Pathological and molecular aspects of prostate cancer

Lancet

Volumn 361, Issue 9361, 2003, Pages 955-964

  DeMarzo, Angelo M ^a   Nelson, William G ^a   Isaacs, William B ^a   Epstein, Jonathan I ^a,b  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2 METHYLACYL COENZYME A RACEMASE; ANDROGEN RECEPTOR; FATTY ACID SYNTHASE; PROTEIN BCL 2; TUMOR MARKER; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

APOPTOSIS; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER GENETICS; CANCER GRADING; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER INVASION; CANCER RISK; CARCINOMA IN SITU; CELL PROLIFERATION; CHROMOSOME ABERRATION; CHROMOSOME SIZE; CPG ISLAND; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DNA METHYLATION; DNA POLYMORPHISM; DRUG TARGETING; GENE EXPRESSION PROFILING; GENE MUTATION; GENE OVEREXPRESSION; GENE SILENCING; GENE TARGETING; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETIC STABILITY; HETEROZYGOSITY LOSS; HUMAN; METASTASIS INHIBITION; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NEEDLE BIOPSY; POINT MUTATION; PRECURSOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROMOTER REGION; PROSTATE ADENOCARCINOMA; PROSTATECTOMY; REVIEW; SOMATIC CELL GENETICS; TELOMERE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE;

EID: 0037444031     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12779-1     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. McNeal J.E. Origin and development of carcinoma in the prostate. Cancer. 23:1969;24-34.
2. McNeal J.E., Bostwick D.G. Intraductal dysplasia: a pre-malignant lesion of the prostate. Hum Pathol. 17:1986;64-71.
3. Haggman M.J., Macoska J.A., Wojno K.J., Oesterling J.E. The relationship between prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and prostate cancer: critical issues. J Urol. 158:1997;12-22.
4. McNeal J.E., Villers A., Redwine E.A., Freiha F.S., Stamey T.A. Microcarcinoma in the prostate: its association with duct-acinar dysplasia. Hum Pathol. 22:1991;644-652.
5. Bostwick D.G., Pacelli A., Lopez-Beltran A. Molecular biology of prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. Prostate. 29:1996;117-134.
6. Wills M.L., Hamper U.M., Partin A.W., Epstein J.I. Incidence of high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia in sextant needle biopsy specimens. Urology. 49:1997;367-373.
7. Davidson D., Bostwick D., Qian J., et al. Prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia is a risk factor for adenocarcinoma: Predictive accuracy in needle biopsies. J Urol. 154:1993;1295-1299.
8. O'Dowd G.J., Miller M.C., Orozco R., Veltri R.W. Analysis of results within 1 year after a noncancer diagnosis. Urology. 55:2000;553-559.
9. Kronz J.D., Allan C.H., Shaikh A.A., Epstein J.I. Predicting cancer following a diagnosis of high grade PIN (HGPIN) on needle biopsy. Am J Surg Pathol. 25:2001;1079-1085.
10. Hamper U.M., Sheth S., Walsh P.C., Holtz P.M., Epstein J.I. Stage B adenocarcinoma of the prostate: transrectal US and pathologic peripheral zone lesions. Radiology. 44:1991;101-104.
11. Ronnette B.M., CarMichael M.J., Carter H.B., Epstein J.I. Does prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia result in elevated serum prostate specific antigen levels? J Urol. 150:1993;386-389.
12. Alexander E.E., Qian J., Wollan P.C., Myers R.P., Bostwick D.G. Prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia does not appear to raise serum prostate-specific antigen concentration. Urology. 47:1997;693-698.
13. Ramos C.G., Carvahal G.F., Mager D.E., Haberer B., Catalona W.J. The effect of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia on serum total and percentage of free prostate specific antigen levels. J Urol. 162:1999;1587-1590.
14. Shepherd D., Keetch D.W., Humphrey P.A., Smith D.S., Stahl D. Repeat biopsy strategy in men with isolated prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia on prostate needle biopsy. J Urol. 156:1996;460-463.
15. Langer J.E., Rover E.S., Coleman B.G., et al. Strategy for repeat biopsy of patients with prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia detected by prostate needle biopsy. J Urol. 155:1996;228-231.
16. Kamoi K., Troncoso P., Babaian R.J. Strategy for repeat biopsy in patients with high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. J Urol. 163:2000;819-823.
17. Epstein J.I. Interpretation of prostate biopsies. 3rd edn: 2002;Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
18. Epstein J.I. Diagnostic criteria of limited adenocarcinoma of the prostate on needle biopsy. Hum Pathol. 26:1995;233-239.
19. Baisden B.L., Kahane H., Epstein J.I. Perineural invasion, mucinous fibroplasia and glomerulations: diagnostic features of limited cancer on prostate needle biopsy. Am J Surg Pathol. 23:1999;918-924.
20. Hedrick L., Epstein J.I. Use of keratin 903 as an adjunct in the diagnosis of prostate carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 13:1989;389-396.
21. Wojno K.J., Epstein J.I. The utility of basal cell specific anti-cytokeratin antibody (34 beta E12) in the diagnosis of prostate cancer: a review of 228 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 19:1995;251-260.
22. O'Malley F.P., Grignon D.J., Shum D.T. Usefulness of immunoperoxidase staining with high-molecular-weight cytokeratin in the differential diagnosis of small-acinar lesions of the prostate gland. Virchows Archiv A Pathol Anat Histopathol. 417:1990;191-196.
23. Shah I.A., Schlageter M.O., Stinnett P., Lechago J. Cytokeratin immunohistochemistry as a diagnostic tool for distinguishing malignant from benign epithelial lesions of the prostate. Mod Pathol. 4:1991;220-224.
24. Brawer M.K., Peehl D.M., Stamey T.A., Bostwick D.G. Keratin immunoreactivity in the benign and neoplastic human prostate. Cancer Res. 45:1985;3663-3667.
25. Nagle R.B., Ahmann F.R., McDaniel K.M., Paquin M.L., Clark V.A., Celniker A. Cytokeratin characterization of human prostatic carcinoma and its derived cell lines. Cancer Res. 47:1987;281-286.
26. Jiang Z., Woda B.A., Rock K.L., et al. P504S: A new molecular marker for the detection of prostate carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 25:2001;1397-1404.
27. Rubin M.A., Zhou M., Dhanasekaran S.M., Varambally S., Barrette T.R., Sanda M.G. α-methylacyl coenzyme A racemase as a tissue biomarker for prostate cancer. JAMA. 287:2002;1662-1670.
28. Luo J., Zha S., Gage W.R., et al. Alpha-methyl CoA racemase: a new molecular marker for prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 62:2002;2220-2226.
29. Goldstein N.S., Underhill J., Roszka J., Neill J.S. Cytokeratin 34 beta E-12 immunoreactivity in benign prostatic acini: quantitation, pattern assessment, and electron microscopic study. Am J Clin Pathol. 112:1999;69-74.
30. Epstein J.I., Walsh P.C., Sanfilippo F. Clinical and cost impact of second opinion pathology review of prostate needle biopsies prior to radical prostatectomy. Am J Surg Pathol. 20:1996;851-857.
31. Chan T.Y., Magi-Galluzzi C., Leclercq N., Epstein J.I. Patient and urologist driven second opinion of prostate needle biopsies. Mod Pathol. 15:2002;157A.
32. Gleason D.F., Mellinger G.T. Prediction of prognosis for prostatic adenocarcinoma by combined histologic grading and clinical staging. J Urol. 111:1974;58-64.
33. Steinberg D.M., Sauvageot J., Piantadosi S., Epstein J.I. Correlation of prostate needle biopsy and radical prostatectomy Gleason grade in academic and community settings. Am J Surg Pathol. 21:1997;566-576.
34. Allsbrook W.C. Jr, Mangold K.A., Johnson M.H., et al. Interobserver reproducibility of Gleason grading of prostatic carcinoma. I. Urologic pathologists. Hum Pathol. 32:2001;74-80.
35. Allsbrook W.C. Jr, Mangold K.A., Johnson M.H., Lane R.B., Lane C.G., Epstein J.I. Interobserver reproducibility of Gleason grading of prostatic carcinoma. II Gen Pathol Hum Pathol. 32:2001;81-88.
36. Kronz J.D., Silberman M.A., Allsbrook W.C. Jr, Epstein J.I. A web-based tutorial improves practicing pathologists' Gleason grading of prostate cancer on needle biopsies: validation of a new medical education paradigm. Cancer. 89:2000;1818-1823.
37. Noguchi M., Stamey T.A., McNeal J.E., Yemoto C.M. Relationship between systematic biopsies and histological features of 222 radical prostatectomy specimens: lack of prediction of tumour significance for men with nonpalpable prostate cancer. J Urol. 16:2001;104-110.
38. McNeal J.E., Villers A.A., Redwine E.A., Freiha F.S., Stamey T.A. Histologic differentiation, cancer volume, and pelvic lymph node metastasis in adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Cancer. 66:1990;1225-1233.
39. Epstein J.I., Partin A.W., Sauvageot J., Walsh P.C. Prediction of progression following radical prostatectomy: a multivariate analysis of 721 men with long-term follow-up. Am J Surg Pathol. 20:1996;286-292.
40. Green G.A., Hanlon A.L., Al-Saleem T., Hanks G.E. A Gleason score of 7 predicts a worse outcome for prostate carcinoma patients treated with radiotherapy. Cancer. 83:1998;971-976.
41. Partin A.W., Kattan M.W., Subong E.N., et al. Combination of prostate-specific antigen, clinical stage, and Gleason score to predict pathological stage of localized prostate cancer: a multi-institutional update. JAMA. 277:1997;1445-1451.
42. Partin A.W., Carter H.B., Chan D.W., et al. Prostate-specific antigen in the staging of localized prostate cancer: Influence of tumor differentiation, tumor volume, and benign hyperplasia. J Urol. 143:1990;747-752.
43. Brawn P.N. The dedifferentiation of prostate carcinoma. Cancer. 52:1983;246-251.
44. Cumming J.A., Ritchies A.W., Goodman C.M., McIntyre M.A., Chisholm G.D. De-differentiation with time in prostate cancer and the influence of treatment on the course of the disease. Br J Urol. 65:1990;271-274.
45. Epstein J.I., Carter H.B. Is there dedifferentiation of prostate cancer grade change over time in men followed expectantly for stage T1C disease? J Urol. 166:2001;1688-1691.
46. Badalament R.A., Miller M.C., Peller P.A., et al. An algorithm for predicting nonorgan confined prostate cancer using the results obtained from sextant core biopsies with prostate specific antigen level. J Urol. 156:1996;1375-1380.
47. Huland H., Hammerer P., Henke R.P., Huland E. Preoperative prediction of tumor heterogeneity and recurrence after radical prostatectomy for localized prostatic carcinoma with digital rectal examination, prostate specific antigen and the results of 6 systematic biopsies. J Urol. 155:1996;1344-1347.
48. Peller P.A., Young D.C., Marmaduke D.P., Marsh W.L., Badalament R.A. Sextant prostate biopsies: a histopathologic correlation with radical prostatectomy specimens. Cancer. 75:1995;530-538.
49. Ravery V., Boccon-Gibod L.A., Dauge-Geffroy M.C., et al. Systematic biopsies accurately predict extracapsular extension of prostate cancer and persistent/recurrent detectable PSA after radical prostatectomy. Urology. 44:1994;371-376.
50. Wills M.L., Sauvageot J., Partin A.W., Gurganus R., Epstein J.I. Ability of sextant biopsies to predict radical prostatectomy stage. Urology. 51:1998;759-764.
51. Sebo T.J., Bock B.J., Cheville J.C., Lohse C.M., Wollan P., Zincke H. The percent of cores positive for cancer in prostate needle biopsy specimens is strongly predictive of tumor stage and volume at radical prostatectomy. J Urol. 163:2000;174-178.
52. Terris M.K., Haney D.J., Johnstone I.M., McNeal J.E., Stamey T.A. Prediction of prostate cancer volume using prostate-specific antigen levels, transrectal ultrasound, and systemic sextant biopsies. Urology. 45:1995;75-80.
53. Conrad S., Graefen M., Pichlmeier U., Henke R.P., Hamerer P.G., Huland H. Systematic sextant biopsies improve preoperative prediction of pelvic lymph node metastases in patients with clinically localized prostatic carcinoma. J Urol. 159:1998;2023-2029.
54. Humphrey P.A., Baty J., Keetch D. Relationship between serum prostate specific antigen, needle biopsy findings, and histopathologic features of prostatic carcinoma in radical prostatectomy tissues. Cancer. 75:1995;1842-1849.
55. Ackerman D.A., Barry J.M., Wicklund R.A., Olson N., Lowe B.A. Analysis of risk factors associated with prostate cancer extension to the surgical margin and pelvic node metastasis at radical prostatectomy. J Urol. 159:1993;1845-1850.
56. Tigrani V.S., Bhargava V., Shinohara K., Presti J.C. Jr. Number of positive systematic sextant biopsies predicts surgical margin status at radical prostatectomy. Urology. 54:1999;689-703.
57. Presti J.C. Jr, Shinohara K., Bacchetti P., Tigrani V., Bhargava V. Positive fraction of systematic biopsies predicts risk of relapse after radical prostatectomy. Urology. 52:1998;1079-1084.
58. Cupp M.R., Bostwick D.G., Myers R.P., Oesterling J.E. The volume of prostate cancer in the biopsy specimen cannot reliably predict the quantity of cancer in the radical prostatectomy specimen on an individual basis. J Urol. 53:1995;1543-1548.
59. Bruce R.G., Rankin W.R., Cibull M.L., Rayens M.K., Banks E.R., Wood D.P. Jr. Single focus of adenocarcinoma in the prostate biopsy specimen is not predictive of the pathologic stage of disease. Urology. 48:1996;75-79.
60. Dietrick D.D., McNeal J.E., Stamey T.A. Core cancer length in ultrasound-guided systematic sextant biopsies: a preoperative evaluation of prostate cancer volume. Urology. 45:1995;987-992.
61. Epstein J.I., Walsh P.C., CarMichael M., Brendler C.B. Pathological and clinical findings to predict tumor extent of non-palpable (stage T1c) prostate cancer. JAMA. 271:1994;368-374.
62. Wang X., Brannigan R.E., Rademaker A.W., McVary K.T., Oyasu R. One core positive prostate biopsy is a poor predictor of cancer volume in the radical prostatectomy specimen. J Urol. 158:1997;1431-1435.
63. Weldon W., Tavel F.R., Neuwirth H., Cohen R. Failure of focal prostate cancer on biopsy to predict focal prostate cancer: the importance of prevalence. J Urol. 154:1995;1074-1077.
64. Allan RW, Sanderson H, Epstein JI. correlation of minute (< 1mm) focus of adenocarcinoma of the prostate on needle biopsy with radical prostatectomy specimen: role of PSA density. J Urol (in press).
65. Bastacky S.I., Walsh P.C., Epstein J.I. Relationship between perineural tumor invasion on needle biopsy and radical prostatectomy capsular penetration in clinical stage B adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Am J Surg Pathol. 17:1993;336-341.
66. Anderson P.R., Hanlon A.L., Patchefsky A., Al-Saleem T., Hanks G.E. Perineural invasion and Gleason 7-10 tumors predict increased failure in prostate cancer patients with pretreatment PSA <10 ng/mL treated with conformal external beam radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 41:1998;1087-1092.
67. Brinker D.A., Ross J.S., Tran T.A., Jones D.M., Epstein J.I. Can ploidy of prostate carcinoma diagnosed on needle biopsy predict radical prostatectomy stage and grade? J Urol. 162:1999;2036-2039.
68. Sebo T.J., Cheville J.C., Riehle D.L., et al. Perineural invasion and MIB-1 positivity in addition to Gleason score are significant predictors of progression after radical retropubic prostatectomy. Am J Surg Pathol. 26:2002;431-439.
69. Epstein J.I. Pathological assessment of the surgical specimen. Urol Clin North Am. 28:2001;567-594.
70. Grönberg H. Prostate cancer epidemiology. Lancet. 361:2003;859-864.
71. Hsing A.W. Hormones and prostate cancer: what's next? Epidemiol Rev. 23:2001;42-58.
72. Platz E.A., Helzlsouer K.J. Selenium, zinc, and prostate cancer. Epidemiol Rev. 23:2001;93-101.
73. Kolonel L.N. Fat, meat, and prostate cancer. Epidemiol Rev. 23:2001;72-81.
74. Chan J.M., Giovannucci E.L. Vegetables, fruits, associated micronutrients, and risk of prostate cancer. Epidemiol Rev. 23:2001;82-86.
75. Pollak M. Insulin-like growth factors and prostate cancer. Epidemiol Rev. 23:2001;59-66.
76. Grossfeld G.D., Carroll P.R. Natural history. Carroll P.R., Grossfeld G.D. Prostate cancer. 2001;149-163 B C Decker, Hamilton, Ontario.
77. Bookstein R. Tumor suppressor genes in prostate cancer. Chung L.W., Isaacs W.B., Simons J.W. Prostate cancer: biology, genetics, and the new theraputics. 2001;61-93 Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
78. Gao A.C., Isaacs J.T. Molecular basis of prostate carcinogenesis. Coleman W.B., Tsongalis G.J. The molecular basis of human cancer. 2002;365-379 Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
79. Chung L.W.K., Isaacs W.B., Simons J.W. Prostate cancer: biology, genetics, and the new therapeutics. 2001;Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
80. Meng M.V., Dahiya R. Molecular genetics. Carroll P.R., Grossfeld G.D. Prostate cancer. 2002;42-59 B C Decker, Hamilton, Ontario.
81. Isaacs W.B., Xu J., Walsh P.C. Hereditary prostate cancer. Chung L.W., Isaacs W.B., Simons J.W. Prostate cancer: biology, genetics, and the new theraputics. 2001;13-37 Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
82. Smith J.R., Freije D., Carpten J.D., et al. Major susceptibility locus for prostate cancer on chromosome 1 suggested by a genome-wide search. Science. 274:1996;1371-1374.
83. Tavtigian S.V., Simard J., Teng D.H., et al. A candidate prostate cancer susceptibility gene at chromosome 17p. Nat Genet. 27:2001;172-180.
84. Carpten J., Nupponen N., Isaacs S., et al. Germline mutations in the ribonuclease L gene in families showing linkage with HPC1. Nat Genet. 30:2002;181-184.
85. Xu J., Zheng S.L., Komiya A., et al. Germline mutations and sequence variants of the macrophage scavenger receptor 1 gene are associated with prostate cancer risk. Nat Genet. 32:2002;321-325.
86. Rebbeck T.R., Walker A.H., Zeigler-Johnson C., et al. Association of HPC2/ELAC2 genotypes and prostate cancer. Am J Hum Genet. 67:2000;1014-1019.
87. Wang L., McDonnell S.K., Elkins D.A., et al. Role of HPC2/ELAC2 in hereditary prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 61:2001;6494-6499.
88. Rokman A., Ikonen T., Mononen N., et al. ELAC2/HPC2 involvement in hereditary and sporadic prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 61:2001;6038-6041.
89. Suarez B.K., Gerhard D.S., Lin J., et al. Polymorphisms in the prostate cancer susceptibility gene HPC2/ELAC2 in multiplex families and healthy controls. Cancer Res. 61:2001;4982-4984.
90. Rokman A., Ikonen T., Seppala E.H., et al. Germline alterations of the RNASEL gene, a candidate HPC1 gene at 1q25, in patients and families with prostate cancer. Am J Hum Genet. 70:2002;1299-1304.
91. Wang L., McDonnell S.K., Elkins D.A., et al. Analysis of the RNASEL gene in familial and sporadic prostate cancer. Am J Hum Genet. 71:2002;116-123.
92. Casey G., Neville P.J., Plummer S.J., et al. RNASEL Arg462Gln variant is implicated in up to 13% of prostate cancer cases. Nat Genet. 32:2002;581-583.
93. Rennert H., Bercovich D., Hubert A., et al. A novel founder mutation in the RNASEL gene, 471delAAAG, is associated with prostate cancer in Ashkenazi Jews. Am J Hum Genet. 71:2002;981-984.
94. Ishiguro T., Naito M., Yamamoto T., et al. Role of macrophage scavenger receptors in response to Listeria monocytogenes infection in mice. Am J Pathol. 158:2001;179-188.
95. Smith C.J., Gardner W.A. Jr. Inflammation-proliferation: possible relationships in the prostate. Prog Clin Biol Res. 239:1987;317-325.
96. De Marzo A.M., Marchi V.L., Epstein J.I., Nelson W.G. Proliferative inflammatory atrophy of the prostate: implications for prostatic carcinogenesis. Am J Pathol. 155:1999;1985-1992.
97. Makridakis N.M., Reichardt J.K. Molecular epidemiology of hormone-metabolic loci in prostate cancer. Epidemiol Rev. 23:2001;24-29.
98. Elo J.P., Visakorpi T. Molecular genetics of prostate cancer. Ann Med. 33:2001;130-141.
99. Bhatia-Gaur R., Donjacour A.A., Sciavolino P.J., et al. Roles for Nkx3.1 in prostate development and cancer. Genes Dev. 13:1999;966-977.
100. Bowen C., Bubendorf L., Voeller H.J., et al. Loss of NKX3.1 expression in human prostate cancers correlates with tumor progression. Cancer Res. 60:2000;6111-6115.
101. Wang S.I., Parsons R., Ittmann M. Homozygous deletion of the PTEN tumor suppressor gene in a subset of prostate adenocarcinomas. Clin Cancer Res. 4:1998;811-815.
102. McMenamin M.E., Soung P., Perera S., Kaplan I., Loda M., Sellers W.R. Loss of PTEN expression in paraffin-embedded primary prostate cancer correlates with high Gleason score and advanced stage. Cancer Res. 59:1999;4291-4296.
103. Vivanco I., Sawyers C.L. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase AKT pathway in human cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2:2002;489-501.
104. Fujita N., Sato S., Katayama K., Tsuruo T. Akt-dependent phosphorylation of p27Kip1 promotes binding to 14-3-3 and cytoplasmic localization. J Biol Chem. 277:2002;28706-28713.
105. Di Cristofano A., De Acetis M., Koff A., Cordon-Cardo C., Pandolfi P.P. Pten and p27KIP1 cooperate in prostate cancer tumor suppression in the mouse. Nat Genet. 27:2001;222-224.
106. Kim M.J., Cardiff R.D., Desai N., et al. Cooperativity of Nkx3.1 and Pten loss of function in a mouse model of prostate carcinogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99:2002;2884-2889.
107. Narla G., Heath K.E., Reeves H.L., et al. KLF6, a candidate tumor suppressor gene mutated in prostate cancer. Science. 294:2001;2563-2566.
108. Savinainen K.J., Saramaki O.R., Linja M.J., et al. Expression and gene copy number analysis of ERBB2 oncogene in prostate cancer. Am J Pathol. 160:2002;339-345.
109. Sato K., Qian J., Slezak J.M., et al. Clinical significance of alterations of chromosome 8 in high-grade, advanced, nonmetastatic prostate carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 91:1999;1574-1580.
110. Reiter R.E., Sato I., Thomas G., et al. Coamplification of prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) and MYC in locally advanced prostate cancer. Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 27:2000;95-103.
111. Gu Z., Thomas G., Yamashiro J., et al. Prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) expression increases with high gleason score, advanced stage and bone metastasis in prostate cancer. Oncogene. 19:2000;1288-1296.
112. Porkka K., Saramaki O., Tanner M., Visakorpi T. Amplification and overexpression of Elongin C gene discovered in prostate cancer by cDNA microarrays. Lab Invest. 82:2002;629-637.
113. Saramaki O., Willi N., Bratt O., et al. Amplification of EIF3S3 gene is associated with advanced stage in prostate cancer. Am J Pathol. 159:2001;2089-2094.
114. Visakorpi T. AR gene alterations in prostate cancer progression. Chung L.W., Isaacs W.B., Simons J.W. Prostate cancer: biology, genetics, and the new therapeutics. 2001;29-37 Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
115. Nelson W.G., De Marzo A.M., Deweese T.L., et al. Preneoplastic prostate lesions: an opportunity for prostate cancer prevention. Ann NY Acad Sci. 952:2001;135-144.
116. Nelson J.B., Lee W.H., Nguyen S.H., et al. Methylation of the 5′ CpG island of the endothelin B receptor gene is common in human prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 57:1997;35-37.
117. Lou W., Krill D., Dhir R., et al. Methylation of the CD44 metastasis suppressor gene in human prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 59:1999;2329-2331.
118. Li L.C., Chui R., Nakajima K., et al. Frequent methylation of estrogen receptor in prostate cancer: correlation with tumor progression. Cancer Res. 60:2000;702-706.
119. Sasaki M., Tanaka Y., Perinchery G., et al. Methylation and inactivation of estrogen, progesterone, and androgen receptors in prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 94:2002;384-390.
120. Jaeger E.B., Samant R.S., Rinker-Schaeffer C.W. Metastasis suppression in prostate cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 20:2001;279-286.
121. Umbas R., Isaacs W.B., Bringuier P.P., et al. Decreased E-cadherin expression is associated with poor prognosis in patients with prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 54:1994;3929-3933.
122. Gao A.C., Lou W., Dong J.T., Isaacs J.T. CD44 is a metastasis suppressor gene for prostatic cancer located on human chromosome 11p13. Cancer Res. 57:1997;846-849.
123. Nagle R.B., Hao J., Knox J.D., Dalkin B.L., Clark V., Cress A.E. Expression of hemidesmosomal and extracellular matrix proteins by normal and malignant human prostate tissue. Am J Pathol. 146:1995;1498-1507.
124. Sommerfeld H.J., Meeker A.K., Piatyszek M.A., Bova G.S., Shay J.W., Coffey D.S. Telomerase activity: a prevalent marker of malignant human prostate tissue. Cancer Res. 56:1996;218-222.
125. Meeker A.K., Hicks J.L., Platz E.A., et al. Telomere shortening is an early somatic DNA alteration in human prostate tumorigenesis. Cancer Res. 62:2002;6405-6409.
126. Loeb L.A. Mutator phenotype may be required for multistage carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 51:1991;3075-3079.
127. Guo Y.P., Sklar G.N., Borkowski A., Kyprianou N. Loss of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor P27(Kip1) protein in human prostate cancer correlates with tumor grade. Clin Cancer Res. 3:1997;2269-2274.
128. De Marzo A.M., Meeker A.K., Epstein J.I., Coffey D.S. Prostate stem cell compartments: expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p27Kip1 in normal, hyperplastic, and neoplastic cells. Am J Pathol. 153:1998;911-919.
129. Cote R.J., Shi Y., Groshen S., et al. Association of p27Kip1 levels with recurrence and survival in patients with stage C prostate carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 90:1998;916-920.
130. Feldman B.J., Feldman D. The development of androgen-independent prostate cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 1:2001;34-45.
131. Zegarra-Moro O.L., Schmidt L.J., Huang H., Tindall D.J. Disruption of androgen receptor function inhibits proliferation of androgen-refractory prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res. 62:2002;1008-1013.
132. DiPaola R.S., Patel J., Rafi M.M. Targeting apoptosis in prostate cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 15:2001;509-524.
133. Krajewska M., Krajewski S., Epstein J.I., et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of bcl-2, bax, bcl-X, and mcl-1 expression in prostate cancers. Am J Pathol. 148:1996;1567-1576.
134. Navone N.M., Troncoso P., Pisters L.L., et al. p53 protein accumulation and gene mutation in the progression of human prostate carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 85:1993;1657-1669.
135. Roberts R.O., Jacobson D.J., Girman C.J., Rhodes T., Lieber M.M., Jacobsen S.J. A population-based study of daily nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use and prostate cancer. Mayo Clin Proc. 77:2002;219-225.
136. Zha S., Gage W.R., Sauvageot J., et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 is up-regulated in proliferative inflammatory atrophy of the prostate, but not in prostate carcinoma. Cancer Res. 61:2001;8617-8623.
137. Waskewich C., Blumenthal R.D., Li H., Stein R., Goldenberg D.M., Burton J. Celecoxib exhibits the greatest potency amongst cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors for growth inhibition of COX-2-negative hematopoietic and epithelial cell lines. Cancer Res. 62:2002;2029-2033.
138. Shurbaji M.S., Kuhajda F.P., Pasternack G.R., Thurmond T.S. Expression of oncogenic antigen 519 (OA-519) in prostate cancer is a potential prognostic indicator. Am J Clin Pathol. 97:1992;686-691.
139. Swinnen J.V., Roskams T., Joniau S., et al. Overexpression of fatty acid synthase is an early and common event in the development of prostate cancer. Int J Cancer. 98:2002;19-22.
140. Pizer E.S., Pflug B.R., Bova G.S., Han W.F., Udan M.S., Nelson J.B. Increased fatty acid synthase as a therapeutic target in androgen-independent prostate cancer progression. Prostate. 47:2001;102-110.
141. Rhodes D.R., Barrette T.R., Rubin M.A., Ghosh D., Chinnaiyan A.M. Meta-analysis of microarrays: interstudy validation of gene expression profiles reveals pathway dysregulation in prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 62:2002;4427-4433.
142. Varambally S., Dhanasekaran S.M., Zhou M., et al. The polycomb group protein EZH2 is involved in progression of prostate cancer. Nature. 419:2002;624-629.