancer using (68)Ga-DOTATOC PET and comparison with (18)F-FDG PET Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 33 823-30
38. Dimitrakopoulou-Strauss A, Seiz M, Tuettenberg J, Schmieder K, Eisenhut M, Haberkorn U and Strauss L G 2011 Pharmacokinetic studies of (6)(8)Ga-labeled Bombesin ((6)(8)Ga-BZH(3)) and F-18 FDG PET in patients with recurrent gliomas and comparison to grading: preliminary results Clin. Nucl. Med. 36 101-8
39. Duran-Reynolds F 1939 Studies on the localization of dyes and foreign proteins in normal and malignant tissues Am. J. Cancer 35 98
40. Duthu A and de Vaux Saint-Cyr C 1975 [Neoantigens on cells transformed by SV40. IV. - A quantitative study of antigenic sites in a cell line (TSV5C12) (author's transl)] Annales d'immunologie 126 219-30
41. El Fakhri G, Kijewski M F and Moore S C 2001 Absolute activity quantitation from projections using an analytical approach: comparison with iterative methods in Tc-99m and I-123 brain SPECT IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 48 768-73
42. Elliott J T, Tichauer K M, Samkoe K S, Gunn J R, Sexton K J and Pogue B W 2014 Direct characterization of arterial input functions by fluorescence imaging of exposed carotid artery to facilitate kinetic analysis Mol. Imaging Biol. 16 488-94
43. Elliott J T, Wright E A, Tichauer K M, Diop M, Morrison L B, Pogue B W, Lee T Y and St Lawrence K 2012 Arterial input function of an optical tracer for dynamic contrast enhanced imaging can be determined from pulse oximetry oxygen saturation measurements Phys. Med. Biol. 57 8285-95
44. Fang J, Nakamura H and Maeda H 2011 The EPR effect: unique features of tumor blood vessels for drug delivery, factors involved, and limitations and augmentation of the effect Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 63 136-51
45. Farde L, Eriksson L, Blomquist G and Halldin C 1989 Kinetic analysis of central [11C]raclopride binding to D2-dopamine receptors studied by PET - a comparison to the equilibrium analysis J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 9 696-708
46. Ferl G Z, Dumont R A, Hildebrandt I J, Armijo A, Haubner R, Reischl G, Su H, Weber W A and Huang S C 2009 Derivation of a compartmental model for quantifying 64Cu-DOTA-RGD kinetics in tumor-bearing mice J. Nucl. Med. 50 250-8
47. Fidler I J 1978 Tumor heterogeneity and the biology of cancer invasion and metastasis Cancer Res. 38 2651-60 (PMID: 354778)
48. 18F-FDG PET in oncology J. Nucl. Med. 49 480-508
49. Foulon C F, Reist C J, Bigner D D and Zalutsky M R 2000 Radioiodination via D-amino acid peptide enhances cellular retention and tumor xenograft targeting of an internalizing anti-epidermal growth factor receptor variant III monoclonal antibody Cancer Res. 60 4453-60 (PMID: 10969792)
50. Frangioni J V 2003 In vivo near-infrared fluorescence imaging Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 7 626-34
51. Gadina M, Canevari S, Ripamonti M, Mariani M and Colnaghi M I 1991 Preclinical pharmacokinetics and localization studies of the radioiodinated anti-ovarian carcinoma MAb MOv18 Int. J. Radiat. Appl. Instrum. B 18 403-8
52. Gambhir S S 2002 Molecular imaging of cancer with positron emission tomography Nat. Rev. Cancer 2 683-93
53. Gambhir S S, Keppenne C L, Banerjee P K and Phelps M E 1998 A new method to estimate parameters of linear compartmental models using artificial neural networks Phys. Med. Biol. 43 1659-78
54. Gambhir S S, Mahoney D K, Huang S C and Phelps M E 1996 Symbolic interactive modeling package and learning environment (SIMPLE), a new easy method for compartment modeling Proc. Soc. Comput. Simul. 173-86
55. Gao X, Cui Y, Levenson R M, Chung L W and Nie S 2004 In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots Nat. Biotechnol. 22 969-76
56. Garg P K, Garg S, Bigner D D and Zalutsky M R 1992 Localization of fluorine-18-labeled Mel-14 monoclonal antibody F(ab′)2 fragment in a subcutaneous xenograft model Cancer Res. 52 5054-60 (PMID: 1516061)
57. Gerlinger M et al 2012 Intratumor heterogeneity and branched evolution revealed by multiregion sequencing New Engl. J. Med. 366 883-92
58. Germano G, Chen B C, Huang S C, Gambhir S S, Hoffman E J and Phelps M E 1992 Use of the abdominal aorta for arterial input function determination in hepatic and renal PET studies J. Nucl. Med. 33 613-20
59. Gioux S, Choi H S and Frangioni J V 2010 Image-guided surgery using invisible near-infrared light: fundamentals of clinical translation Mol. Imaging 9 237-55
60. Goldenberg D M, DeLand F, Kim E, Bennett S, Primus F J, van Nagell J R Jr, Estes N, DeSimone P and Rayburn P 1978 Use of radiolabeled antibodies to carcinoembryonic antigen for the detection and localization of diverse cancers by external photoscanning New Engl. J. Med. 298 1384-6
61. Goldenberg D M, Preston D F, Primus F J and Hansen H J 1974 Photoscan localization of GW-39 tumors in hamsters using radiolabeled anticarcinoembryonic antigen immunoglobulin G Cancer Res. 34 1-9 (PMID: 4809458)
62. Green D J et al 2014 A preclinical model of CD38-pretargeted radioimmunotherapy for plasma cell malignancies Cancer Res. 74 1179-89
63. Grubb R L Jr, Raichle M E, Higgins C S and Eichling J O 1978 Measurement of regional cerebral blood volume by emission tomography Ann. Neurol. 4 322-8
64. Gunn R N, Lammertsma A A, Hume S P and Cunningham V J 1997 Parametric imaging of ligand-receptor binding in PET using a simplified reference region model NeuroImage 6 279-87
65. Gunn R N, Slifstein M, Searle G E and Price J C 2015 Quantitative imaging of protein targets in the human brain with PET Phys. Med. Biol. at press
66. 68Ga]Ga-NOTA-PRGD2 using a reference tissue model PloS One 7 e37506
67. Gurfinkel M, Ke S, Wang W, Li C and Sevick-Muraca E M 2005 Quantifying molecular specificity of αvβ3 integrin-targeted optical contrast agents with dynamic optical imaging J. Biomed. Opt. 10 034019
68. Hamzei N, Samkoe K S, Elliott J T, Holt R W, Gunn J R, Lee T Y, Hasan T, Pogue B W and Tichauer K 2014 Comparison of kinetic models for dual-tracer receptor concentration imaging in tumors Austin J. Biomed. Eng. 1 9
69. Hassan M, Chernomordik V, Zielinski R, Ardeshirpour Y, Capala J and Gandjbakhche A 2012 In vivo method to monitor changes in HER2 expression using near-infrared fluorescence imaging Mol. Imaging 11 177-86
70. 89Zr-albumin as a model system J. Nucl. Med. 52 625-33
71. 3-octreotide kinetics in patients with meningiomas J. Nucl. Med. 46 763-9
72. Hicks R J 2004 Beyond FDG: novel PET tracers for cancer imaging Cancer Imaging 4 22-4
73. Hilderbrand S A and Weissleder R 2010 Near-infrared fluorescence: application to in vivo molecular imaging Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 14 71-9
74. 18F]fluoroethyl)spiperone and dynamic positron emission tomography J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 9 850-8
75. Hume S P, Gunn R N and Jones T 1998 Pharmacological constraints associated with positron emission tomographic scanning of small laboratory animals Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 25 173-6
76. Hume S P, Myers R, Bloomfield P M, Opacka-Juffry J, Cremer J E, Ahier R G, Luthra S K, Brooks D J and Lammertsma A A 1992 Quantitation of carbon-11-labeled raclopride in rat striatum using positron emission tomography Synapse 12 47-54
77. Hutton B F, Buvat I and Beekman F J 2011 Review and current status of SPECT scatter correction Phys. Med. Biol. 56 R85-112
78. 11C]DASB positron emission tomography studies of the serotonin transporter in human brain J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 23 1096-112
79. Innis R B et al 2007 Consensus nomenclature for in vivo imaging of reversibly binding radioligands J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 27 1533-9
80. Jacques S L 2013 Optical properties of biological tissues: a review Phys. Med. Biol. 58 R37-61
81. Jain R K 1990a Physiological barriers to delivery of monoclonal antibodies and other macromolecules in tumors Cancer Res. 50 814s-9s (PMID: 2404582)
82. Jain R K 1990b Vascular and interstitial barriers to delivery of therapeutic agents in tumors Cancer Metastasis Rev. 9 253-66
83. Jain R K 2001 Delivery of molecular and cellular medicine to solid tumors Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 46 149-68
84. Jain R K 2013 Normalizing tumor microenvironment to treat cancer: bench to bedside to biomarkers J. Clin. Oncol. 31 2205-18
85. James M L and Gambhir S S 2012 A molecular imaging primer: modalities, imaging agents, and applications Physiol. Rev. 92 897-965
86. Kanick S C, Tichauer K M, Gunn J R, Samkoe K S and Pogue B W 2014 Pixel-based absorption-correction for dual-tracer fluorescence imaging of receptor binding Biomed. Opt. Express 5 3280-91
87. Kaur S, Venktaraman G, Jain M, Senapati S, Garg P K and Batra S K 2012 Recent trends in antibody-based oncologic imaging Cancer Lett. 315 97-111
88. Keereweer S, Mol I M, Vahrmeijer A L, Van Driel P B, Baatenburg de Jong R J, Kerrebijn J D and Lowik C W 2012 Dual wavelength tumor targeting for detection of hypopharyngeal cancer using near-infrared optical imaging in an animal model Int. J. Cancer. 131 1633-40
89. Khawli L A, Glasky M S, Alauddin M M and Epstein A L 1996 Improved tumor localization and radioimaging with chemically modified monoclonal antibodies Cancer Biother. Radiopharm. 11 203-15
90. Kinahan P E, Townsend D W, Beyer T and Sashin D 1998 Attenuation correction for a combined 3D PET/CT scanner Med. Phys. 25 2046-53
91. Kircher M F et al 2012 A brain tumor molecular imaging strategy using a new triple-modality MRI-photoacoustic-Raman nanoparticle Nat. Med. 18 829-34
92. Kobayashi H and Choyke P L 2011 Target-cancer-cell-specific activatable fluorescence imaging probes: rational design and in vivo applications Acc. Chem. Res. 44 83-90
93. Kosaka N, Mitsunaga M, Longmire M R, Choyke P L and Kobayashi H 2011 Near infrared fluorescence-guided real-time endoscopic detection of peritoneal ovarian cancer nodules using intravenously injected indocyanine green Int. J. Cancer 129 1671-7
94. 90Y-DOTATOC therapy Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 33 1115-22
95. 68Ga-DOTATOC in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumours scheduled for 90Y-DOTATOC therapy Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 33 460-6
96. Krieger P M, Tamandl D, Herberger B, Faybik P, Fleischmann E, Maresch J and Gruenberger T 2011 Evaluation of chemotherapy-associated liver injury in patients with colorectal cancer liver metastases using indocyanine green clearance testing Ann. Surg. Oncol. 18 1644-50
97. Kurth M, Pelegrin A, Rose K, Offord R E, Pochon S, Mach J P and Buchegger F 1993 Site-specific conjugation of a radioiodinated phenethylamine derivative to a monoclonal antibody results in increased radioactivity localization in tumor J. Med. Chem. 36 1255-61
98. Lammertsma A A 2002 Radioligand studies: imaging and quantitative analysis Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 12 513-6
99. 11C]raclopride studies J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 16 42-52
100. Lammertsma A A and Hume S P 1996 Simplified reference tissue model for PET receptor studies NeuroImage 4 153-8
101. Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A, al-Tikriti M S, Baldwin R M, Zea-Ponce Y, Zoghbi S S, Charney D S, Hoffer P B and Innis R B 1994 SPECT quantification of [123I]iomazenil binding to benzodiazepine receptors in nonhuman primates: II. Equilibrium analysis of constant infusion experiments and correlation with in vitro parameters J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 14 453-65
102. Laruelle M et al 1993 Single photon emission tomography measurement of benzodiazepine receptor number and affinity in primate brain: a constant infusion paradigm with [123I]iomazenil Eur. J. Pharmacol. 230 119-23
103. Leblond F, Davis S C, Valdes P A and Pogue B W 2010 Pre-clinical whole-body fluorescence imaging: review of instruments, methods and applications J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 98 77-94
104. Lee S, Xie J and Chen X 2010 Peptides and peptide hormones for molecular imaging and disease diagnosis Chem. Rev. 110 3087-111
105. Leigh S Y, Chen Y and Liu J T 2014 Modulated-alignment dual-axis (MAD) confocal microscopy for deep optical sectioning in tissues Biomed. Opt. Express 5 1709-20
106. Liu J T, Helms M W, Mandella M J, Crawford J M, Kino G S and Contag C H 2009 Quantifying cell-surface biomarker expression in thick tissues with ratiometric 3D microscopy Biophys. J. 96 2405-14
107. Liu J T, Meza D and Sanai N 2014 Trends in fluorescence image-guided surgery for gliomas Neurosurgery 75 61-71
108. Logan J et al 1990 Graphical analysis of reversible radioligand binding from time-activity measurements applied to [N-11C-methyl]-(-)-cocaine PET studies in human subjects J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 10 740-7
109. Logan J, Fowler J S, Volkow N D, Wang G J, Ding Y S and Alexoff D L 1996 Distribution volume ratios without blood sampling from graphical analysis of PET data J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 16 834-40
110. Longo D L 2012 Tumor heterogeneity and personalized medicine New Engl. J. Med. 366 956-7
111. Luo S, Zhang E, Su Y, Cheng T and Shi C 2011 A review of NIR dyes in cancer targeting and imaging Biomaterials 32 7127-38
112. Mach J P, Carrel S, Merenda C, Sordat B and Cerottini J C 1974 In vivo localisation of radiolabelled antibodies to carcinoembryonic antigen in human colon carcinoma grafted into nude mice Nature 248 704-6
113. Maeda H 2001 The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect in tumor vasculature: the key role of tumor-selective macromolecular drug targeting Adv. Enzyme Regul. 41 189-207
114. Maeda H, Wu J, Sawa T, Matsumura Y and Hori K 2000 Tumor vascular permeability and the EPR effect in macromolecular therapeutics: a review J. Control Release 65 271-84
115. Massoud T F and Gambhir S S 2003 Molecular imaging in living subjects: seeing fundamental biological processes in a new light Genes Dev. 17 545-80
116. Mattes M J, Griffiths G L, Diril H, Goldenberg D M, Ong G L and Shih L B 1994 Processing of antibody-radioisotope conjugates after binding to the surface of tumor cells Cancer 73 787-93
117. Matzku S, Bruggen J, Brocker E B and Sorg C 1987 Criteria for selecting monoclonal antibodies with respect to accumulation in melanoma tissue Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 24 151-7
118. McConahey P J, Cerottini J C and Dixon F J 1968 An approach to the quantitation of immunogenic antigen J. Exp. Med. 127 1003-11
119. McLarty K, Cornelissen B, Scollard D A, Done S J, Chun K and Reilly R M 2009 Associations between the uptake of (111)In-DTPA-trastuzumab, HER2 density and response to trastuzumab (Herceptin) in athymic mice bearing subcutaneous human tumour xenografts Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 36 81-93
120. McPhaul J J Jr and Dixon F J 1970 Characterization of human anti-glomerular basement membrane antibodies eluted from glomerulonephritic kidneys J. Clin. Invest. 49 308-17
121. Mikolajczyk K, Szabatin M, Rudnicki P, Grodzki M and Burger C 1998 A JAVA environment for medical image data analysis: initial application for brain PET quantitation Med. Inf. 23 207-14
122. Mintun M A, Raichle M E, Kilbourn M R, Wooten G F and Welch M J 1984 A quantitative model for the in vivo assessment of drug binding sites with positron emission tomography Ann. Neurol. 15 217-27
123. Mintun M A, Welch M J, Siegel B A, Mathias C J, Brodack J W, McGuire A H and Katzenellenbogen J A 1988 Breast cancer: PET imaging of estrogen receptors Radiology 169 45-8
124. Mortimer J E, Bading J R, Colcher D M, Conti P S, Frankel P H, Carroll M I, Tong S, Poku E, Miles J K, Shively J E and Raubitschek A A 2014 Functional imaging of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive metastatic breast cancer using (64)Cu-DOTA-trastuzumab PET J. Nucl. Med. 55 23-9
125. Muzic R F Jr and Cornelius S 2001 COMKAT: compartment model kinetic analysis tool J. Nucl. Med. 42 636-45
126. Nagengast W B, de Vries E G, Hospers G A, Mulder N H, de Jong J R, Hollema H, Brouwers A H, van Dongen G A, Perk L R and Lub-de Hooge M N 2007 In vivo VEGF imaging with radiolabeled bevacizumab in a human ovarian tumor xenograft J. Nucl. Med. 48 1313-9
127. Nakayama H, Kawase T, Okuda K, Wolff L F and Yoshie H 2011 In-vivo near-infrared optical imaging of growing osteosarcoma cell lesions xenografted in mice: dual-channel quantitative evaluation of volume and mineralization Acta Radiol. 52 978-88
128. Ntziachristos V, Bremer C and Weissleder R 2003 Fluorescence imaging with near-infrared light: new technological advances that enable in vivo molecular imaging Eur. Radiol. 13 195-208
129. Ntziachristos V, Ripoll J, Wang L V and Weissleder R 2005 Looking and listening to light: the evolution of whole-body photonic imaging Nat. Biotechnol. 23 313-20
130. Ohtake T et al 1991 Noninvasive method to obtain input function for measuring tissue glucose utilization of thoracic and abdominal organs J. Nucl. Med. 32 1432-8
131. Otsuji E, Yamaguchi T, Yamaoka N, Yamaguchi N, Imanishi J and Takahashi T 1992 Biodistribution of monoclonal antibody A7 and its F(ab′)2 fragment in athymic nude mice bearing human pancreatic carcinoma J. Surg. Oncol. 50 173-8
132. Patlak C S and Blasberg R G 1985 Graphical evaluation of blood-to-brain transfer constants from multiple-time uptake data. Generalizations J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 5 584-90
133. Patlak C S, Blasberg R G and Fenstermacher J D 1983 Graphical evaluation of blood-to-brain transfer constants from multiple-time uptake data J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 3 1 - 7
134. Pogue B W, Samkoe K S, Hextrum S, O'Hara J A, Jermyn M, Srinivasan S and Hasan T 2010 Imaging targeted-agent binding in vivo with two probes J. Biomed. Opt. 15 030513
135. Prabhakar U, Maeda H, Jain R K, Sevick-Muraca E M, Zamboni W, Farokhzad O C, Barry S T, Gabizon A, Grodzinski P and Blakey D C 2013 Challenges and key considerations of the enhanced permeability and retention effect for nanomedicine drug delivery in oncology Cancer Res. 73 2412-7
136. Pressman D, Day E D and Blau M 1957 The use of paired labeling in the determination of tumor-localizing antibodies Cancer Res. 17 845-50 (PMID: 13472674)
137. Pruszynski M, Koumarianou E, Vaidyanathan G, Revets H, Devoogdt N, Lahoutte T, Lyerly H K and Zalutsky M R 2014 Improved tumor targeting of anti-HER2 nanobody through N-succinimidyl 4-guanidinomethyl-3-iodobenzoate radiolabeling J. Nucl. Med. 55 650-6
138. 15O. II. Implementation and validation J. Nucl. Med. 24 790-8
139. Reist C J, Archer G E, Kurpad S N, Wikstrand C J, Vaidyanathan G, Willingham M C, Moscatello D K, Wong A J, Bigner D D and Zalutsky M R 1995 Tumor-specific anti-epidermal growth factor receptor variant III monoclonal antibodies: use of the tyramine-cellobiose radioiodination method enhances cellular retention and uptake in tumor xenografts Cancer Res. 55 4375-82 (PMID: 7671250)
140. Reist C J, Archer G E, Wikstrand C J, Bigner D D and Zalutsky M R 1997 Improved targeting of an anti-epidermal growth factor receptor variant III monoclonal antibody in tumor xenografts after labeling using N-succinimidyl 5-iodo-3-pyridinecarboxylate Cancer Res. 57 1510-5 (PMID: 9108453)
141. Repetto-Llamazares A, Abbas N, Bruland O S, Dahle J and Larsen R H 2014 Advantage of lutetium-177 versus radioiodine immunoconjugate in targeted radionuclide therapy of b-cell tumors Anticancer Res. 34 3263-9
142. Rettig W J and Old L J 1989 Immunogenetics of human cell surface differentiation Annu. Rev. Immunol. 7 481-511
143. Robertson M W, Leslie C A and Bennett J P Jr 1991 Apparent synaptic dopamine deficiency induced by withdrawal from chronic cocaine treatment Brain Res. 538 337-9
144. Roholt O, Shaw A and Pressman D 1962 Chemical differences between antibody fragments as shown by paired label studies Nature 196 773-4
145. Rouzier R et al 2005 Breast cancer molecular subtypes respond differently to preoperative chemotherapy Clin. Cancer Res. 11 5678 - 85
146. Samkoe K S, Sexton K, Tichauer K M, Hextrum S K, Pardesi O, Davis S C, O'Hara J A, Hoopes P J, Hasan T and Pogue B W 2012 High vascular delivery of EGF, but low receptor binding rate is observed in AsPC-1 tumors as compared to normal pancreas Mol. Imaging Biol.: MIB 14 472-9
147. Samkoe K S, Tichauer K M, Gunn J R, Wells W A, Hasan T and Pogue B W 2014 Quantitative in vivo immunohistochemistry of epidermal growth factor receptor using a receptor concentration imaging approach Cancer Res. 74 7465-74
148. Sawle G V, Playford E D, Brooks D J, Quinn N and Frackowiak R S 1993 Asymmetrical pre-synaptic and post-synpatic changes in the striatal dopamine projection in dopa naive parkinsonism: diagnostic implications of the D2 receptor status Brain: J. Neurol. 116 (Pt 4) 853-67
149. 18F-FDOPA kinetics in brain tumors J. Nucl. Med. 48 1651-61
150. Schottelius M and Wester H J 2009 Molecular imaging targeting peptide receptors Methods 48 161-77
151. Scott A M, Wolchok J D and Old L J 2012 Antibody therapy of cancer Nat. Rev. Cancer 12 278-87
152. Sears D W and Wilson P H 1981 Biochemical evidence for structurally distinct H-2Dd antigens differing in serological properties Immunogenetics 13 275-84
153. Sevick-Muraca E M 2012 Translation of near-infrared fluorescence imaging technologies: emerging clinical applications Annu. Rev. Med. 63 217-31
154. Sevick-Muraca E M, Akers W J, Joshi B P, Luker G D, Cutler C S, Marnett L J, Contag C H, Wang T D and Azhdarinia A 2013 Advancing the translation of optical imaging agents for clinical imaging Biomed. Opt. Express 4 160-70
155. Seymour L W 1992 Passive tumor targeting of soluble macromolecules and drug conjugates Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst. 9 135-87
156. Shockley T R, Lin K, Sung C, Nagy J A, Tompkins R G, Dedrick R L, Dvorak H F and Yarmush M L 1992 A quantitative analysis of tumor specific monoclonal antibody uptake by human melanoma xenografts: effects of antibody immunological properties and tumor antigen expression levels Cancer Res. 52 357-66 (PMID: 1728407)
157. Sinha L, Wang Y, Yang C, Khan A, Brankov J G, Liu J T C and Tichauer K M 2015 Quantification of the binding potential of cell-surface receptors in fresh excised specimens via dual-probe modeling of SERS nanoparticles Sci. Rep. 26 8582
158. 131I J. Nucl. Med. 42 967-74
159. Stein R, Govindan S V, Mattes M J, Chen S, Reed L, Newsome G, McBride B J, Griffiths G L, Hansen H J and Goldenberg D M 2003 Improved iodine radiolabels for monoclonal antibody therapy Cancer Res. 63 111-8
160. Strauss L G 1996 Fluorine-18 deoxyglucose and false-positive results: a major problem in the diagnostics of oncological patients Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 23 1409-15
161. Strauss L G, Koczan D, Seiz M, Tuettenberg J, Schmieder K, Pan L Y, Cheng C X and Dimitrakopoulou-Strauss A 2012 Correlation of the Ga-68-bombesin analog Ga-68-BZH3 with receptors expression in gliomas as measured by quantitative dynamic positron emission tomography (dPET) and gene arrays Mol. Imaging Biol. 14 376-83
162. Sung C, Youle R J and Dedrick R L 1990 Pharmacokinetic analysis of immunotoxin uptake in solid tumors: role of plasma kinetics, capillary permeability, and binding Cancer Res. 50 7382-92 (PMID: 2224866)
163. Tanigaki N, Yagi Y and Pressman D 1967 Application of the paired label radioantibody technique to tissue sections and cell smears J. Immunol. 98 274-80
164. Terwisscha van Scheltinga A G et al 2014 ImmunoPET and biodistribution with human epidermal growth factor receptor 3 targeting antibody (8)(9)Zr-RG7116 mAbs 6 1051-8
165. Thurber G M, Schmidt M M and Wittrup K D 2008 Factors determining antibody distribution in tumors Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 29 57-61
166. Thurber G M and Weissleder R 2011a Quantitating antibody uptake in vivo: conditional dependence on antigen expression levels Mol. Imaging Biol. 13 623-32
167. Thurber G M and Weissleder R 2011b A systems approach for tumor pharmacokinetics PloS one 6 e24696
168. Tichauer K M, Deharvengt S J, Samkoe K S, Gunn J R, Bosenberg M W, Turk M J, Hasan T, Stan R V and Pogue B W 2014a Tumor endothelial marker imaging in melanomas using dual-tracer fluorescence molecular imaging Mol. Imaging Biol. 16 372-82
169. Tichauer K M, Diop M, Elliott J T, Samkoe K S, Hasan T, Lawrence K S and Pogue B W 2014b Accounting for pharmacokinetic differences in dual-tracer receptor density imaging Phys. Med. Biol. 59 2341-51
170. Tichauer K M, Samkoe K S, Gunn J R, Kanick S C, Hoopes P J, Barth R J, Kaufman P A, Hasan T and Pogue B W 2014c Microscopic lymph node tumor burden quantified by macroscopic dual-tracer molecular imaging Nat. Med. 20 1348-53
171. Tichauer K M, Holt R W, El-Ghussein F, Davis S C, Samkoe K S, Gunn J R, Leblond F and Pogue B W 2013 Dual-tracer background subtraction approach for fluorescent molecular tomography J. Biomed. Opt. 18 16003
172. Tichauer K M, Samkoe K S, Klubben W S, Hasan T and Pogue B W 2012a Advantages of a dual-tracer model over reference tissue models for binding potential measurement in tumors Phys. Med. Biol. 57 6647-59
173. Tichauer K M, Samkoe K S, Sexton K J, Gunn J R, Hasan T and Pogue B W 2012b Improved tumor contrast achieved by single time point dual-reporter fluorescence imaging J. Biomed. Opt. 17 066001
174. Tichauer K M, Samkoe K S, Sexton K J, Hextrum S K, Yang H H, Klubben W S, Gunn J R, Hasan T and Pogue B W 2012c In vivo quantification of tumor receptor binding potential with dual-reporter molecular imaging Mol. Imaging Biol. 14 584-92
175. Tolmachev V, Stone-Elander S and Orlova A 2010a Radiolabelled receptor-tyrosine-kinase targeting drugs for patient stratification and monitoring of therapy response: prospects and pitfalls Lancet Oncol. 11 992-1000
176. Tolmachev V, Velikyan I, Sandstrom M and Orlova A 2010b A HER2-binding Affibody molecule labelled with 68Ga for PET imaging: direct in vivo comparison with the 111In-labelled analogue Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 37 1356-67
177. Tomasi G, Kenny L, Mauri F, Turkheimer F and Aboagye E O 2011 Quantification of receptor-ligand binding with [(1)(8)F]fluciclatide in metastatic breast cancer patients Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 38 2186-97
178. Tomasi G, Turkheimer F and Aboagye E 2012 Importance of quantification for the analysis of PET data in oncology: review of current methods and trends for the future Mol. Imaging Biol. 14 131-46
179. Vahrmeijer A L, Hutteman M, van der Vorst J R, van de Velde C J H and Frangioni J V 2013 Image-guided cancer surgery using near-infrared fluorescence Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 10 507-18
180. Valdes P A, Leblond F, Jacobs V L, Wilson B C, Paulsen K D and Roberts D W 2012 Quantitative, spectrally-resolved intraoperative fluorescence imaging Sci. Rep. 2 798
181. van Dam G M et al 2011 Intraoperative tumor-specific fluorescence imaging in ovarian cancer by folate receptor-alpha targeting: first in-human results Nat. Med. 17 1315-9
182. Van Den Bossche B and Van de Wiele C 2004 Receptor imaging in oncology by means of nuclear medicine: current status J. Clin. Oncol. 22 3593-607
183. van den Eynde B J and Scott A M 1998 Encyclopedia of Immunology ed D P J Roitt and I M Roitt (London: Academic) pp 2424-31
184. Volkow N D et al 1993 Reproducibility of repeated measures of carbon-11-raclopride binding in the human brain J. Nucl. Med. 34 609-13
185. Wang D, Chen Y, Leigh S Y, Haeberle H, Contag C H and Liu J T 2012 Microscopic delineation of medulloblastoma margins in a transgenic mouse model using a topically applied VEGFR-1 probe Transl. Oncol. 5 408-14
186. Wang Y, Altaz K, Leigh S Y, Wang D, Chen Y, Meza D and Liu J T C 2014a Comprehensive spectral endoscopy of topically applied SERS nanoparticles in the rat esophagus Biomed. Opt. Express 5 2883-95
187. Wang Y W, Khan A, Som M, Wang D, Chen Y, Leigh S Y, Meza D, McVeigh P Z, Wilson B C and Liu J T 2014b Rapid ratiometric biomarker detection with topically applied SERS nanoparticles Technology 2 118-32
188. Weissleder R 2002 Scaling down imaging: molecular mapping of cancer in mice Nat. Rev. Cancer 2 11-8
189. Weissleder R 2006 Molecular imaging in cancer Science 312 1168-71
190. Weissleder R and Mahmood U 2001 Molecular imaging Radiology 219 316-33
191. Weissleder R and Pittet M J 2008 Imaging in the era of molecular oncology Nature 452 580-9
192. Wikstrand C J, McLendon R E, Bullard D E, Fredman P, Svennerholm L and Bigner D D 1986 Production and characterization of two human glioma xenograft-localizing monoclonal antibodies Cancer Res. 46 5933-40 (PMID: 3756930)
193. Wikstrand C J, McLendon R E, Friedman A H and Bigner D D 1997 Cell surface localization and density of the tumor-associated variant of the epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFRvIII Cancer Res. 57 4130-40 (PMID: 9307304)
194. Wilks M Q, Knowles S M, Wu A M and Huang S C 2014 Improved modeling of in vivo kinetics of slowly diffusing radiotracers for tumor imaging J. Nucl. Med. 55 1539-44
195. Wilson C B and Dixon F J 1971 Quantitation of acute and chronic serum sickness in the rabbit J. Exp. Med. 134 7-18
196. Wilson C B, Dixon F J, Fortner J G and Cerilli G J 1971 Glomerular basement membrane-reactive antibody in anti-lymphocyte globulin J. Clin. Invest. 50 1525-35
197. Wittrup K D, Thurber G M, Schmidt M M and Rhoden J J 2012 Practical theoretic guidance for the design of tumor-targeting agents Methods Enzymol. 503 255-68
198. Wu A M and Senter P D 2005 Arming antibodies: prospects and challenges for immunoconjugates Nat. Biotechnol. 23 1137-46
199. Wu A M and Yazaki P J 2000 Designer genes: recombinant antibody fragments for biological imaging Q. J. Nucl. Med. 44 268-83
200. Yang D J, Kim E E and Inoue T 2006 Targeted molecular imaging in oncology Ann. Nucl. Med. 20 1-11
201. Yokota S, Okazaki M, Yoshida M and Seon B K 1993 Biodistribution and in vivo antitumor efficacy of the systemically administered anti-human T-leukemia immunotoxins and potentiation of their efficacy by alpha-interferon Leukemia Res. 17 69-79
202. Zalutsky M R and Narula A S 1987 A method for the radiohalogenation of proteins resulting in decreased thyroid uptake of radioiodine Int. J. Radiat. Appl. Instrum. A 38 1051-5
203. Zavaleta C, de la Zerda A, Liu Z, Keren S, Cheng Z, Schipper M, Chen X, Dai H and Gambhir S S 2008 Noninvasive Raman spectroscopy in living mice for evaluation of tumor targeting with carbon nanotubes Nano Lett. 8 2800-5
204. Zavaleta C L, Garai E, Liu J T, Sensarn S, Mandella M J, Van de Sompel D, Friedland S, Van Dam J, Contag C H and Gambhir S S 2013 A Raman-based endoscopic strategy for multiplexed molecular imaging Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110 E2288 - 97
205. Zavaleta C L, Smith B R, Walton I, Doering W, Davis G, Shojaei B, Natan M J and Gambhir S S 2009 Multiplexed imaging of surface enhanced Raman scattering nanotags in living mice using noninvasive Raman spectroscopy Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106 13511 - 6
206. 18F-FRGD2 J. Nucl. Med. 47 113-21
207. Zhu L, Guo N, Li Q, Ma Y, Jacboson O, Lee S, Choi H S, Mansfield J R, Niu G and Chen X 2012 Dynamic PET and optical imaging and compartment modeling using a dual-labeled cyclic RGD peptide probe Theranostics 2 746-56
208. Zielinski R, Hassan M, Lyakhov I, Needle D, Chernomordik V, Garcia-Glaessner A, Ardeshirpour Y, Capala J and Gandjbakhche A 2012 Affibody-DyLight conjugates for in vivo assessment of HER2 expression by near-infrared optical imaging PloS one 7 e41016