General aspects of metal toxicity

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 21, Issue 33, 2014, Pages 3721-3740

  Kozlowski, H ^a   Kolkowska, P ^a   Watly, J ^a   Krzywoszynska, K ^a   Potocki, S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WROC AW   (Poland)

Author keywords

Fenton reaction; Heavy metals; Metal toxicity

Indexed keywords

ALUMINUM; CADMIUM; CARCINOGEN; CHROMIC ACID; CHROMIUM; COPPER; DEOXYRIBONUCLEOPROTEIN; HYDROXYL RADICAL; IRON; LEAD; LIPID; MERCURY; METAL; METAL ION; NICKEL; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TIN;

BINDING SITE; BIOLOGY; CATALYST; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CHROMIUM TOXICITY; DNA DAMAGE; FENTON REACTION; HEAVY METAL POISONING; HUMAN; LIVER TOXICITY; METAL BINDING; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OXIDATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHARMACOKINETICS; REVIEW; ANIMAL;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; METALS; OXIDATIVE STRESS;

EID: 84923684905     PISSN: 09298673     EISSN: 1875533X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/0929867321666140716093838     Document Type: Review

References (251)

1. Kozlowski, H.; Brown, R.D.; Valensin, G. Metal Ion-Induced Redox Reactions, Oxidative Stress and Possible Impact on Neurodegeneration. In: Metallochemistry of Neurodegeneration. Biological, Chemical and Genetic Aspects, The Royal Society of Chemistry, UK, 2006; chapter 3.
2. Prousek, J. Fenton chemistry in biology and medicine. Pure Appl. Chem., 2007, 79(12), 2325-2338.
3. Sohal, RS. Oxidative stress, caloric restriction, and aging. Science (New York, NY), 1996, 273, 59-63.
4. Gupte, A.; Mumper, R.J. Elevated copper and oxidative stress in cancer cells as a target for cancer treatment. Cancer Treat. Rev., 2009, 35, 32-46.
5. Valko, M.; Izakovic, M.; Mazur, M.; Rhodes, C.J.; Telser, J. Role of oxygen radicals in DNA damage and cancer incidence. Mol. Cell Biochem., 2004, 266, 37-56.
6. Monteiro, H.P.; Stern, A. Redox modulation of tyrosine phosphorylation- dependent signal transduction pathways. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 1996, 21, 323-333.
7. Oberley, T.D. Oxidative damage and cancer. Am. J. Path., 2002, 160, 403-408.
8. Li, J.J.; Fan, M; Colburn, N.H. Inhibition of AP-1 and NF-kappa B by manganese-containing superoxide dismutase in human breast cancer cells. FASEB J., 1998, 12, 1713-1723.
9. Orrenius, S. Reactive oxygen species in mitochondria-mediated cell death. Drug Metab. Rev., 2007, 39, 443-455.
10. Fang, J.; Iyer, A.K. Tumor-targeted induction of oxystress for cancer therapy. J. Drug Target, 2007, 15, 475-486.
11. Nulton-Persson, A.C. Modulation of mitochondrial function by hydrogen peroxide. J. Biol. Chem., 2001, 276, 23357-23361.
12. Schröder, E.; Eaton, P. Hydrogen peroxide as an endogenous mediator and exogenous tool in cardiovascular research: issues and considerations. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol., 2008, 8, 153-159.
13. Halliwell, B.; Clement, M.V.; Long, L.H. Hydrogen peroxide in the human body. FEBS. Lett., 2000, 486, 10-13.
14. th ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006.
15. Valko, M.; Rhodes, C.J.; Moncol, J.; Izakovic, M.; Mazur, M. Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chem. Biol. Interact., 2006, 160, 1-40.
16. Koppenol, W.H. The Haber-Weiss cycle - 70 years later. Redox Rep., 2001, 6, 229-234.
17. Valko, M.; Morris, H.; Cronin, M.T.D. Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative Stress. Curr. Med. Chem., 2005, 12, 1161-1208.
18. Fruehauf, J.P.; Meyskens, F.L. Reactive oxygen species: A breath of life or death? Clin. Cancer Res., 2007, 13, 789-794.
19. Devi, G.S.; Prasad, M.H.; Saraswathi, I.; Raghu, D.; Rao, D.N.; Reddy, P.P. Free radicals antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation in different types of leukemias. Clin. Chim. Acta, 2000, 293, 53-62.
20. Letelier, M.E.; Sánchez-Jofré, S.; Peredo-Silva, L.; Cortés-Troncoso, J.; Aracena-Parks, P. Mechanisms underlying iron and copper ions toxicity in biological systems: Pro-oxidant activity and protein-binding effects. Chem. Biol. Interact., 2010, 188, 220-227.
21. Nunez, M.T.; Urrutia, P.; Mena, N.; Aguirre, P.; Tapia, V.; Salazar, J. Iron toxicity in neurodegeneration. Biometals, 2012, 25, 761-776.
22. Welch, K.D.; Davis, T.Z.; Van Eden, M.E.; Aust, S.D. Deleterious iron-mediated oxidation of biomolecules. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 2002, 32, 577-583.
23. Bleackley, M.R.; MacGillivray, R.T.A. Transition metal homeostasis: from yeast to human disease. Biometals, 2011, 24, 785-809.
24. Burkitt, M.J. Chemical, biological and medical controversies surrounding the Fenton reaction. Prog. React. Kinet. Mech., 2003, 28, 75-103.
25. Karbownik, M.; Lewinski, A.; Reiter, R.J. Anticarcinogenic actions of melatonin which involve antioxidative processes: comparison with other antioxidants. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 2001, 33, 735-753.
26. Cheng, Z.; Li, Y. What is responsible for the initiating chemistry of iron mediated lipid peroxidation: an update. Chem. Rev., 2007, 107, 748-766.
27. Shaw, G.C.; Cope, J.J.; Li, L.; Corson, K.; Hersey, C.; Ackermann, G.E.; Gwynn, B.; Lambert, A.J.; Wingert, R.A.; Traver, D.; Trede, N.S.; Barut, B.A; Zhou, Y.; Minet, E.; Donovan, A.; Brownlie, A.; Balzan, R.; Weiss, M. J.; Peters, L.L.; Kaplan, J.; Zon, L.I.; Paw, B.H. Mitoferrin is essential for erythroid iron assimilation. Nature, 2006, 440, 96-100.
28. Jomova, K.; Valko, M. Advances in metal-induced oxidative stress and human disease. Toxicology, 2011, 283, 65-87.
29. Anderson, G.J.; Vulpe, Ch.D. Mammalian iron transport. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 2009, 66, 3241-3261.
30. Eisenstein, R.S.; Blemings, K.P. Iron Regulatory Proteins, Iron Responsive Elements and Iron Homeostasis. J. Nutr., 1998, 128(12), 2295-2298.
31. Deck, K.M.; Vasanthakumar, A.; Anderson, S.A.; Goforth, J.B.; Kennedy, M.C.; Antholine, W.E.; Eisenstein, R.S. Evidence that phosphorylation of iron regulatory protein 1 at Serine 138 destabilizes the [4Fe-4S] cluster in cytosolic aconitase by enhancing 4Fe-3Fe cycling. J. Biol. Chem., 2009, 284(19), 12701-12709.
32. Lee, D.W.; Andersen, J.K.; Kaur, D. Iron Dysregulation and Neurodegeneration: The Molecular Connection. Mol. Interv., 2006, 6(2), 89-97.
33. Kühn, L.C. How iron controls iron. Cell Metab., 2009, 10, 439-441.
34. Kozlowski, H.; Janicka-Klos, A.; Brasun, J.; Gaggelli, E.; Valensin, D.; Valensin, G. Copper, iron, and zinc ions homeostasis and their role in neurodegenerative disorders (metal uptake, transport, distribution and regulation). Coord. Chem. Rev., 2009, 253, 2665-2685.
35. Brewer, G.J. Risks of Copper and Iron Toxicity during Aging in Humans. Chem. Res. Toxicol., 2010, 23, 319-326.
36. Durackova, Z. Some Current Insights into Oxidative Stress. Physiol. Res., 2010, 59, 459-469.
37. Ganz. T. Hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism and mediator of anemia of inflammation. Blood, 2003, 102, 783-788.
38. Park, H.S.; Kim, S.R.; Lee, Y.Ch. Impact of oxidative stress on lung diseases. Respirology, 2009, 14, 27-38.
39. Farina, M.; Avila, D.S.; Teixeira da Rocha, J.B.; Aschner, M. Metals, oxidative stress and neurodegeneration: A focus on iron, manganese and mercury. Neurochem. Int., 2013, 62, 575-594.
40. Potocki, S.; Rowinska-Zyrek, M.; Witkowska, D.; Pyrkosz, M.; Szebesczyk, A.; Krzywoszynska, K.; Kozlowski, H. Metal Transport and Homeostasis within the Human Body: Toxicity Associated with Transport Abnormalities. Curr. Med. Chem., 2012, 19(17), 2738-2759.
41. Abalea, V.; Cillard, J.; Dubos, M-P.; Anger, J-P.; Cillard, P.; Morel, I. Iron-induced oxidative DNA damage and its repair in primary rat hepatocyte culture. Carcinogenesis, 1998, 19(6), 1053-1059.
42. Barzilai, A.; Yamamoto, K-I. DNA damage responses to oxidative stress. DNA Repair, 2004, 3, 1109-1115.
43. Ock, Ch-Y.; Kim, E-H.; Choi, D.J.; Lee, H.J.; Hahm, K-B.; Chung, M.H. 8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine: Not mere biomarker for oxidative stress, but remedy for oxidative stress-implicated gastrointestinal diseases. World J. Gastroenterol., 2012, 18(4), 302-308.
44. St-Pierre, J.; Buckingham, J.A.; Roebuck, S.J.; Brand, M.D. Topology of Superoxide Production from Different Sites in the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain. J. Biol. Chem., 2002, 277, 44784-44790.
45. Calabrese V.; Lodi R.; Tonon C.; D'Agata V.; Sapienza M.; Scapagnini G.; Mangiameli A.; Pennisi G.; Stella A.M.; Butterfield D.A. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and cellular stress response in Friedreich's ataxia. J. Neurol. Sci., 2005, 233, 145-162.
46. Tenenbein, M. Hepatotoxicity in acute iron poisoning. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol., 2001, 39(7), 721-726.
47. Rasmussen, M.L.; Folsom, A.R.; Catellier, D.J.; Tsai, M.Y.; Garg, U.; Eckfeldt, J.H. A prospective study of coronary heart disease and the hemochromatosis gene (HFE) C282Y mutation: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Atherosclerosis, 2001, 154, 739-746.
48. Valko, M.; Morris, H.; Mazur, M.; Rapta, P.; Bilton, R.F. Oxygen free radical generating mechanisms in the colon: do the semiquinones of vitamin K play a role in the aetiology of colon cancer? Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2001, 1527, 161-166.
49. Lao, T.T.; Ho, L.F. Impact of Iron Deficiency Anemia on Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care, 2004, 27, 650-656.
50. Fraga, C.G.; Oteiza, P.I. Iron toxicity and antioxidant nutrients. Toxicology, 2002, 180, 23-32.
51. Malins, D.C.; Polissar, N.L.; Gunselman, J.S. Progression of human breast cancers to the metastatic state is linked to hydroxyl radical-induced DNA damage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 1996, 93, 2557-2563.
52. Stayner, L.T.; Dankovic, D.A.; Lemen, R.A. Occupational Exposure to Chrysotile Asbestos and Cancer Risk: A Review of the Amphibole Hypothesis. Am. J. Public Health, 1996, 86(2), 179-186.
53. LaMarca, B.D.; Gilbert, J.; Granger, J.P. Recent Progress toward the Understanding of the Pathophysiology of Hypertension during Preeclampsia. Hypertension, 2008, 51, 982-988.
54. Weiss, G.; Goodnough, L.T. Anemia of Chronic Disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 2005, 352, 1011-1023.
55. Bush, A.I.; Curtain, C.C. Twenty years of metallo-neurobiology: where to now? Eur. Biophys. J., 2008, 37, 241-245.
56. Droge, W. Free Radicals in the Physiological Control of Cell Function. Physiol. Rev., 2002, 82, 47-95.
57. Bertini, I.; Gray, H.B.; Lippard, S.J.; Valentine, J.S. Bioinorganic chemistry. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books, 1994.
58. Kozlowski, H.; Luczkowski, M.; Remelli, M.; Valensin, D. Copper, zinc and iron in neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and prion diseases). Coord. Chem. Rev., 2012, 256, 2129-2141.
59. Horn, D.; Barrientos, A. Mitochondrial Copper Metabolism and Delivery to Cytochrome c Oxidase. IUBMB Life, 2008, 60(7), 421-429.
60. Mattie, M.D.; Freedman, J.H. Copper-inducible transcription: regulation by metal- and oxidative stress responsive pathways. Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Physiol., 2004, 286, C293-C301.
61. Linder, M.C.; Hazegh-Azam, M. Copper biochemistry and molecular biology. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1996, 63(5), 797-811.
62. Hung, Y.H.; Bush, A.I.; Cherny, R.A. Copper in the brain and Alzheimer's disease. J. Biol. Inorg. Chem., 2010, 15, 61-76.
63. Brewer, G.J. Copper toxicity in the general population. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2010, 121, 459-460.
64. Gaetke, L.M.; Chow, Ch.K. Copper toxicity, oxidative stress, and antioxidant nutrients. Toxicology, 2003, 189, 147-163.
65. Valko, M.; Morris, H.; Mazur, M. High-Affinity Binding Site for Copper(II) in Human and Dog Serum Albumins (an EPR Study) J. Phys. Chem. B., 1999, 103, 5591-5597.
66. Banci, L.; Bertini, I.; Cantini, F.; Ciofi-Baffoni, S. Cellular copper distribution: a mechanistic systems biology approach. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 2010, 67, 2563-2589.
67. Uriu-Adams, J.Y.; Keen, C.L. Copper, oxidative stress, and human health. Mol. Aspects Med., 2005, 26, 268-298.
68. Zhou, B.; Gitschier, J. hCTR1: a human gene for copper uptake identified by complementation in yeast. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 1997, 94, 7481-7486.
69. Shim, H.; Harris Z.L. Genetic defects in copper metabolism. J. Nutr., 2003, 133, 1527S-1531S.
70. Pala, F.S.; Gürkan, H. The role of free radicals in ethiopathogenesis of diseases. Adv. Mol. Biol., 2008, 1, 1-9.
71. Zhou, Y. Copper-induced regression of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy through alteration of VEGF/VEGFR pathway. ProQuest, UMI Dissertation Publishing, 2011.
72. Kuka, S.; Tatarkova, Z.; Kaplan, P. Oxidative damage to proteins and lipids during ageing. Acta Med. Mart., 2012, 12(1), 5-11.
73. Gate, L.; Paul, J.; Bal, G.N.; Tew, K.D.; Tapierol, H. Oxidative stress induced in pathologies: the role of antioxidants. Biomed. Pharmacother., 1999, 53, 169-80.
74. Desai, V.; Kaler, S.G. Role of copper in human neurological disorders. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2008, 88(suppl), 855S-858S.
75. Sheikh, S.; Haque, E.; Mir, S.S. Neurodegenerative Diseases: Multifactorial Conformational Diseases and Their Therapeutic Interventions. J. Neurodegenerative Dis., 2013, 2013, 563481.
76. Dufernez, F.; Lachaux, A.; Chappuis, P.; Lumley, L.; Bost, Woimant, M.F.; Misrahi, M.; Debray, D. Wilson disease in offspring of affected patients: Report of four French families. Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol., 2013, 37(3), 240-245.
77. Brewer, G.J. Copper in medicine. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol., 2003, 7, 207-212.
78. Mercer, J.F.B. The molecular basis of copper-transport diseases. TRENDS Mol. Med., 2001, 7, 64-69.
79. Paris, I.; Segura-Aguilar, J. The role of metal ions in dopaminergic neuron degeneration in Parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease. In: Metal Ions in Neurological Systems; Linert, W.; Kozlowski, H., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: Wien, 2012; pp. 31-34.
80. Barzilai, A.; Melamed, E. Molecular mechanisms of selective dopaminergic neuronal death in Parkinson's disease. TRENDS Mol. Med., 2003, 9(3), 126-132.
81. George, J.L.; Mok, S.; Moses, D.; Wilkins, S.; Bush, A.I.; Cherny, R.A.; Finkelstein, D.I. Targeting the Progression of Parkinson's Disease. Curr. Neuropharmacol., 2009, 7, 9-36.
82. Stadler, N.; Lindner, R.A.; Davies, M.J. Direct Detection and Quantification of Transition Metal Ions in Human Atherosclerotic Plaques: Evidence for the Presence of Elevated Levels of Iron and Copper. Arterioscler Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 2004, 24, 949-954.
83. Cooper, G.J.S.; Young, A.A.; Gamble, G.D.; Occleshaw, C.J.; Dissanayake, A.M.; Cowan, B.R.; Brunton, D.H.; Baker, J.R.; Phillips, A. R. J.; Frampton, C.M.; Poppitt, S.D.; Doughty, R.N.A copper(II)-selective chelator ameliorates left-ventricular hypertrophy in type 2 diabetic patients: a randomised placebo controlled study. Diabetologia, 2009, 52, 715-722.
84. Önal, S.; Naziroʇlu, M.; Çolak, M.; Bulut, V.; Flores-Arce, M.F. Effects of Different Medical Treatments on Serum Copper, Selenium and Zinc Levels in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis. Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 2011, 142, 447-455.
85. Zoli, A.; Altomonte, L.; Caricchio, R.; Galossi, A.; Mirone, L.; Ruffini, M.P.; Magaro, M. Serum Zinc and Copper in Active Rheumatoid Arthritis: Correlation with Interleukin 113 and Tumour Necrosis Factor α. Clin. Rheumatol., 1998, 17, 378-382.
86. Vincent, J.B. Chromium: celebrating 50 years as an essential element? Dalton Trans., 2010, 39, 3787-3794.
87. Di Bona, K.R.; Love, S.;. Rhodes, N.R.; McAdory, D.; Sinha, S.H.; Kern, N.; Kent, J.; Strickland, J.; Wilson, A.; Beaird, J.; Ramage, J.; Rasco, J.F.; Vincent, J.B. Chromium is not an essential trace element for mammals: effects of a "low-chromium" diet. J. Biol. Inorg. Chem., 2011, 16, 381-390.
88. Nickens, K.P.; Patierno, S.R.; Ceryak, S.; Chromium genotoxicity: A double-edged sword. Chem. Biol. Interact., 2010, 188, 276-288.
89. Martins, L.E.A.M.; Reis, V.M.S. IL-13: a marker of chromium contact allergy. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol., 2013, 27, e390-e393.
90. Dhala, B.; Thatoib, H.N.; Dasc, N.N.; Pandeya, B.D. Chemical and microbial remediation of hexavalent chromium from contaminated soil and mining/metallurgical solid waste: A review. J. Hazard. Mater., 2013, 250-251, 272-291.
91. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, vol. 103C, A Review of Human Carcinogens: Arsenic, Metals, Fibres, and Dusts, 2012.
92. Zhitkovich, A. Chromium in Drinking Water: Sources, Metabolism, and Cancer Risks. Chem. Res. Toxicol., 2011, 24, 1617-1629.
93. Song, Y.; Zhang, J.; Yu, S.; Wang, T.; Cui, X.; Dua, X.; Jia, G. Effects of chronic chromium (VI) exposure on blood element homeostasis: An epidemiological study. Metallomics, 2012, 4, 463-472.
94. Alexander, J.; Aaseth, J. Uptake of Chromate in Human Red Blood Cells and Isolated Rat Liver Cells: The Role of the Anion Carrier. Analyst, 1995, 120, 931-933.
95. Flores-Alvarez, L.J.; Corrales-Escobosa, A.R.; Corte's-Penagos, C.; Martinez-Pacheco, M.; Wrobel-Zasada, K.; Wrobel-Kaczmarczyk, K.; Cervantes, C.; Gutierrez-Corona, F. The Neurospora crassa chr-1 gene is up-regulated by chromate and its encoded CHR-1 protein causes chromate sensitivity and chromium accumulation. Curr. Genet., 2012, 58, 281-290.
96. Morais, P.V.; Branco, R.; Francisco, R.; Chromium resistance strategies and toxicity: what makes Ochrobactrum tritici 5bvl1 a strain highly resistant. Biometals, 2011, 24, 401-410.
97. Arita, A.; Costa, M. Epigenetics in metal carcinogenesis: nickel, arsenic, chromium and cadmium. Metallomics, 2009, 1, 222-228.
98. Salnikow, K.; Zhitkovich, A. Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms in Metal Carcinogenesis and Cocarcinogenesis: Nickel, Arsenic and Chromium. Chem. Res. Toxicol., 2008, 21, 28-44.
99. Wang, X.; Mandal, A.K.; Saito, H.; Pulliam, J.F.; Lee, E.Y.;, Ke, Z.-J.; Lu, J.; Ding, S.; Li, L.; Shelton, B.J.; Tucker, T.; Mark Evers, B.; Zhang, Z.; Shi, X. Arsenic and chromium in drinking water promote tumorigenesis in a mouse colitis-associated colorectal cancer model and the potential mechanism is ROS-mediated Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 2012, 262, 11-21.
100. Thompson, C.M.; Proctor, D.M.; Suh, M.; Haws, L.C.; Hebert, C.D.; Mann, J.F.; Shertzer, H.G.; Gregory Hixon, J.; Harris, M.A. Comparison of the Effects of Hexavalent Chromium in the Alimentary Canal of F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice Following Exposure in Drinking Water: Implications for Carcinogenic Modes of Action. Toxicol. Sci., 2012, 125, 79-90.
101. Arakawa, H.; Weng, M.-wen; Chen, Wen-chi; Tang, Moon-shong. Chromium (VI) induces both bulky DNA adducts and oxidative DNA damage at adenines and guanines in the p53 gene of human lung cells. Carcinogenesis, 2012, 33, 1993-2000.
102. Costa, M.; Zhitkovich, A.; Toniolo, P. DNA-Protein Cross-Links in Welders: Molecular Implications. Cancer Res., 1993, 53, 460-463.
103. Messer J.; Reynolds M.; Stoddard L.; Zhitkovich A. Causes of DNA single-strand breaks during reduction of chromate by glutathione in vitro and in cells. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 2006, 40, 1981-1992.
104. Mishra, M.; Sharma, A.; Shukla, A.K.; Pragya, P.; Murthy, R.C.; de Pomerai, D.; Dwivedid, U.N.; Kar Chowdhuria, D. Transcriptomic analysis provides insights on hexavalent chromium induced DNA double strand breaks and their possible repair in midgut cells of Drosophila melanogaster larvae. Mutat. Res., 2013, 747- 748, 28-39.
105. Wise, S.S.; Wise Sr, J.P. Chromium and genomic stability. Mutat. Res., 2012, 733, 78-82.
106. Bailey, C.H. Improved Meta-Analytic Methods Show No Effect of Chromium Supplements on Fasting Glucose. Biol. Trace. Elem. Res., 2014, 157, 1-8.
107. Onakpoya, I.; Posadzki, P.; Ernst, E. Chromium supplementation in overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Obes. Rev., 2013, 14, 496-507.
108. Filipic, M. Mechanisms of cadmium induced genomic instability. Mutat. Res., 2012, 733, 69-77.
109. Järup, L.; Åkesson, A. Current status of cadmium as an environmental health problem. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 2009, 238, 201-208.
110. Nordberg, G.F. Historical perspectives on cadmium toxicology. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 2009, 238, 192-200.
111. Godt, J.; Scheidig, F.; Grosse-Siestrup, C.; Esche, V.; Brandenburg, P.; Reich, A.; Groneberg, D.A. The toxicity of cadmium and resulting hazards for human health. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol., 2006, 1, 22-27.
112. Horiguchi, H.; Aoshima, K.; Oguma, E.; Sasaki, S.; Miyamoto, K.; Hosoi, Y.; Katoh, T; Kayama, F. Latest status of cadmium accumulation and its effects on kidneys, bone, and erythropoiesis in inhabitants of the formerly cadmium-polluted Jinzu River Basin in Toyama, Japan, after restoration of rice paddies. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 2010, 83, 953-970.
113. Nawrot, T.; Plusquin, M.; Hogervorst, J.; Roels, H.A.; Celis, H.; Thijs, L.; Vangronsveld, J.; Hecke, E.V.; Staessen, J.A. Environmental exposure to cadmium and risk of cancer: a prospective population-based study. Lancet Oncol., 2006, 7, 119-126.
114. Klaassen, C.D.; Liu, J.; Diwan, B.A. Metallothionein protection of cadmium toxicity. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 2009, 238, 215-220.
115. 2-Induced Nephrotoxicity Indicates That Renal Injury Is Not Mediated by the CdMT Complex. Toxicol. Sci., 1998, 46, 197-203.
116. Stillman, M.J.; Cai, W.; Zelazowski, A.J. Cadmium Binding to Metallothioneins, J. Biol. Chem., 1987, 262, 4538-4548.
117. Jenkitkasemwong, S.; Wang, Chia-Yu; Mackenzie, B.; Knutson, M.D. Physiologic implications of metal-ion transport by ZIP14 and ZIP8. Biometals, 2012, 25, 643-655.
118. Martinez-Finley, E.J; Chakraborty, S.; Fretham, S.J.B.; Aschner, M. Cellular transport and homeostasis of essential and nonessential metals. Metallomics, 2012, 4, 593-605.
119. Lacinova, L.; Klugbauer, N.; Hofmann, F. Regulation of the calcium channel alpha(1G) subunit by divalent cations and organic blockers. Neuropharmacol., 2000, 39, 1254-1266.
120. Thevenod, F. Catch me if you can! Novel aspects of cadmium transport in mammalian cells. Biometals, 2010, 23, 857-875.
121. Figueiredo-Pereira, M.E.; Yakushin, S.; Cohen, G. Disruption of the Intracellular Sulfhydryl Homeostasis by Cadmium-induced Oxidative Stress Leads to Protein Thiolation and Ubiquitination in Neuronal Cells. J. Biol. Chem., 1998, 273, 12703-12709.
122. Thevenod, F.; Friedmann, J.M. Cadmium-mediated oxidative stress in kidney proximal tubule cells induces degradation of Na1/K1-ATPase through proteasomal and endo-/lysosomal proteolytic pathways. FASEB J., 1993, 13, 1751-1761.
123. Yuan, C.; Kadiiska, M.; Achanzar, W.E.; Mason, R.P.; Waalkes, M.P. Possible Role of Caspase-3 Inhibition in Cadmium-Induced Blockage of Apoptosis, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 2000, 164, 321-329.
124. Misra, U.K.; Gawdi, G.; Akabani, G.; Pizzo, S.V. Cadmiuminduced DNA synthesis and cell proliferation in macrophages: The role of intracellular calcium and signal transduction mechanisms. Cell. Signal., 2002, 14, 327-340.
125. Sunderman, F.W. Biological monitoring of nickel in humans. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 1993, 19, 34-38.
126. Gawkrodger, D.J.; McLeod, C.W.; Dobson, K. Nickel skin levels in different occupations and an estimate of the threshold for reacting to a single open application of nickel in nickel-allergic subjects. Brit. J. Dermatol., 2012, 166, 82-87.
127. Denkhaus, E.; Salnikow, K. Nickel essentiality, toxicity, and carcinogenicity. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2002, 42, 35-56.
128. Zhicheng, S. A study of lung function in coalworkers' pneumoconiosis Br. J. Ind. Med., 1986, 43, 422-424.
129. Langård, S. Nickel-related cancer in welders. Sci. Total Environ., 1994, 148, 303-309.
130. Grimsrud T.K.; Berge S.R.; Haldorsen T.; Andersen A. Can lung cancer risk among nickel refinery workers be explained by occupational exposures other than nickel? Epidemiology, 2005, 16, 146-154.
131. Funakoshi, T.; Inoue, T.; Shimada, H.; Kojima, S. The mechanisms of nickel uptake by rat primary hepatocyte cultures: role of calcium channels. Toxicology, 1997, 124, 21-26.
132. Garrick, M.D.; Singleton, S.T.; Vargas, F.; Kuo, H-C.; Zhao, L.; Knopfel, M.; Davidson, T.; Costa, M.; Paradkar, P.; Roth, J.A.; Garrick, L.M. DMT1: which metals does it transport? Biol. Res., 2006, 39, 79-85.
133. Li, Y.; Zamble, D.B. Nickel-based Enzyme Systems. Chem. Rev., 2009, 109, 4617-4643.
134. Mehta, N.; Olson, J.W.; Maier, R.J. Characterization of Helicobacter pylori nickel metabolism accessory proteins needed for maturation of both urease and hydrogenase J. Bacteriol., 2003, 185, 726-734.
135. Chervona, Y.; Arita, A.; Costa, M. Carcinogenic metals and the epigenome: understanding the effect of nickel, arsenic, and chromium. Metallomics, 2012, 4, 619-627.
136. Chen, H.; Giri, N.C.; Zhang, R.; Yamane, K.; Zhang, Y.; Maroney, M.; Costa, M. Nickel Ions Inhibit Histone Demethylase JMJD1A and DNA Repair Enzyme ABH2 by Replacing the Ferrous Iron in the Catalytic Centers. J. Biol. Chem., 2010, 285, 7374-7383.
137. Guo, X.; Shi, M.; Sun, L.;Wang, Y.; Gui, Y.; Cai, Z.; Duan, X. The expression of histone demethylase JMJD1A in renal cell carcinoma. Neoplasma, 2011, 58, 153-157.
138. Bal, W.; Lukszo, J.; Bialkowski, K.; Kasprzak, K. S. Interactions of Nickel(II) with Histones: Interactions of Nickel(II) with CH3CO-Thr-Glu-Ser-His-His-Lys-NH2, a Peptide Modeling the Potential Metal Binding Site in the "C-Tail" Region of Histone H2A, Chem. Res. Toxicol., 1998, 11, 1014-1023.
139. Zoroddu, M.A.; Peana, M.; Kowalik-Jankowska, T.; Kozłowski, H.; Costa, M. The binding of Ni(II) and Cu(II) with the N-terminal tail of the histone H4. J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 2002, 2002, 458-465.
140. 2 Putative Metal Binding Sequence of Histone H3. Chem. Res. Toxicol., 1996, 8, 683-692.
141. Bal, W.; Karantza, V.; Moudrianakis, E.N.; Kasprzak, K.S. Interaction of Nickel(II) with Histones: In Vitro Binding of Nickel(II) to the Core Histone Tetramer. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 1999, 364, 161-166.
142. Bal, W.; Kozłowski, H.; Kasprzak, K.S. Molecular models in nickel carcinogenesis. Molecular models in nickel carcinogenesis. J. Inorg. Biochem., 2000, 79, 213-218.
143. Lee, Y.-W.; Broday, L.; Costa, M. Effects of nickel on DNA methyltransferase activity and genomic DNA methylation levels. Mutat. Res., 1998, 415, 213-218.
144. Govindarajan, B.; Klafter, R.; Miller, M.; Mansur, C.; Mizesko, M.; Bai, X.; LaMotagne, K.; Arbiser, J. Reactive oxygen-induced carcinogenesis cause hypermethylation of p16 (Ink4a) and activation of MAP kinase, Mol. Med., 2002, 8, 1-8.
145. Krieg, A.J.; Rankin, E.B.; Chan, D.; Razorenova, O.; Fernandez, S.; Giaccia, A.J. Regulation of the histone demethylase JMJD1A by Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 enhances hypoxic gene expression and tumor growth. Mol. Cell. Biol., 2010, 30, 344-353.
146. Pan, J.; Chang, Q.; Wang, X.; Son, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Chen, G.; Luo, J.; Bi, Y.; Chen, F.; Shi, X. Reactive oxygen species-activated Akt/ASK1/p38 signaling pathway in nickel compound-induced apoptosis in BEAS 2B Cells. Chem. Res. Toxicol., 2010, 23, 568-577.
147. Wu, C.-H.; Tang, S.-C.; Wang, P.-H.; Lee, H.; Ko, J.-L. Nickelinduced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition by Reactive Oxygen Species Generation and E-cadherin Promoter Hypermethylation. J. Biol. Chem., 2012, 283, 25292-25302.
148. Thiery, J.P. Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions in tumor progression. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2002, 2, 442-454.
149. Kaczmarek, P.; Jezowska-Bojczuk, M.; Bal, W.; Kasprzak, K. S. Determination of the stability constants and oxidation susceptibility of nickel(II) complexes with 20-deoxyguanosine 50-triphosphate and L-histidine. J. Inorg. Biochem., 2005, 99, 737-746.
150. Exley, C.; House, E.R. Aluminium in the brain. In: Metal Ions in Neurological Systems; Linert, W.; Kozlowski, H., Eds.; Springer- Verlag: Wien, 2012; pp. 95-101.
151. Shaw, C.A.; Tomljenovic, L. Aluminium in the central nervous system (CNS): toxicity in humans and animals, vaccine adjuvants, and autoimmunity. Immunol. Res., 2013, 56(2-3), 304-316.
152. Guo, C.H.; Chen, P.C.; Hsu, G.S.; Wang, C.L. Zinc supplementation alters plasma aluminum and selenium status of patients undergoing dialysis: a pilot study. Nutrients, 2013, 5(4), 1456-1470.
153. Fekete, V.; Vandevijvere, S.; Bolle, F.; Van Loco, J. Estimation of dietary aluminum exposure of the Belgian adult population: Evaluation of contribution of food and kitchenware. Food Chem. Toxicol., 2013, 55, 602-608.
154. Flaten, T.P. Aluminium in tea- concentrations, speciation and bioavailability. Coord. Chem. Rev., 2002, 228, 385-395.
155. Ausiello, P.; Cassese, A.; Miele, C.; Beguinot, F.; Garcia-Godoy, F.; Di Jeso, B.; Ulianich, L. Cytotoxicity of dental resin composites: an in vitro evaluation. J. Appl. Toxicol., 2013, 33, 451-457.
156. Deloncle, R.; Guillard, O.; Clanet, F.; Courtois, P.; Piriou, A. Aluminum transfer as glutamate complex through blood-brain barrier. Possible implication in dialysis encephalopathy. Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 1990, 25(1), 39-45.
157. Wu, X.; Li, J.; Hu, J.N.; Deng, Z.Y. The effects of glutamate and citrate on absorption and distribution of aluminum in rats. Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 2012, 148, 83-90.
158. Mannelo, F.; Toni, G.A., Medda, V.; Simone, P.; Darbre, P.D. Analysis of aluminium content and iron homeostasis in nipple aspirate fluids from healthy women and breast cancer-affected patients. J. Appl. Toxicol., 2011, 31, 262-269.
159. Ward, R.J.; Zhang, Y.; Crichton, R.R. Aluminium toxicity and iron homeostasis. J. Inorg. Biochem., 2001, 87, 9-14.
160. Kawahara, M.; Kato-Negishi, M. Link between aluminium and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease: the integration of the aluminium and amyloid cascade hypotheses. Int. J. Alzheimers Dis., 2011, 2011, 276393.
161. Canales, J.J.; Corbalan, R.; Montoliu, C.; Llansola, M.; Monfort, P.; Erceg, S.; Hernandez-Viadel, M.; Felipo, V. Aluminium impairs the glutamate-nitric oxide-cGMP pathway in cultured neurons and in rat brain in vivo: molecular mechanisms and implications for neuropathology. J. Inorg. Biochem., 2001, 87(1-2), 63-69.
162. Sanchez-Iglesias, S.; Mendez-Alvarez, E.; Iglesias-Gonzalez, J.; Munoz-Patino, A.; Sanchez-Sellero, I.; Labandeira-Garcia, J.L.; Soto-Otero, R. Brain oxidative stress and selective behavior of aluminium in specific areas of rat brain: potential effects in a 6-OHDA-induced model of Parkinson's disease. J. Neurochem., 2009, 109, 879-888.
163. Berthon, G. Aluminium speciation in relation to aluminium bioavailability, metabolism and toxicity. Coord. Chem. Rev., 2002, 228, 319-341.
164. Wu, Z.; Du, Y.; Wu, Y.; Zhou, B. Aluminium induces neurodegeneration and its toxicity arises from increased iron accumulation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Neurobiol. Aging, 2012, 33, 199.e1-199.e12.
165. Mujika, J.I.; Ruipérez, F.; Infante, I.; Ugalde, J.M.; Exley, C.; Lopez, X. Pro-oxidant Activity of Aluminum: Stabilization of the Aluminum Superoxide Radical Ion. J. Phys. Chem. A., 2011, 115(24), 6717-6723.
166. Li, Xiao-Bo; Zhang, Zhi-Yuan; Yin, Li-Hong; Schluesener, H.J. The profile of β-amyloid precursor protein expression of rats induced by aluminium. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 2012, 33, 135-140.
167. Kaizer, R.R.; Corrêa, M.C.; Spanevello, R.M.; Morsch, V.M.; Mazzanti, C.M.; Gonçalves, J.F.; Schetinger, M.R.C. Acetylcholinesterase activation and enhanced lipid peroxidation after longterm exposure to low levels of aluminum on different mouse brain regions. J. Inorg. Biochem., 2005, 99, 1865-1870.
168. VanDuyn, N.; Settivari, R.; LeVora, J.; Zhou, S.; Unrine, J.; Nass, R. The metal transporter SMF-1/DMT-1 mediates aluminiumiduced dopamine neuron degeneration. J. Neurochem., 2013, 124, 147-157.
169. Oshima, E.; Ishihara, T.; Yokata, O.; Nakashima-Yasuda, H.; Negao, S.; Ikeda, C.; Naohara, J.; Terada, S.; Uchitomi, Y. Accelerated Tau Aggregation, Apoptosis and Neurological Dysfunction Caused by Chronic Oral Administration of Aluminium in a Mouse Model of Tauopathies. Brain Pathol., 2013, 23(6), 633-44
170. Bolognin, S.; Zatta, P.; Lorenzetto, E.; Valenti, M.T.; Buffelli, M. β-Amyloid-aluminum complex alters cytoskeletal stability and increases ROS production in cortical neurons. Neurochem. Int., 2013, 62(5), 566-574.
171. Exley, C. The coordination chemistry of aluminium in neurodegenerative disease. Coord. Chem. Rev., 2012, 256, 2142-2146.
172. Bader, B.; Nübling, G.; Mehle, A.; Nobile, S.; Kretzschmar, H.; Giese, A. Single particle analysis of tau oligomer formation induced by metal ions and organic solvents. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 2011, 411(1), 190-196.
173. Lanphear, B.P.; Dietrich, K.N.; Berger, O. Prevention of Lead Toxicity in US Children. Ambul. Pediatr., 2003, 3(1), 27-36.
174. Pohl, H.R.; Abadin, H.; Risher, J.F. Neurotoxicity of cadmium, lead, and mercury. In: Metal ions in life sciences. Volume 1. Neurodegenerative diseases and metal ions. Sigel, A.; Sigel, H.; Sigel, R.K.O. Eds.; John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.: Chichester, 2006; pp. 395-425.
175. 2+ in proteins. J. Inorg. Biochem., 2013, 125, 40-49.
176. Yang, H.; Huo, X.; Yekeen, T.A.; Zheng, Q.; Zheng, M., Xu, X. Effects of lead and cadmium exposure from electronic waste on child physical growth. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int., 2013, 20(7), 4441-4447.
177. Marchetti, C. Role of calcium channels in heavy metal toxicity. ISRN Toxicol., 2013, 2013, 184360.
178. Neal, A.P.; Stansfield, K.H.; Worley, P.F.; Thompson, R.E.; Guilarte, T.R. Lead exposure during synaptogenesis alters vesicular proteins and impairs vesicular release: potential role of NMDA receptor-dependent BDNF signaling. Toxicol. Sci., 2010, 116(1), 249-263.
179. Suszkiw, J.B. Presynaptic disruption of transmitter release by lead. Neurotoxicology, 2004, 25(4), 599-604.
180. Pokora, M.J.; Richfield, E.K.; Cory-Slechta, D.A. Preferential vulnerability of nucleus accumbens dopamine binding sites to low-level lead exposure: time course of effects and interactions with chronic dopamine agonist treatments. J. Neurochem., 1996, 67(4), 1540-1550.
181. Bijoor, A.R.; Sudha, S.; Venkatesh, T. Neurochemical and neurobehavioral effects of low lead exposure on the developing brain. Indian J. Clin. Biochem., 2012, 27(2), 147-151.
182. Blunden, S.; Wallace, T. Tin in canned food: a review and understanding of occurrence and effect. Food Chem. Toxicol., 2003, 41, 1651-1662.
183. Hadjikakou, S.K.; Hadjiliadis, N. Antiproliferative and anti-tumor activity of organotin compounds. Coord. Chem. Rev., 2009, 253, 235-249.
184. Chen, Z.F.; Peng, Y.; Gu, Y.Q.; Liu, Y.C.; Liu, M.; Huang, K.B.; Hu, K.; Liang, H. High antitumor activity of 5,7-dihalo-8-quinolinolato tin(IV) complexes. Eur. J. Med. Chem., 2013, 62, 51-58.
185. Gielen, M. Tin-based antitumour drugs: new developments. Met. Based Drugs, 1995, 2(2), 99-103.
186. Alama, A.; Tasso, B.; Novelli, F.; Sparatore, F. Organometallic compounds in oncology: implications of novel organotins as antitumor agents. Drug Discov. Today, 2009, 14(9-10), 500-508.
187. n+ complexes formed with biologically active ligands: equilibrium and structural studies, and some biological aspects. Coord. Chem. Rev., 2002, 224, 111-150.
188. Kotake, Y. Molecular mechanisms of environmental organotin toxicity in mammals. Biol. Pharm. Bull., 2012, 35(11), 1876-1880.
189. Little, A.R.; Miller, D.B.; Li, S.; Kashon, M.L.; O'Callaghan, J.P. Trimethyltin-induced neurotoxicity: gene expression pathway analysis, q-RT-PCR and immunoblotting reveal early effects associated with hippocampal damage and gliosis. Neurotoxicol. Teratol., 2012, 34(1), 72-82.
190. Röhl, C.; Grell, M.; Maser, E. The organotin compounds trimethyltin (TMT) and triethyltin (TET) but not tributyltin (TBT) induce activation of microglia co-cultivated with astrocytes. Toxicol. In Vitro, 2009, 23, 1541-1547.
191. Mignini, F.; Nasuti, C.; Artico, M.; Giovannetti, F.; Fabrizi, C.; Fumagalli, L.; Iannetti, G.; Pompili, E. Effects of trimethyltin on hippocampal dopaminergic markers and cognitive behaviour. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 2012, 25(4), 1107-1119.
192. Snoeij, N.J.; Penninks, A.H.; Seinen, W. Biological activity of organotin compounds-an overview. Environ. Res., 1987, 44, 335-353.
193. Kim, J.K.; Bae, H.; Kim, M.J.; Choi, S.J.; Cho, H.Y.; Hwang, H.J.; Kim, Y.J.; Lim, S.T.; Kim, E.K.; Kim, H.K.; Kim, B.Y.; Shin, D.H. Inhibitory effect of Poncirus trifoliate on acetylcholinesterase and attenuating activity against trimethyltin-induced learning and memory impairment. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 2009, 73(5), 1105-1112.
194. Tang, X.; Wu, X.; Dubois, A.M.; Sui, G.; Wu, B.; Lai, G.; Gong, Z.; Gao, H.; Liu, S.; Zhong, Z.; Lin, Z.; Olson, J.; Ren, X. Toxicity of Trimethyltin and Dimethyltin in Rats and Mice. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 2013, 90, 626-633.
195. Nath, M.; Pokharia, S.; Yadav, R. Organotin(IV) complexes of amino acids and peptides. Coord. Chem. Rev., 2001, 215, 99-149.
196. Ge, R.; Ma, W.H.; Li. Y.L.; Li, Q.S. Apoptosis induced neurotoxicity of Di-n-butyl-di-(4-chlorobenzohydroxamato) Tin (IV) via mitochondria-mediated pathway in PC12 cells. Toxicol. In Vitro., 2013, 27(1), 92-102.
197. Stahnke, T.; Richter-Landsberg, C. Triethyltin-Induced Stress Responses and Apoptotic Cell Death in Cultured Oligodendrocytes. Glia, 2004, 46, 334-344.
198. Zuo, Z.; Cai, J.; Wang, X.; Li, B.; Wang, C.; Chen, Y. Acute administration of tributyltin and trimethyltin modulate glutamate and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor signaling pathway in Sebastiscus marmoratus. Aquat. Toxicol., 2009, 1, 44-49.
199. Vimercati, L.; Ferrara, R.; Mazzolai, B.; Lanzillotta, E.; Nucaro, E.; Pirrone, N. Volcanoes as emission sources of atmospheric mercury in the Mediterranean basin. Sci. Total Environ., 2000, 259(1-3), 115-121.
200. Kelly, E.N.; Schindler, D.W.; St. Louis, V.L.; Donald, D.B.; Vladicka, K.E. Forest fire increases mercury accumulation by fishes via food web restructuring and increased mercury inputs. PNAS, 2006, 103(51), 19380-19385.
201. Joensuu, O.I. Fossil Fuels as a Source of Mercury Pollution. Science, 1971, 172 (3987), 1027-1028.
202. Maloney, S.R.; Phillips, C.A.; Mills, A. Mercury in the hair of crematoria workers. Lancet, 1998, 352, 1602.
203. Friedlia, H.R.; Radkea, L.F.; Lub, J.Y.; Banicb, C.M.; Leaitchb, W.R.; MacPherson, J.I. Mercury emissions from burning of biomass from temperate North American forests: laboratory and airborne measurements. Atmosph. Environ., 2003, 37(2), 253-267.
204. World Health Organization, "Inorganic mercury: environmental health criteria 118," In International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1991.
205. Zeitz, P.; Orr M. F.; Kaye, W. E. Public health consequences to mercury spills: hazardous substances emergency events surveillance system, 1993-1998. Environ. Health Perspect., 2002, 110(2), 129-132.
206. Bernhoft, R.A.; Mercury Toxicity and Treatment: A Review of the Literature. J. Environ. Public Health, 2012, 2012, 460508.
207. Berglund, A.; Pohl, L.; Olsson, S.; Bergman, M. Determination of the rate of release of intra-oral mercury vapor from amalgam. J. Dent. Res., 1988, 67(9), 1235-1242.
208. Berlin, M.; Zalups, R.K.; Fowler B.A. Mercury. In: Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, Nordberg, G.F.; Fowler, B.A.; Nordberg, M.; Friberg, L.T.,Eds.; Elsevier, New York, 2007; chapter 33.
209. Björkman, L.; Lundekvam, B.F.;, Laegreid, T.; Bertelsen, B.I.; Morild, I.; Lilleng, P.; Lind, B.; Palm, B.; Vahter, M. Mercury in human brain, blood, muscle and toenails in relation to exposure: an autopsy study. Environ. Health, 2007, 6(30), 1-23.
210. Vimy, M.J.; Takahashi, Y.; Lorscheider, F.L. Maternal-fetal distribution of mercury released from dental amalgam fillings. Am. J. Physiol., 1990, 258(4), 939-945.
211. Guzzi, G.; Grandi, M.; Cattaneo, C.; Calza, S.; Minoia, C.; Ronchi, A.; Gatti A.; Severi, G. Dental amalgam and mercury levels in autopsy tissues: food for thought. Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol., 2006, 27(1), 42-45.
212. Hahn, L.J.; Kloiber, R.; Vimy, M.J.; Takahashi, Y.; Lorscheider, F.L. Dental silver tooth fillings: a source of mercury exposure revealed by whole-body image scan and tissue analysis. FASEB J., 1989, 3(14), 2641-2646.
213. Petering, H.G.; Tipper, L.B. Pharmacology and toxicology of heavy metals: mercury. Pharmacol. Ther., 1976, 1, 131-151.
214. Borrimann, G.; Hinke, G.; Alfers, H.; Mullmann, H. Ueter die enterale resorption von metallischem quicksilver. Arch. Toxicol., 1970, 26, 203-209.
215. Clarkson, T.W.; Magos, L. The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Crit. Rev. Toxicol., 2006, 36(8), 609-662.
216. Hursh, J.B.; Clarkson, T.W.; Miles, E.F.; Goldsmith, L.A. Percutaneous absorption of mercury vapour by man. Arch. Environ. Health, 1989, 44, 120-127.
217. Hayes, A.D.; Rothstein, A. The metabolism of inhaled mercury vapor in the rat studied by isotope techniques. J. Pharmacol., 1962, 138, 1-10.
218. Langford, N.J.; Ferner, R.E. Toxicity of Merkury. J. Human Hypertens., 1999, 13(10), 651-651.
219. Suzuki, T.; Takemoto, T.I.; Shishido, S.; Kani, K. Mercury in human amniotic fluid. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 1977, 3(1), 32-35.
220. Bridges, C.C.; Bauch, C.; Verrey, F.; Zalups, R.K. Mercuric conjugates of cysteine are transported by the amino acid transporter system b(0,+): implications of molecular mimicry. J Am. Soc. Nephrol., 2004, 15(3), 663-673.
221. Zalups, K.Z. Molecular Interactions with Mercury in the Kidney. Pharmacol. Rev., 2014, 52(1), 113-143.
222. Björnberg, K.A.; Vahter, M.; Berglund, B.; Niklasson, B.; Blennow, M.; Sandborgh-Englund, G. Transport of methylmercury and inorganic mercury to the fetus and breast-fed infant. Environ. Health Perspect., 2005, 113(10), 1381-1385.
223. Suda, I.; Takahashi, H. Degradation of methyl and ethyl mercury into inorganic mercury by other reactive oxygen species besides hydroxyl radical. Arch. Toxicol., 1992, 66(1), 34-39.
224. Kershaw, T.G.; Clarkson, T.W.; Dhahir, P.H. The relationship between blood levels and dose of methylmercury in man. Arch. Environ. Health, 1980, 35(1), 28-36.
225. Nierenberg, D.W.; Nordgren, R.E.; Chang, M.B.; Siegler, R.W.; Blayney, M.B.; Hochberg, F.; Toribara, T.Y.; Cernichiari, E.; Clarkson, T. Delayed cerebellar disease and death after accidental exposure to dimethylmercury. N. Engl. J. Med., 1998, 338(23) 1672-1676.
226. Garnier, R.; Fuster, J.M.; Conso, F. Acute mercury vapour poisoning. Toxicol. Eur. Res., 1981, 3(2), 77-86.
227. Eastmond, C.J.; Holt, S. A case of acute mercury vapour poisoning. Postgrad. Med. J., 1975, 51(596), 428-430.
228. Hsu, L.F.; Lee, H.S.; Chia, S.E.; Lam, K.N. Acute mercury vapour poisoning in a shipyard worker - a case report. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore, 1999, 28(2), 294-298.
229. Nadorfy-Lopez, E.; Torres, S.H.; Finol, H.; Mendez, M.; Bello, B. Skeletal muscle abnormalities associated with occupational exposure to mercury vapours. Histol. Histopath., 2000, 15(3), 673-682.
230. Barr, R.D.; Rees, P.H.; Cordy, P.E.; Kungu, A.; Woodger, B.A.; Cameron, H.M. Nephrotic syndrome in adult Africans in Nairobi. Br. Med. J., 1972, 1, 131-134.
231. Kibukamusike, J.W.; Davies, D.R.; Hunt, M.S. Membranous nephropathy due to skin lightening creams. Br. Med. J., 1974, 1, 646-647.
232. McFarland, R.B.; Reigel, H. Chronic mercury poisoning from a single brief exposure. J. Occup. Med., 1978, 20(8), 532-534.
233. Friberg, L.; Nordberg, G.F. Inorganic Mercury - Relation between Exposure and Effects. In: Mercury in the Environment., Friberg, L.; Vostal, J. Eds.; CRC Press Division, the Chemical Rubber Company, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972; chapter 7.
234. Baldi, G.; Vigliani, E.C.; Zurlo, N. Mercury poisoning in hat industry. Med. Lav., 1953, 44(4), 160-199.
235. Barnes, J.L.; McDowell, E.M.; McNeil, J.S. Studies on the pathophysiology of acute renal failure. V. Effect of chronic saline loading on the progression of proximal tubular injury and functional impairment following administration of mercuric chloride in the rat. Virchows Arch. B. Cell. Pathol. Incl. Mol. Pathol., 1980, 32(3), 233-260.
236. Ilback, N.G.; Sundberg, J.; Oskarsson, A. Methyl mercury exposure via placenta and milk impairs natural killer (NK) cell function in newborn rats. Toxicol. Lett., 1991, 58(2) 149-158.
237. Vos, G.; Abotaga, S.; Liao, Z.; Jerschow, E.; Rosenstreich, D. Selective effect of mercury on Th2-type cytokine production in humans. Immunopharm. Immunotoxicol., 2007, 29(3-4), 537-548.
238. Park, S.H.; Araki, S.; Nakata, A.; Kim, Y.H.; Park, J.A.; Tanigawa, T.; Yokoyama, K.; Sato, H. Effects of occupational metallic mercury vapour exposure on suppressor-inducer (CD4+CD45RA+) T lymphocytes and CD57+CD16+ natural killer cells. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health, 2000, 73(8), 537-542.
239. Santarelli, L.; Bracci, M.; Mocchegiani, E. In vitro and in vivo effects of mercuric chloride on thymic endocrine activity, NK and NKT cell cytotoxicity, cytokine profiles (IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-6): role of the nitric oxide-l-arginine pathway. Int. Immunopharmacol., 2006, 6(3) 376-389.
240. Tanigawa, T.; Takehashi, H.; Nakata, A. Naïve (CD4+CD45RA+) T cell subpopulation is susceptible to various types of hazardous substances in the workplace. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol., 2004, 17(2), 109-114.
241. Rao, M.V.; Sharma, P.S.N. Protective effect of vitamin E against mercuric chloride reproductive toxicity in male mice. Reprod. Toxicol., 2001, 15(6), 705-712.
242. Gruenwedel, D.W.; Lu, D.S. Changes in the sedimentation characteristics of DNA due to methylmercuration. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 1970, 40(3), 542-548.
243. Crespo-López, M.E.; Macêdo, G.L.; Pereira, S.I.; Arrifano, G.P.; Picanço-Diniz, D.L.; Nascimento, J.L.; Herculano, A.M. Mercury and human genotoxicity: critical considerations and possible molecular mechanisms. Pharmacol. Res., 2009, 60(4), 212-220.
244. Gruenwedel, D.W.; Cruickshank, M.K. Effect of methylmercury (II) on the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid and protein in HeLa S3 cells. Biochem. Pharmacol., 1979, 28(5), 651-655.
245. Fowler, B.A.; Woods, J.S. Ultrastructural and biochemical changes in renal mitochondria during chronic oral methyl mercury exposure. The relationship to renal function. Exp. Mol. Pathol., 1977, 27(3), 403-412.
246. Woods, J.S.; Martin, M.D.; Naleway, C.A.; Echeverria, D. Urinary porphyrin profiles as a biomarker of mercury exposure: studies on dentists with occupational exposure to mercury vapor. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, 1993, 40(2-3), 235-246.
247. Olivieri, G.; Brack, C.; Müller-Spahn, F.; Stähelin, H.B.; Herrmann, M.; Renard, P.; Brockhaus, M.; Hock, C. Mercury induces cell cytotoxicity and oxidative stress and increases β-amyloid secretion and tau phosphorylation in SHSY5Y neuroblastoma cells. J. Neurochem., 2000, 74(1), 231-236.
248. Herman, S.P.; Klein, R.; Talley, F.A.; Krigman, M.R. An ultrastructural study of methylmercury-induced primary sensory neuropathy in the rat. Lab. Investig., 1973, 28(1), 104-118.
249. Clarkson, T.W.; Magers, L.; Cox, C. Tests of efficiency of antidotes for removal of methylmercury in human poisoning during the Iraq outbreak. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1981, 218, 74-83.
250. Bakir, F.; Damluji, S.F.; Amin-Zaki, L.; Murtadha, M.; Khalidi, A.; Al-Rawi, N.Y.; Tikriti, S.; Dhahir, H.I.; Clarkson, T.W.; Smith, J.C.; Doherty, R.A. Methylmercury poisoning in Iraq-an interuniversity report. Science, 1973, 181, 230-241.
251. Graeme, K.A.; Pollack, C.V. Heavy metal toxicity, part 1: arsenic and mercury. J. Emergency Med., 1998, 16, 45-56.