Guidelines for nutrition support in critically ill patient;Nutrition artificielle en réanimation

Annales Francaises d'Anesthesie et de Reanimation

Volumn 33, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 202-218

  Lefrant, J Y ^a   Hurel, D ^b   Cano, N J ^c,d,e   Ichai, C ^f   Preiser, J C ^g   Tamion, F ^h  

^a NÎMES UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

^b Service de réanimation médico chirurgicale Centre hospitalier François Quesnay   (France)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF CLERMONT FERRAND   (France)

^d UNIVERSITÉ CLERMONT AUVERGNE   (France)

^e CEMAGREF   (France)

^f University Hospital of Nice University of Nice Sophia Antipolis   (France)

^g ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

^h HÔPITAL CHARLES NICOLLE   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; HUMAN; NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; ADULT; CHILD; CRITICAL ILLNESS; ENTERIC FEEDING; INTENSIVE CARE; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PARENTERAL NUTRITION; STANDARDS;

ADULT; CHILD; CRITICAL CARE; CRITICAL ILLNESS; ENTERAL NUTRITION; HUMANS; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; PARENTERAL NUTRITION;

EID: 84897936533     PISSN: 07507658     EISSN: 17696623     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.annfar.2014.01.008     Document Type: Article

References (240)

1. Sheean P.M., Peterson S.J., Gurka D.P., Braunschweig C.A. Nutrition assessment: the reproducibility of subjective global assessment in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Eur J Clin Nutr 2010, 64:1358-1364.
2. Alberda C., Gramlich L., Jones N., et al. The relationship between nutritional intake and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: results of an international multicenter observational study. Intensive Care Med 2009, 35:1728-1737.
3. Devakonda A., George L., Raoof S., Esan A., Saleh A., Bernstein L.H. Transthyretin as a marker to predict outcome in critically ill patients. Clin Biochem 2008, 41:1126-1130.
4. Gruther W., Benesch T., Zorn C., et al. Muscle wasting in intensive care patients: ultrasound observation of the M.quadriceps femoris muscle layer. J Rehabil Med 2008, 40:185-189.
5. Gupta R., Knobel D., Gunabushanam V., et al. The effect of low body mass index on outcome in critically ill surgical patients. Nutr Clin Pract 2011, 26:593-597.
6. Makela J.T., Kiviniemi H., Laitinen S. Risk factors for anastomotic leakage after left-sided colorectal resection with rectal anastomosis. Dis Colon Rectum 2003, 46:653-660.
7. Malone D.L., Genuit T., Tracy J.K., Gannon C., Napolitano L.M. Surgical site infections: reanalysis of risk factors. J Surg Res 2002, 103:89-95.
8. Goiburu M.E., Goiburu M.M., Bianco H., et al. The impact of malnutrition on morbidity, mortality and length of hospital stay in trauma patients. Nutr Hosp 2006, 21:604-610.
9. Barr J., Hecht M., Flavin K.E., Khorana A., Gould M.K. Outcomes in critically ill patients before and after the implementation of an evidence-based nutritional management protocol. Chest 2004, 125:1446-1457.
10. Moore F.D. Energy and the maintenance of the body cell mass. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1980, 4:228-260.
11. Raurich J.M., Ibanez J., Marse P., Riera M., Homar X. Resting energy expenditure during mechanical ventilation and its relationship with the type of lesion. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2007, 31:58-62.
12. Reid C. Frequency of under- and over-feeding in mechanically ventilated ICU patients: causes and possible consequences. J Hum Nutr Diet 2006, 19:13-22.
13. Hoher J.A., Zimermann Teixeira P.J., Hertz F., da S.M.J. A comparison between ventilation modes: how does activity level affect energy expenditure estimates?. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2008, 32:176-183.
14. Jequier E., Felber J.P. Indirect calorimetry. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987, 1:911-935.
15. Savard J.F., Faisy C., Lerolle N., Guerot E., Diehl J.L., Fagon J.Y. Validation of a predictive method for an accurate assessment of resting energy expenditure in medical mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 2008, 36:1175-1183.
16. Langouche L., Perre S.V., Thiessen S., et al. Alterations in adipose tissue during critical illness: an adaptive and protective response?. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010, 182:507-516.
17. Frankenfield D.C., Ashcraft C.M., Galvan D.A. Longitudinal prediction of metabolic rate in critically ill patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012, 36:700-712.
18. Faisy C., Guerot E., Diehl J.L., Labrousse J., Fagon J.Y. Assessment of resting energy expenditure in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Clin Nutr 2003, 78:241-249.
19. Villet S., Chiolero R.L., Bollmann M.D., et al. Negative impact of hypocaloric feeding and energy balance on clinical outcome in ICU patients. Clin Nutr 2005, 24:502-509.
20. Faisy C., Candela Llerena M., Savalle M., Mainardi J.L., Fagon J.Y. Early ICU energy deficit is a risk factor for Staphylococcus aureus ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 2011, 140:1254-1260.
21. Heyland D.K., Stephens K.E., Day A.G., McClave S.A. The success of enteral nutrition and ICU-acquired infections: a multicenter observational study. Clin Nutr 2011, 30:148-155.
22. Artinian V., Krayem H., DiGiovine B. Effects of early enteral feeding on the outcome of critically ill mechanically ventilated medical patients. Chest 2006, 129:960-967.
23. Faisy C., Lerolle N., Dachraoui F., et al. Impact of energy deficit calculated by a predictive method on outcome in medical patients requiring prolonged acute mechanical ventilation. Br J Nutr 2009, 101:1079-1087.
24. Petros S., Engelmann L. Enteral nutrition delivery and energy expenditure in medical intensive care patients. Clin Nutr 2006, 25:51-59.
25. Hart D.W., Wolf S.E., Herndon D.N., et al. Energy expenditure and caloric balance after burn: increased feeding leads to fat rather than lean mass accretion. Ann Surg 2002, 235:152-161.
26. Casaer M.P., Mesotten D., Hermans G., et al. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 2011, 365:506-517.
27. Rice T.W., Wheeler A.P., Thompson B.T., et al. Initial trophic vs. full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA 2012, 307:795-803.
28. Higgins P.A., Daly B.J., Lipson A.R., Guo S.E. Assessing nutritional status in chronically critically ill adult patients. Am J Crit Care 2006, 15:166-176. [quiz 77].
29. Ravasco P., Camilo M.E., Gouveia-Oliveira A., Adam S., Brum G. A critical approach to nutritional assessment in critically ill patients. Clin Nutr 2002, 21:73-77.
30. Sungurtekin H., Sungurtekin U., Oner O., Okke D. Nutrition assessment in critically ill patients. Nutr Clin Pract 2008, 23:635-641.
31. Huang Y.C., Yen C.E., Cheng C.H., Jih K.S., Kan M.N. Nutritional status of mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: comparison of different types of nutritional support. Clin Nutr 2000, 19:101-107.
32. Lim S.H., Lee J.S., Chae S.H., Ahn B.S., Chang D.J., Shin C.S. Prealbumin is not sensitive indicator of nutrition and prognosis in critical ill patients. Yonsei Med J 2005, 46:21-26.
33. Schlossmacher P., Hasselmann M., Meyer N., et al. The prognostic value of nutritional and inflammatory indices in critically ill patients with acute respiratory failure. Clin Chem Lab Med 2002, 40:1339-1343.
34. Marik P.E., Zaloga G.P. Early enteral nutrition in acutely ill patients: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:2264-2270.
35. Heyland D.K., Schroter-Noppe D., Drover J.W., et al. Nutrition support in the critical care setting: current practice in canadian ICUs: opportunities for improvement?. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2003, 27:74-83.
36. Doig G.S., Heighes P.T., Simpson F., Sweetman E.A., Davies A.R. Early enteral nutrition, provided within 24h of injury or intensive care unit admission, significantly reduces mortality in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Intensive Care Med 2009, 35:2018-2027.
37. Khalid I., Doshi P., DiGiovine B. Early enteral nutrition and outcomes of critically ill patients treated with vasopressors and mechanical ventilation. Am J Crit Care 2010, 19:261-268.
38. Moore L.J., Jones S.L., Kreiner L.A., et al. Validation of a screening tool for the early identification of sepsis. J Trauma 2009, 66:1539-1546. [discussion 46-7].
39. Kudsk K.A., Croce M.A., Fabian T.C., et al. Enteral versus parenteral feeding. Effects on septic morbidity after blunt and penetrating abdominal trauma. Ann Surg 1992, 215:503-511. [discussion 11-3].
40. Woodcock N.P., Zeigler D., Palmer M.D., Buckley P., Mitchell C.J., MacFie J. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition: a pragmatic study. Nutrition 2001, 17:1-12.
41. Gramlich L., Kichian K., Pinilla J., Rodych N.J., Dhaliwal R., Heyland D.K. Does enteral nutrition compared to parenteral nutrition result in better outcomes in critically ill adult patients? A systematic review of the literature. Nutrition 2004, 20:843-848.
42. Heyland D.K., MacDonald S., Keefe L., Drover J.W. Total parenteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis. JAMA 1998, 280:2013-2019.
43. Simpson F., Doig G.S. Parenteral vs. enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis of trials using the intention to treat principle. Intensive Care Med 2005, 31:12-23.
44. Mazuski J.E. Feeding the injured intestine: enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient. Curr Opin Crit Care 2008, 14:432-437.
45. Braga M., Gianotti L., Gentilini O., Liotta S., Di Carlo V. Feeding the gut early after digestive surgery: results of a nine-year experience. Clin Nutr 2002, 21:59-65.
46. Gatt M., MacFie J., Anderson A.D., et al. Changes in superior mesenteric artery blood flow after oral, enteral, and parenteral feeding in humans. Crit Care Med 2009, 37:171-176.
47. de Aguilar-Nascimento J.E., Dock-Nascimento D.B., Bragagnolo R. Role of enteral nutrition and pharmaconutrients in conditions of splanchnic hypoperfusion. Nutrition 2010, 26:354-358.
48. Allen J.M. Vasoactive substances and their effects on nutrition in the critically ill patient. Nutr Clin Pract 2012, 27:335-339.
49. Scaife C.L., Saffle J.R., Morris S.E. Intestinal obstruction secondary to enteral feedings in burn trauma patients. J Trauma 1999, 47:859-863.
50. Dhaliwal R., Jurewitsch B., Harrietha D., Heyland D.K. Combination enteral and parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: harmful or beneficial? A systematic review of the evidence. Intensive Care Med 2004, 30:1666-1671.
51. Heidegger C.P., Berger M.M., Graf S., et al. Optimisation of energy provision with supplemental parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: a randomised controlled clinical trial. Lancet 2013, 381:385-393.
52. Shaw J.H., Wildbore M., Wolfe R.R. Whole body protein kinetics in severely septic patients. The response to glucose infusion and total parenteral nutrition. Ann Surg 1987, 205:288-294.
53. Jeejeebhoy K.N. Parenteral nutrition in the intensive care unit. Nutr Rev 2012, 70:623-630.
54. Dickerson R.N. Optimal caloric intake for critically ill patients: first, do no harm. Nutr Clin Pract 2011, 26:48-54.
55. Fontaine E., Muller M.J. Adaptive alterations in metabolism: practical consequences on energy requirements in the severely ill patient. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2011, 14:171-175.
56. Kutsogiannis J., Alberda C., Gramlich L., et al. Early use of supplemental parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: results of an international multicenter observational study. Crit Care Med 2011, 39:2691-2699.
57. Bouletreau P., Chassard D., Allaouchiche B., et al. Glucose-lipid ratio is a determinant of nitrogen balance during total parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: a prospective, randomized, multicenter blind trial with an intention to treat analysis. Intensive Care Med 2005, 31:1394-1400.
58. Reid C.L. Nutritional requirements of surgical and critically ill patients: do we really know what they need?. Proc Nutr Soc 2004, 63:467-472.
59. Greig P.D., Elwyn D.H., Askanazi J., Kinney J.M. Parenteral nutrition in septic patients: effect of increasing nitrogen intake. Am J Clin Nutr 1987, 46:1040-1047.
60. Larsson J., Lennmarken C., Martensson J., Sandstedt S., Vinnars E. Nitrogen requirements in severely injured patients. Br J Surg 1990, 77:413-416.
61. Ishibashi N., Plank L.D., Sando K., Hill G.L. Optimal protein requirements during the first 2weeks after the onset of critical illness. Crit Care Med 1998, 26:1529-1535.
62. Weijs P.J., Stapel S.N., de Groot S.D., et al. Optimal protein and energy nutrition decreases mortality in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a prospective observational cohort study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012, 36:60-68.
63. Hoffer L.J., Bistrian B.R. Appropriate protein provision in critical illness: a systematic and narrative review. Am J Clin Nutr 2012, 96:591-600.
64. Allingstrup M.J., Esmailzadeh N., Wilkens Knudsen A., et al. Provision of protein and energy in relation to measured requirements in intensive care patients. Clin Nutr 2012, 31:462-468.
65. Mazerolles M., Woisard V. [Evaluation and treatment of swallowing disorders after tracheal intubation and tracheotomy]. Rev Laryngol Otol Rhinol (Bord) 2003, 124:325-330.
66. Reignier J., Mercier E., Le Gouge A., et al. Effect of not monitoring residual gastric volume on risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults receiving mechanical ventilation and early enteral feeding: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2013, 309:249-256.
67. Montejo J.C., Minambres E., Bordeje L., et al. Gastric residual volume during enteral nutrition in ICU patients: the REGANE study. Intensive Care Med 2010, 36:1386-1393.
68. Mentec H., Dupont H., Bocchetti M., Cani P., Ponche F., Bleichner G. Upper digestive intolerance during enteral nutrition in critically ill patients: frequency, risk factors, and complications. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:1955-1961.
69. Poulard F., Dimet J., Martin-Lefevre L., et al. Impact of not measuring residual gastric volume in mechanically ventilated patients receiving early enteral feeding: a prospective before-after study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2010, 34:125-130.
70. McClave S.A., Lukan J.K., Stefater J.A., et al. Poor validity of residual volumes as a marker for risk of aspiration in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2005, 33:324-330.
71. Davies A.R., Froomes P.R., French C.J., et al. Randomized comparison of nasojejunal and nasogastric feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:586-590.
72. Esparza J., Boivin M.A., Hartshorne M.F., Levy H. Equal aspiration rates in gastrically and transpylorically fed critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2001, 27:660-664.
73. Heyland D.K., Drover J.W., MacDonald S., Novak F., Lam M. Effect of post-pyloric feeding on gastroesophageal regurgitation and pulmonary microaspiration: results of a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:1495-1501.
74. Kearns P.J., Chin D., Mueller L., Wallace K., Jensen W.A., Kirsch C.M. The incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia and success in nutrient delivery with gastric versus small intestinal feeding: a randomized clinical trial. Crit Care Med 2000, 28:1742-1746.
75. Montejo J.C., Grau T., Acosta J., et al. Multicenter, prospective, randomized, single-blind study comparing the efficacy and gastrointestinal complications of early jejunal feeding with early gastric feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:796-800.
76. Neumann D.A., DeLegge M.H. Gastric versus small-bowel tube feeding in the intensive care unit: a prospective comparison of efficacy. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:1436-1438.
77. Kortbeek J.B., Haigh P.I., Doig C. Duodenal versus gastric feeding in ventilated blunt trauma patients: a randomized controlled trial. J Trauma 1999, 46:992-996. [discussion 6-8].
78. Hsu C.W., Sun S.F., Lin S.L., et al. Duodenal versus gastric feeding in medical intensive care unit patients: a prospective, randomized, clinical study. Crit Care Med 2009, 37:1866-1872.
79. Acosta-Escribano J., Fernandez-Vivas M., Grau Carmona T., et al. Gastric versus transpyloric feeding in severe traumatic brain injury: a prospective, randomized trial. Intensive Care Med 2010, 36:1532-1539.
80. Ho K.M., Dobb G.J., Webb S.A. A comparison of early gastric and post-pyloric feeding in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 2006, 32:639-649.
81. Marik P.E., Zaloga G.P. Gastric versus post-pyloric feeding: a systematic review. Crit Care 2003, 7:R46-R51.
82. Boivin M.A., Levy H. Gastric feeding with erythromycin is equivalent to transpyloric feeding in the critically ill. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:1916-1919.
83. Booth C.M., Heyland D.K., Paterson W.G. Gastrointestinal promotility drugs in the critical care setting: a systematic review of the evidence. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:1429-1435.
84. Chapman M.J., Fraser R.J., Kluger M.T., Buist M.D., De Nichilo D.J. Erythromycin improves gastric emptying in critically ill patients intolerant of nasogastric feeding. Crit Care Med 2000, 28:2334-2337.
85. Jooste C.A., Mustoe J., Collee G. Metoclopramide improves gastric motility in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 1999, 25:464-468.
86. MacLaren R., Kuhl D.A., Gervasio J.M., et al. Sequential single doses of cisapride, erythromycin, and metoclopramide in critically ill patients intolerant to enteral nutrition: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Crit Care Med 2000, 28:438-444.
87. Ritz M.A., Fraser R., Edwards N., et al. Delayed gastric emptying in ventilated critically ill patients: measurement by 13C-octanoic acid breath test. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:1744-1749.
88. MacLaren R., Patrick W.D., Hall R.I., Rocker G.M., Whelan G.J., Lima J.J. Comparison of cisapride and metoclopramide for facilitating gastric emptying and improving tolerance to intragastric enteral nutrition in critically III, mechanically ventilated adults. Clin Ther 2001, 23:1855-1866.
89. Landzinski J., Kiser T.H., Fish D.N., Wischmeyer P.E., MacLaren R. Gastric motility function in critically ill patients tolerant vs. intolerant to gastric nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2008, 32:45-50.
90. MacLaren R., Kiser T.H., Fish D.N., Wischmeyer P.E. Erythromycin vs metoclopramide for facilitating gastric emptying and tolerance to intragastric nutrition in critically ill patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2008, 32:412-419.
91. Dickerson R.N., Mitchell J.N., Morgan L.M., et al. Disparate response to metoclopramide therapy for gastric feeding intolerance in trauma patients with and without traumatic brain injury. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2009, 33:646-655.
92. Reignier J., Bensaid S., Perrin-Gachadoat D., Burdin M., Boiteau R., Tenaillon A. Erythromycin and early enteral nutrition in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:1237-1241.
93. Nguyen N.Q., Chapman M.J., Fraser R.J., Bryant L.K., Holloway R.H. Erythromycin is more effective than metoclopramide in the treatment of feed intolerance in critical illness. Crit Care Med 2007, 35:483-489.
94. Nguyen N.Q., Chapman M., Fraser R.J., Bryant L.K., Burgstad C., Holloway R.H. Prokinetic therapy for feed intolerance in critical illness: one drug or two?. Crit Care Med 2007, 35:2561-2567.
95. Montecalvo M.A., Steger K.A., Farber H.W., et al. Nutritional outcome and pneumonia in critical care patients randomized to gastric versus jejunal tube feedings. The Critical Care Research Team. Crit Care Med 1992, 20:1377-1387.
96. Heyland D.K., Drover J.W., Dhaliwal R., Greenwood J. Optimizing the benefits and minimizing the risks of enteral nutrition in the critically ill: role of small-bowel feeding. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2002, 26:S51-S55. [discussion S6-7].
97. White H., Sosnowski K., Tran K., Reeves A., Jones M. A randomised controlled comparison of early post-pyloric versus early gastric feeding to meet nutritional targets in ventilated intensive care patients. Crit Care 2009, 13:R187.
98. Day L., Stotts N.A., Frankfurt A., et al. Gastric versus duodenal feeding in patients with neurological disease: a pilot study. J Neurosci Nurs 2001, 33:148-149. [55-9].
99. Torres A., Serra-Batlles J., Ros E., et al. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position. Ann Intern Med 1992, 116:540-543.
100. Ibanez J., Penafiel A., Raurich J.M., Marse P., Jorda R., Mata F. Gastroesophageal reflux in intubated patients receiving enteral nutrition: effect of supine and semirecumbent positions. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1992, 16:419-422.
101. Orozco-Levi M., Torres A., Ferrer M., et al. Semirecumbent position protects from pulmonary aspiration but not completely from gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995, 152:1387-1390.
102. Kollef M.H. Ventilator-associated pneumonia. A multivariate analysis. JAMA 1993, 270:1965-1970.
103. Drakulovic M.B., Torres A., Bauer T.T., Nicolas J.M., Nogue S., Ferrer M. Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999, 354:1851-1858.
104. van Nieuwenhoven C.A., Vandenbroucke-Grauls C., van Tiel F.H., et al. Feasibility and effects of the semirecumbent position to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized study. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:396-402.
105. Keeley L. Reducing the risk of ventilator-acquired pneumonia through head of bed elevation. Nurs Crit Care 2007, 12:287-294.
106. Reignier J., Thenoz-Jost N., Fiancette M., et al. Early enteral nutrition in mechanically ventilated patients in the prone position. Crit Care Med 2004, 32:94-99.
107. van der Voort P.H., Zandstra D.F. Enteral feeding in the critically ill: comparison between the supine and prone positions: a prospective crossover study in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care 2001, 5:216-220.
108. Martin C.M., Doig G.S., Heyland D.K., Morrison T., Sibbald W.J. Multicentre, cluster-randomized clinical trial of algorithms for critical care enteral and parenteral therapy (ACCEPT). CMAJ 2004, 170:197-204.
109. Heyland D.K., Dhaliwal R., Day A., Jain M., Drover J. Validation of the Canadian clinical practice guidelines for nutrition support in mechanically ventilated, critically ill adult patients: results of a prospective observational study. Crit Care Med 2004, 32:2260-2266.
110. Doig G.S., Simpson F., Finfer S., et al. Effect of evidence-based feeding guidelines on mortality of critically ill adults: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008, 300:2731-2741.
111. De Ryckere M., Maetens Y., Vincent J.L., Preiser J.C. Impact de l'utilisation systématique d'un arbre décisionnel pour la nutrition entérale en réanimation. Nut Clin Metab 2013, 27:5-9.
112. Carrillo E.H., Heniford B.T., Osborne D.L., Spain D.A., Miller F.B., Richardson J.D. Bedside percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. A safe alternative for early nutritional support in critically ill trauma patients. Surg Endosc 1997, 11:1068-1071.
113. Nicholas J.M., Cornelius M.W., Tchorz K.M., et al. A two institution experience with 226endoscopically placed jejunal feeding tubes in critically ill surgical patients. Am J Surg 2003, 186:583-590.
114. McClave S.A. Critical care nutrition: getting involved as a gastrointestinal endoscopist. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006, 40:870-890.
115. Koc D., Gercek A., Gencosmanoglu R., Tozun N. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in the neurosurgical intensive care unit: complications and outcome. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2007, 31:517-520.
116. Heimburger D.C., Geels V.J., Bilbrey J., Redden D.T., Keeney C. Effects of small-peptide and whole-protein enteral feedings on serum proteins and diarrhea in critically ill patients: a randomized trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1997, 21:162-167.
117. Ziegler F., Ollivier J.M., Cynober L., et al. Efficiency of enteral nitrogen support in surgical patients: small peptides vs. non-degraded proteins. Gut 1990, 31:1277-1283.
118. Rees R.G., Hare W.R., Grimble G.K., Frost P.G., Silk D.B. Do patients with moderately impaired gastrointestinal function requiring enteral nutrition need a predigested nitrogen source? A prospective crossover controlled clinical trial. Gut 1992, 33:877-881.
119. MacLeod J.B., Lefton J., Houghton D., et al. Prospective randomized control trial of intermittent versus continuous gastric feeds for critically ill trauma patients. J Trauma 2007, 63:57-61.
120. Spapen H., Diltoer M., Van Malderen C., Opdenacker G., Suys E., Huyghens L. Soluble fiber reduces the incidence of diarrhea in septic patients receiving total enteral nutrition: a prospective, double-blind, randomized, and controlled trial. Clin Nutr 2001, 20:301-305.
121. Silk D.B., Walters E.R., Duncan H.D., Green C.J. The effect of a polymeric enteral formula supplemented with a mixture of six fibres on normal human bowel function and colonic motility. Clin Nutr 2001, 20:49-58.
122. Slavin J.L., Greenberg N.A. Partially hydrolyzed guar gum: clinical nutrition uses. Nutrition 2003, 19:549-552.
123. Rushdi T.A., Pichard C., Khater Y.H. Control of diarrhea by fiber-enriched diet in ICU patients on enteral nutrition: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr 2004, 23:1344-1352.
124. Giaccari S., Grasso G., Tronci S., et al. [Partially hydrolyzed guar gum: a fiber as coadjuvant in the irritable colon syndrome]. Clin Ter 2001, 152:21-25.
125. Pontes-Arruda A., Zaloga G., Wischmeyer P., Turpin R., Liu F.X., Mercaldi C. Is there a difference in bloodstream infections in critically ill patients associated with ready-to-use versus compounded parenteral nutrition?. Clin Nutr 2012, 31:728-734.
126. Umpierrez G.E., Spiegelman R., Zhao V., et al. A double-blind, randomized clinical trial comparing soybean oil-based versus olive oil-based lipid emulsions in adult medical-surgical intensive care unit patients requiring parenteral nutrition. Crit Care Med 2012, 40:1792-1798.
127. Antebi H., Mansoor O., Ferrier C., et al. Liver function and plasma antioxidant status in intensive care unit patients requiring total parenteral nutrition: comparison of 2fat emulsions. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2004, 28:142-148.
128. Tappy L., Berger M., Schwarz J.M., et al. Hepatic and peripheral glucose metabolism in intensive care patients receiving continuous high- or low-carbohydrate enteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1999, 23:260-267. [discussion 7-8].
129. Schwarz J.M., Chiolero R., Revelly J.P., et al. Effects of enteral carbohydrates on de novo lipogenesis in critically ill patients. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72:940-945.
130. Singer P., Berger M.M., Van den Berghe G., et al. ESPEN guidelines on parenteral nutrition: intensive care. Clin Nutr 2009, 28:387-400.
131. McKinnon P.S., Goff D.A., Kern J.W., et al. Temporal assessment of Candida risk factors in the surgical intensive care unit. Arch Surg 2001, 136:1401-1408. [discussion 9].
132. Garbino J., Pichard C., Pichna P., Pittet D., Lew D., Romand J.J. Impact of enteral versus parenteral nutrition on the incidence of fungal infections: a retrospective study in ICU patients on mechanical ventilation with selective digestive decontamination. Clin Nutr 2004, 23:705-710.
133. Elke G., Schadler D., Engel C., et al. Current practice in nutritional support and its association with mortality in septic patients: results from a national, prospective, multicenter study. Crit Care Med 2008, 36:1762-1767.
134. Chow J.K., Golan Y., Ruthazer R., et al. Risk factors for albicans and non-albicans candidemia in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2008, 36:1993-1998.
135. Leon C., Alvarez-Lerma F., Ruiz-Santana S., et al. Fungal colonization and/or infection in non-neutropenic critically ill patients: results of the EPCAN observational study. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2009, 28:233-242.
136. Matsushima K., Cook A., Tyner T., et al. Parenteral nutrition: a clear and present danger unabated by tight glucose control. Am J Surg 2010, 200:386-390.
137. Llop J., Sabin P., Garau M., et al. The importance of clinical factors in parenteral nutrition-associated hypertriglyceridemia. Clin Nutr 2003, 22:577-583.
138. Grau T., Bonet A., Rubio M., et al. Liver dysfunction associated with artificial nutrition in critically ill patients. Crit Care 2007, 11:R10.
139. Visschers R.G., Olde Damink S.W., Gehlen J.M., Winkens B., Soeters P.B., van Gemert W.G. Treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in patients receiving parenteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2011, 35:610-615.
140. Heys S.D., Walker L.G., Smith I., Eremin O. Enteral nutritional supplementation with key nutrients in patients with critical illness and cancer: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Ann Surg 1999, 229:467-477.
141. Beale R.J., Bryg D.J., Bihari D.J. Immunonutrition in the critically ill: a systematic review of clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 1999, 27:2799-2805.
142. Heyland D.K., Novak F., Drover J.W., Jain M., Su X., Suchner U. Should immunonutrition become routine in critically ill patients? A systematic review of the evidence. JAMA 2001, 286:944-953.
143. Novak F., Heyland D.K., Avenell A., Drover J.W., Su X. Glutamine supplementation in serious illness: a systematic review of the evidence. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:2022-2029.
144. Bozzetti F., Gianotti L., Braga M., Di Carlo V., Mariani L. Postoperative complications in gastrointestinal cancer patients: the joint role of the nutritional status and the nutritional support. Clin Nutr 2007, 26:698-709.
145. Braga M., Gianotti L., Vignali A., Carlo V.D. Preoperative oral arginine and n-3fatty acid supplementation improves the immunometabolic host response and outcome after colorectal resection for cancer. Surgery 2002, 132:805-814.
146. Montejo J.C., Zarazaga A., Lopez-Martinez J., et al. Immunonutrition in the intensive care unit. A systematic review and consensus statement. Clin Nutr 2003, 22:221-233.
147. Marik P.E., Zaloga G.P. Immunonutrition in critically ill patients: a systematic review and analysis of the literature. Intensive Care Med 2008, 34:1980-1990.
148. Jones N.E., Heyland D.K. Pharmaconutrition: a new emerging paradigm. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2008, 24:215-222.
149. Bollhalder L., Pfeil A.M., Tomonaga Y., Schwenkglenks M. A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials of parenteral glutamine supplementation. Clin Nutr 2013, 32:213-223.
150. Wang Y., Jiang Z.M., Nolan M.T., et al. The impact of glutamine dipeptide-supplemented parenteral nutrition on outcomes of surgical patients: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2010, 34:521-529.
151. Dechelotte P., Hasselmann M., Cynober L., et al. L-alanyl-L-glutamine dipeptide-supplemented total parenteral nutrition reduces infectious complications and glucose intolerance in critically ill patients: the French controlled, randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:598-604.
152. Fuentes-Orozco C., Anaya-Prado R., Gonzalez-Ojeda A., et al. L-alanyl-L-glutamine-supplemented parenteral nutrition improves infectious morbidity in secondary peritonitis. Clin Nutr 2004, 23:13-21.
153. Morlion B.J., Stehle P., Wachtler P., et al. Total parenteral nutrition with glutamine dipeptide after major abdominal surgery: a randomized, double-blind, controlled study. Ann Surg 1998, 227:302-308.
154. Griffiths R.D., Allen K.D., Andrews F.J., Jones C. Infection, multiple organ failure, and survival in the intensive care unit: influence of glutamine-supplemented parenteral nutrition on acquired infection. Nutrition 2002, 18:546-552.
155. Goeters C., Wenn A., Mertes N., et al. Parenteral L-alanyl-L-glutamine improves 6-month outcome in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:2032-2037.
156. Zheng Y.M., Li F., Zhang M.M., Wu X.T. Glutamine dipeptide for parenteral nutrition in abdominal surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. World J Gastroenterol 2006, 12:7537-7541.
157. Cano N.J., Aparicio M., Brunori G., et al. ESPEN guidelines on parenteral nutrition: adult renal failure. Clin Nutr 2009, 28:401-414.
158. Bellomo R., Tan H.K., Bhonagiri S., et al. High protein intake during continuous hemodiafiltration: impact on amino acids and nitrogen balance. Int J Artif Organs 2002, 25:261-268.
159. Fiaccadori E., Cremaschi E. Nutritional assessment and support in acute kidney injury. Curr Opin Crit Care 2009, 15:474-480.
160. Berg A., Norberg A., Martling C.R., Gamrin L., Rooyackers O., Wernerman J. Glutamine kinetics during intravenous glutamine supplementation in ICU patients on continuous renal replacement therapy. Intensive Care Med 2007, 33:660-666.
161. Hamiel C.R., Pinto S., Hau A., Wischmeyer P.E. Glutamine enhances heat shock protein 70expression via increased hexosamine biosynthetic pathway activity. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2009, 297:C1509-C1519.
162. Berger M.M., Shenkin A., Revelly J.P., et al. Copper, selenium, zinc, and thiamine balances during continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration in critically ill patients. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 80:410-416.
163. Reignier J., Dimet J., Martin-Lefevre L., et al. Before-after study of a standardized ICU protocol for early enteral feeding in patients turned in the prone position. Clin Nutr 2010, 29:210-216.
164. Flancbaum L., Choban P.S., Sambucco S., Verducci J., Burge J.C. Comparison of indirect calorimetry, the Fick method, and prediction equations in estimating the energy requirements of critically ill patients. Am J Clin Nutr 1999, 69:461-466.
165. da Rocha E.E., Alves V.G., Silva M.H., Chiesa C.A., da Fonseca R.B. Can measured resting energy expenditure be estimated by formulae in daily clinical nutrition practice?. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2005, 8:319-328.
166. Glynn C.C., Greene G.W., Winkler M.F., Albina J.E. Predictive versus measured energy expenditure using limits-of-agreement analysis in hospitalized, obese patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1999, 23:147-154.
167. Choban P.S., Burge J.C., Scales D., Flancbaum L. Hypoenergetic nutrition support in hospitalized obese patients: a simplified method for clinical application. Am J Clin Nutr 1997, 66:546-550.
168. Dickerson R.N., Boschert K.J., Kudsk K.A., Brown R.O. Hypocaloric enteral tube feeding in critically ill obese patients. Nutrition 2002, 18:241-246.
169. Burge J.C., Goon A., Choban P.S., Flancbaum L. Efficacy of hypocaloric total parenteral nutrition in hospitalized obese patients: a prospective, double-blind randomized trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1994, 18:203-207.
170. Inoue T., Doi T., Beppu K., et al. Warning to "Refeeding syndrome". Torsades de pointes and ventricular tachyarrhythmia with marked QT prolongation induced by acute glucose injection: report of two cases. Int J Cardiol 2012, 156:222-224.
171. Skipper A. Refeeding syndrome or refeeding hypophosphatemia: a systematic review of cases. Nutr Clin Pract 2012, 27:34-40.
172. Gentile M.G., Manna G.M. Refeeding hypophosphataemia in malnutrition patients: prevention and treatment. Clin Nutr 2012, 31:429. [author reply 30].
173. Zeki S., Culkin A., Gabe S.M., Nightingale J.M. Refeeding hypophosphataemia is more common in enteral than parenteral feeding in adult in patients. Clin Nutr 2011, 30:365-368.
174. Byrnes M.C., Stangenes J. Refeeding in the ICU: an adult and pediatric problem. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2011, 14:186-192.
175. Cunningham J.J. Factors contributing to increased energy expenditure in thermal injury: a review of studies employing indirect calorimetry. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1990, 14:649-656.
176. Allard J.P., Pichard C., Hoshino E., et al. Validation of a new formula for calculating the energy requirements of burn patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1990, 14:115-118.
177. Allard J.P., Jeejheebhoy K.N., Whitwell J., Pashutinski L., Peters W.J. Factors influencing energy expenditure in patients with burns. J Trauma 1988, 28:199-202.
178. Royall D., Fairholm L., Peters W.J., Jeejeebhoy K.N., Allard J.P. Continuous measurement of energy expenditure in ventilated burn patients: an analysis. Crit Care Med 1994, 22:399-406.
179. Suman O.E., Mlcak R.P., Chinkes D.L., Herndon D.N. Resting energy expenditure in severely burned children: analysis of agreement between indirect calorimetry and prediction equations using the Bland-Altman method. Burns 2006, 32:335-342.
180. Berger M. Acute copper and zinc deficiency due to exudative losses: substitution versus nutritional requirements. Burns 2006, 32:393. [Burns 2005;31:711-6].
181. Herndon D.N., Hart D.W., Wolf S.E., Chinkes D.L., Wolfe R.R. Reversal of catabolism by beta-blockade after severe burns. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:1223-1229.
182. Breitenstein E., Chiolero R.L., Jequier E., Dayer P., Krupp S., Schutz Y. Effects of beta-blockade on energy metabolism following burns. Burns 1990, 16:259-264.
183. Arbabi S., Ahrns K.S., Wahl W.L., et al. Beta-blocker use is associated with improved outcomes in adult burn patients. J Trauma 2004, 56:265-269. [discussion 9-71].
184. Mohammadi A.A., Bakhshaeekia A., Alibeigi P., et al. Efficacy of propranolol in wound healing for hospitalized burn patients. J Burn Care Res 2009, 30:1013-1017.
185. Pham T.N., Klein M.B., Gibran N.S., et al. Impact of oxandrolone treatment on acute outcomes after severe burn injury. J Burn Care Res 2008, 29:902-906.
186. Wolf S.E., Edelman L.S., Kemalyan N., et al. Effects of oxandrolone on outcome measures in the severely burned: a multicenter prospective randomized double-blind trial. J Burn Care Res 2006, 27:131-139. [discussion 40-1].
187. Demling R.H. Comparison of the anabolic effects and complications of human growth hormone and the testosterone analog, oxandrolone, after severe burn injury. Burns 1999, 25:215-221.
188. Demling R.H., Orgill D.P. The anticatabolic and wound healing effects of the testosterone analog oxandrolone after severe burn injury. J Crit Care 2000, 15:12-17.
189. Demling R.H., DeSanti L. Oxandrolone, an anabolic steroid, significantly increases the rate of weight gain in the recovery phase after major burns. J Trauma 1997, 43:47-51.
190. Demling R.H., DeSanti L. The rate of restoration of body weight after burn injury, using the anabolic agent oxandrolone, is not age dependent. Burns 2001, 27:46-51.
191. Herndon D.N., Barrow R.E., Kunkel K.R., Broemeling L., Rutan R.L. Effects of recombinant human growth hormone on donor site healing in severely burned children. Ann Surg 1990, 212:424-429. [discussion 30-1].
192. Herndon D.N., Hawkins H.K., Nguyen T.T., Pierre E., Cox R., Barrow R.E. Characterization of growth hormone enhanced donor site healing in patients with large cutaneous burns. Ann Surg 1995, 221:649-656. [discussion 56-9].
193. Schindler K., Pernicka E., Laviano A., et al. How nutritional risk is assessed and managed in European hospitals: a survey of 21,007patients findings from the 2007-2008cross-sectional nutritionDay survey. Clin Nutr 2010, 29:552-559.
194. Light D.W., Lexchin J.R. Pharmaceutical research and development: what do we get for all that money?. BMJ 2012, 345:e4348.
195. Alexander J.W., MacMillan B.G., Stinnett J.D., et al. Beneficial effects of aggressive protein feeding in severely burned children. Ann Surg 1980, 192:505-517.
196. Wolfe R.R., Goodenough R.D., Wolfe M.H. Isotopic approaches to the estimation of protein requirements in burn patients. Adv Shock Res 1983, 9:81-98.
197. O'Neil C.E., Hutsler D., Hildreth M.A. Basic nutritional guidelines for pediatric burn patients. J Burn Care Rehabil 1989, 10:278-284.
198. Wischmeyer P.E., Lynch J., Liedel J., et al. Glutamine administration reduces Gram-negative bacteremia in severely burned patients: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial versus isonitrogenous control. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:2075-2080.
199. Garrel D., Patenaude J., Nedelec B., et al. Decreased mortality and infectious morbidity in adult burn patients given enteral glutamine supplements: a prospective, controlled, randomized clinical trial. Crit Care Med 2003, 31:2444-2449.
200. Peng X., Yan H., You Z., Wang P., Wang S. Effects of enteral supplementation with glutamine granules on intestinal mucosal barrier function in severe burned patients. Burns 2004, 30:135-139.
201. Peng X., Yan H., You Z., Wang P., Wang S. Clinical and protein metabolic efficacy of glutamine granules-supplemented enteral nutrition in severely burned patients. Burns 2005, 31:342-346.
202. Peng X., Yan H., You Z., Wang P., Wang S. Glutamine granule-supplemented enteral nutrition maintains immunological function in severely burned patients. Burns 2006, 32:589-593.
203. Zhou Z., Chen H., Zhang K., Yang H., Liu J., Huang Q. Protective effect of nerve growth factor on neurons after traumatic brain injury. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2003, 14:217-224.
204. Coudray-Lucas C., Le Bever H., Cynober L., De Bandt J.P., Carsin H. Ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate improves wound healing in severe burn patients: a prospective randomized double-blind trial versus isonitrogenous controls. Crit Care Med 2000, 28:1772-1776.
205. De Bandt J.P., Coudray-Lucas C., Lioret N., et al. A randomized controlled trial of the influence of the mode of enteral ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate administration in burn patients. J Nutr 1998, 128:563-569.
206. Le Bricon T., Coudray-Lucas C., Lioret N., et al. Ornithine alpha-ketoglutarate metabolism after enteral administration in burn patients: bolus compared with continuous infusion. Am J Clin Nutr 1997, 65:512-518.
207. Yan H., Peng X., Huang Y., Zhao M., Li F., Wang P. Effects of early enteral arginine supplementation on resuscitation of severe burn patients. Burns 2007, 33:179-184.
208. Berger M.M., Cavadini C., Bart A., et al. Cutaneous copper and zinc losses in burns. Burns 1992, 18:373-380.
209. Berger M.M., Eggimann P., Heyland D.K., et al. Reduction of nosocomial pneumonia after major burns by trace element supplementation: aggregation of two randomised trials. Crit Care 2006, 10:R153.
210. Berger M.M., Baines M., Raffoul W., et al. Trace element supplementation after major burns modulates antioxidant status and clinical course by way of increased tissue trace element concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 85:1293-1300.
211. Al-Jawad F.H., Sahib A.S., Al-Kaisy A.A. Role of antioxidants in the treatment of burn lesions. Ann Burns Fire Disasters 2008, 21:186-191.
212. Falder S., Silla R., Phillips M., et al. Thiamine supplementation increases serum thiamine and reduces pyruvate and lactate levels in burn patients. Burns 2010, 36:261-269.
213. Barbosa E., Faintuch J., Machado Moreira E.A., et al. Supplementation of vitamin E, vitamin C, and zinc attenuates oxidative stress in burned children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. J Burn Care Res 2009, 30:859-866.
214. Briassoulis G., Zavras N., Hatzis T. Malnutrition, nutritional indices, and early enteral feeding in critically ill children. Nutrition 2001, 17:548-557.
215. Hulst J., Joosten K., Zimmermann L., et al. Malnutrition in critically ill children: from admission to 6months after discharge. Clin Nutr 2004, 23:223-232.
216. Gauld L.M., Kappers J., Carlin J.B., Robertson C.F. Height prediction from ulna length. Dev Med Child Neurol 2004, 46:475-480.
217. Miller F., Koreska J. Height measurement of patients with neuromuscular disease and contractures. Dev Med Child Neurol 1992, 34:55-60.
218. Pollack M.M., Ruttimann U.E., Wiley J.S. Nutritional depletions in critically ill children: associations with physiologic instability and increased quantity of care. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1985, 9:309-313.
219. Grohskopf L.A., Sinkowitz-Cochran R.L., Garrett D.O., et al. A national point-prevalence survey of pediatric intensive care unit-acquired infections in the United States. J Pediatr 2002, 140:432-438.
220. Torun B., Davies P.S., Livingstone M.B., Paolisso M., Sackett R., Spurr G.B. Energy requirements and dietary energy recommendations for children and adolescents 1to 18years old. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996, 50:S37-S80. [discussion S1].
221. Keshen T.H., Miller R.G., Jahoor F., Jaksic T. Stable isotopic quantitation of protein metabolism and energy expenditure in neonates on- and post-extracorporeal life support. J Pediatr Surg 1997, 32:958-962. [discussion 62-3].
222. Duffy B., Pencharz P. The effects of surgery on the nitrogen metabolism of parenterally fed human neonates. Pediatr Res 1986, 20:32-35.
223. de Betue C.T., van Waardenburg D.A., Deutz N.E., et al. Increased protein-energy intake promotes anabolism in critically ill infants with viral bronchiolitis: a double-blind randomised controlled trial. Arch Dis Child 2011, 96:817-822.
224. Coss-Bu J.A., Klish W.J., Walding D., Stein F., Smith E.O., Jefferson L.S. Energy metabolism, nitrogen balance, and substrate utilization in critically ill children. Am J Clin Nutr 2001, 74:664-669.
225. Bresson J.L., Bader B., Rocchiccioli F., et al. Protein metabolism kinetics and energy-substrate utilization in infants fed parenteral solutions with different glucose-fat ratios. Am J Clin Nutr 1991, 54:370-376.
226. Klein P.S., Forbes G.B., Nader P.R. Effects of starvation in infancy (pyloric stenosis) on subsequent learning abilities. J Pediatr 1975, 87:8-15.
227. Koletzko B., Goulet O., Hunt J., Krohn K., Shamir R. 1. Guidelines on paediatric parenteral nutrition of the European Society of Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) and the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), supported by the European Society of Paediatric Research (ESPR). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2005, 41:S1-S87.
228. Pawellek I., Dokoupil K., Koletzko B. Prevalence of malnutrition in paediatric hospital patients. Clin Nutr 2008, 27:72-76.
229. Hulst J.M., van Goudoever J.B., Zimmermann L.J., et al. The effect of cumulative energy and protein deficiency on anthropometric parameters in a pediatric ICU population. Clin Nutr 2004, 23:1381-1389.
230. Eskedal L.T., Hagemo P.S., Seem E., et al. Impaired weight gain predicts risk of late death after surgery for congenital heart defects. Arch Dis Child 2008, 93:495-501.
231. Horn D., Chaboyer W. Gastric feeding in critically ill children: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Crit Care 2003, 12:461-468.
232. Mehta N.M., McAleer D., Hamilton S., et al. Challenges to optimal enteral nutrition in a multidisciplinary pediatric intensive care unit. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2010, 34:38-45.
233. Meert K.L., Daphtary K.M., Metheny N.A. Gastric vs small-bowel feeding in critically ill children receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomized controlled trial. Chest 2004, 126:872-878.
234. Lopez-Herce J., Sanchez C., Carrillo A., et al. Transpyloric enteral nutrition in the critically ill child with renal failure. Intensive Care Med 2006, 32:1599-1605.
235. van Waardenburg D.A., de Betue C.T., Goudoever J.B., Zimmermann L.J., Joosten K.F. Critically ill infants benefit from early administration of protein and energy-enriched formula: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr 2009, 28:249-255.
236. Briassoulis G.C., Zavras N.J., Hatzis M.T. Effectiveness and safety of a protocol for promotion of early intragastric feeding in critically ill children. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2001, 2:113-121.
237. Taylor R.M., Preedy V.R., Baker A.J., Grimble G. Nutritional support in critically ill children. Clin Nutr 2003, 22:365-369.
238. de Neef M., Geukers V.G., Dral A., Lindeboom R., Sauerwein H.P., Bos A.P. Nutritional goals, prescription and delivery in a pediatric intensive care unit. Clin Nutr 2008, 27:65-71.
239. Rogers E.J., Gilbertson H.R., Heine R.G., Henning R. Barriers to adequate nutrition in critically ill children. Nutrition 2003, 19:865-868.
240. de Oliveira Iglesias S.B., Leite H.P., Santana e Meneses J.F., de Carvalho W.B. Enteral nutrition in critically ill children: are prescription and delivery according to their energy requirements?. Nutr Clin Pract 2007, 22:233-239.