About practice. Repetition, spacing, and abstraction.

Psychology of Learning and Motivation - Advances in Research and Theory

Volumn 60, Issue , 2014, Pages 113-189

  Toppino, Thomas C ^a   Gerbier, Emilie ^a  

^a VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Abstraction; Deficient processing; Distributed practice; Encoding variability; Inductive learning; Lag; Reminding; Repetition; Spacing; Study phase retrieval; Testing effect

Indexed keywords

EID: 84890850742     PISSN: 00797421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800090-8.00004-4     Document Type: Chapter

References (259)

1. Alberini C.M. The role of reconsolidation and the dynamic process of long term memory formation and storage. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 2011, 5(12). 10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00012.
2. Appleton-Knapp S.L., Bjork R.A., Wickens T.D. Examining the spacing effect in advertising: Encoding variability, retrieval processes, and their interaction. Journal of Consumer Research 2005, 32(2):266-276. 10.1086/432236.
3. Arbuckle T.Y. Mediational instructions, stage of practice, presentation rate, and retrieval cue in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1971, 88(3):396-402. 10.1037/h0030901.
4. Atkinson R.C., Shiffrin R.M. Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. The psychology of learning and motivation: II 1968, Academic Press, Oxford, England. 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3. K.W. Spence, J.T. Spence (Eds.).
5. Bahrick H.P., Bahrick L.E., Bahrick A.S., Bahrick P.E. Maintenance of foreign language vocabulary and the spacing effect. Psychological Science 1993, 4(5):316-321. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00571.x.
6. Bahrick H.P., Phelps E. Retention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1987, 13:344-349.
7. Balota D.A., Duchek J.M., Paullin R. Age-related differences in the impact of spacing, lag, and retention interval. Psychology and Aging 1989, 4(1):3-9. 10.1037/0882-7974.4.1.3.
8. Barela P.B. Theoretical mechanisms underlying the trial-spacing effect in Pavlovian fear conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 1999, 25(2):177-193. 10.1037/0097-7403.25.2.177.
9. Begg I., Green C. Repetition and trace interaction: Superadditivity. Memory & Cognition 1988, 16(3):232-242. 10.3758/BF03197756.
10. Bellezza F.S., Winkler H.B., Andrasik F. Encoding processes and the spacing effect. Memory and Cognition 1975, 3(4):451-457. 10.3758/BF03212940.
11. Bellezza F.S., Young D.R. Chunking of repeated events in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1989, 15(5):990-997. 10.1037/0278-7393.15.5.990.
12. Benjamin A.S., Tullis J. What makes distributed practice effective?. Cognitive Psychology 2010, 61(3):228-247. 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.05.004.
13. Bird C.P., Nicholson A.J., Ringer S. Resistance of the spacing effect to variations in encoding. The American Journal of Psychology 1978, 91(4):713-721. 10.2307/1421519.
14. Birnbaum M., Kornell N., Bjork E.L., Bjork R.A. Why interleaving enhances inductive learning: The role of discrimination and retrieval. Memory & Cognition 2013, 41(3):392-402. 10.3758/s13421-012-0272-7.
15. Bjork R.A. Retrieval as a memory modifier: An interpretation of negative recency and related phenomena. Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium 1975, 123-144. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. R.L. Solso (Ed.).
16. Bjork R.A., Allen T.W. The spacing effect: Consolidation or differential encoding. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1970, 9(5):567-572. 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80103-7.
17. Bjork R.A., Bjork E.L. A new theory of disuse and an old theory of stimulus fluctuation. Essays in honor of William K. Estes 1992, Vol. 2:35-67. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. A.F. Healy, S.M. Kosslyn, R.M. Shiffrin (Eds.).
18. Bjork R.A., Whitten W.B. Recency-sensitive retrieval processes in long-term free recall. Cognitive Psychology 1974, 6(2):173-189. 10.1016/0010-0285(74)90009-7.
19. Bower G.H. Stimulus-sampling theory of encoding variability. Coding processes in human memory 1972, Winston, Washington, DC. A.W. Melton, E. Martin (Eds.).
20. Braun K., Rubin D.C. The spacing effect depends on an encoding deficit, retrieval, and time in working memory: Evidence from once-presented words. Memory 1998, 6:37-65. 10.1080/741941599.
21. Bui D.C., Maddox G.B., Balota D.A. The roles of working memory and intervening task difficulty in determining the benefits of repetition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2013, 20:341-347. 10.3758/s13423-012-0352-5.
22. Callan D.E., Schweighofer N. Neural correlates of the spacing effect in explicit verbal semantic encoding support the deficient-processing theory. Human Brain Mapping 2010, 31:645-659. 10.1002/hbm.20894.
23. Carew T.J., Pinsker H.M., Kandel E.R. Long-term habituation of a defensive withdrawal reflex in aplysia. Science 1972, 175(4020):451-454. 10.1126/science.175.4020.45.
24. Carpenter S.K. Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: The benefits of elaborative retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2009, 35(6):1563-1569. 10.1037/a0017021.
25. Carpenter S.K. Semantic information activated during retrieval contributes to later retention: Support for the mediator effectiveness hypothesis of the testing effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2011, 37(6):1547-1552. 10.1037/a0024140.
26. Carpenter S.K., Cepeda N.J., Rohrer D., Kang S.H.K., Pashler H. Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review 2012, 24(3):369-378. 10.1007/s10648-012-9205-z.
27. Carpenter S.K., DeLosh E.L. Application of the testing and spacing effects to name learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology 2005, 19:619-636. 10.1002/acp.1101.
28. Carpenter S.K., DeLosh E.L. Impoverished cue support enhances subsequent retention: Support for the elaborative retrieval explanation of the testing effect. Memory & Cognition 2006, 34(2):268-276. 10.3758/BF03193405.
29. Carpenter S.K., Mueller F.E. The effects of interleaving versus blocking on foreign language pronunciation learning. Memory & Cognition 2013, 41(5):671-682. 10.3758/s13421-012-0291-4.
30. Carpenter S.K., Pashler H., Wixted J.T., Vul E. The effects of tests on learning and forgetting. Memory & Cognition 2008, 36(2):438-448. 10.3758/MC.36.2.438.
31. Carvalho P.F., Goldstone R.L. Category structure modulates interleaving and blocking advantage in inductive category acquisition 2012, 186-191. Cognitive Science Society, Sapporo, Japan. N. Miyake, D. Peebles, R.P. Cooper (Eds.).
32. Cepeda N.J., Coburn N., Rohrer D., Wixted J.T., Mozer M.C., Pashler H. Optimizing distributed practice: Theoretical analysis and practical implications. Experimental Psychology 2009, 56(4):236-246. 10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.236.
33. Cepeda N.J., Pashler H., Vul E., Wixted J.T., Rohrer D. Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin 2006, 132(3):354-380. 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354.
34. Cepeda N.J., Vul E., Rohrer D., Wixted J.T., Pashler H. Spacing effects in learning: A temporal ridgeline of optimal retention. Psychological Science 2008, 19(11):1095-1102. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.x.
35. Challis B.H. Spacing effects on cued-memory tests depend on level of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1993, 19(2):389-396. 10.1037/0278-7393.19.2.389.
36. Childers J.B., Tomasello M. Two-year-olds learn novel nouns, verbs, and conventional actions from massed or distributed exposures. Developmental Psychology 2002, 38(6):967-978. 10.1037/0012-1649.38.6.967.
37. Congleton A., Rajaram S. The origin of the interaction between learning method and delay in the testing effect: The roles of processing and conceptual retrieval organization. Memory & Cognition 2012, 40(4):528-539. 10.3758/s13421-011-0168-y.
38. Cooke S.F., Bliss T.V.P. Plasticity in the human central nervous system. Brain: A Journal of Neurology 2006, 129(7):1659-1673. 10.1093/brain/awl082.
39. Cornell E.H. Distributed study facilitates infants' delayed recognition memory. Memory & Cognition 1980, 8:539-542. 10.3758/BF03213773.
40. Cornoldi C., Longoni A. The MP-DP effect and the influence of distinct repetitions on recognition of random shapes. Italian Journal of Psychology 1977, 4(1):65-76.
41. Crowder R.G. Principles of learning and memory 1976, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
42. Cuddy L.J., Jacoby L.L. When forgetting helps memory: An analysis of repetition effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1982, 21:451-467. 10.1016/S0022-5371(82)90727-7.
43. D'Agostino P.R. Repetition and recall in an incidental-memory paradigm. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie 1974, 28(4):468-473. 10.1037/h0082011.
44. D'Agostino P.R., DeRemer P. Repetition effects as a function of rehearsal and encoding variability. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1973, 12(1):108-113. 10.1016/S0022-5371(73)80066-0.
45. Delaney P.F., Knowles M.E. Encoding strategy changes and spacing effects in the free recall of unmixed lists. Journal of Memory and Language 2005, 52(1):120-130. 10.1016/j.jml.2004.09.002.
46. Delaney P.F., Spirgel A.S., Toppino T.C. A deeper analysis of the spacing effect after "deep" encoding. Memory & Cognition 2012, 40(7):1003-1015. 10.3758/s13421-012-0207-3.
47. Delaney P.F., Verkoeijen P.P.J.L. Rehearsal strategies can enlarge or diminish the spacing effect: Pure versus mixed lists and encoding strategy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2009, 35(5):1148-1161. 10.1037/a0016380.
48. Delaney P.F., Verkoeijen P.P.J.L., Spirgel A. Spacing and testing effects: A deeply critical, lengthy, and at times discursive review of the literature. The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory 2010, Vol. 53:63-147. Academic Press, New York. 10.1016/S0079-7421(10)53003-2. B.H. Ross (Ed.).
49. Dellarosa D., Bourne L.E. Surface form and the spacing effect. Memory & Cognition 1985, 13(6):529-537. 10.3758/BF03198324.
50. Dempster F.N. Distributing and managing the conditions of encoding and practice. Memory (handbook of perception and cognition) 1996, 317-344. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 2nd ed., 10.1016/B978-012102570-0/50011-2. E.L. Bjork, R.A. Bjork (Eds.).
51. Domjan M. Effects of the intertrial interval on taste-aversion learning in rats. Physiology & Behavior 1980, 25:117-125. 10.1016/0031-9384(80)90191-2.
52. Dudai Y. The restless engram: Consolidations never end. Annual Review of Neuroscience 2012, 35:227-247. 10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150500.
53. Dunlosky J., Rawson K.A., Marsh E.J., Nathan M.J., Willingham D.T. Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques. Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2013, 14(1):4-58. 10.1177/1529100612453266.
54. Ebbinghaus H.E. Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology 1964, Dover Publications, New York, NY, (H. A. Ruger, C. E. Bussenius, & E. R. Hilgard, Trans.; original work published 1885).
55. Elmes D.G. Retrieval in human memorization. Virginia Journal of Science 1978, 29(3):142-145.
56. Estes W.K. Statistical theory of spontaneous recovery and regression. Psychological Review 1955, 62:145-154. 10.1037/h0048509.
57. Estes W.K. The statistical approach to learning theory. Psychology: A study of a science 1959, 380-491. McGraw-Hill, New York. S. Koch (Ed.).
58. Fiez J.A., Raife E.A., Balota D.A., Schwartz J.P., Raichle M.E., Petersen S.E. A positron emission tomography study of the short-term maintenance of verbal information. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 1996, 16(2):808-822.
59. Finn B., Roediger H.L. Enhancing retention through reconsolidation: Negative emotional arousal following retrieval enhances later recall. Psychological Science 2011, 22(6):781-786. 10.1177/0956797611407932.
60. Finn B., Roediger H.L., Rosenzweig E. Reconsolidation from negative emotional pictures: Is successful retrieval required?. Memory & Cognition 2012, 40(7):1031-1045. 10.3758/s13421-012-0203-7.
61. Flexser A.J., Bower G.H. How frequency affects recency judgments: A model for recency discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1974, 103(4):706-716. 10.1037/h0037194.
62. Foos P.W., Smith K.H. Effects of spacing and spacing patterns in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1974, 103(1):112-116.
63. Forcato C., Rodríguez M.L., Pedreira M.E. Repeated labilization-reconsolidation processes strengthen declarative memory in humans. PLoS One 2011, 6(8):e23305. 10.1371/journal.pone.0023305.
64. Frankland P.W., Bontempi B. The organization of recent and remote memories. Nature Review Neuroscience 2005, 6:119-130. 10.1038/nrn1607.
65. Gartman L.M., Johnson N.F. Massed versus distributed repetition of homographs: A test of the differential-encoding hypothesis. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1972, 11(6):801-808. 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80016-1.
66. Gerbier E., Koenig O. Influence of multiple-day temporal distribution of repetitions on memory: A comparison of uniform, expanding, and contracting schedules. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 2012, 65(3):514-525. 10.1080/17470218.2011.600806.
67. Glanzer M. Distance between related words in free recall: Trace of the STS. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1969, 8:105-111. 10.1016/S0022-5371(69)80018-6.
68. Glanzer M., Duarte A. Repetition between and within languages in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1971, 10(6):625-630. 10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80069-5.
69. Glenberg A.M. Monotonic and nonmonotonic lag effects in paired-associate and recognition memory paradigms. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1976, 15:1-16. 10.1016/S0022-5371(76)90002-5.
70. Glenberg A.M. Influences of retrieval processes on the spacing effect in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1977, 3:282-294. 10.1037/0278-7393.3.3.282.
71. Glenberg A.M. Component-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition. Memory and Cognition 1979, 7(2):95-112. 10.3758/BF03197590.
72. Glenberg A.M., Bradley M.M., Kraus T.A., Renzaglia G.J. Studies of the long-term recency effect: Support for a contextually guided retrieval hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1983, 9(2):231-255. 10.1037/0278-7393.9.2.231.
73. Glenberg A.M., Bradley M.M., Stevenson J.A., Kraus T.A., Tkachuk M.J., Gretz A.L., et al. A two-process account of long-term serial position effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1980, 6(4):355-369. 10.1037/0278-7393.6.4.355.
74. Glenberg A.M., Lehmann T.S. Spacing repetitions over one week. Memory and Cognition 1980, 8(6):528-538. 10.3758/BF03213772.
75. Glenberg A.M., Smith S.M. Spacing repetitions and solving problems are not the same. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1981, 20:110-119. 10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90345-5.
76. Glover J.A. The "testing" phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten. Journal of Educational Psychology 1989, 81(3):392-399. 10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.392.
77. Godbole N.R., Delaney P.F., Verkoeijen P.J.L. The spacing effect in immediate and delayed free recall. Memory 2013, 10.1080/09658211.2013.798416.
78. Gold P.E., Greenough W.T. Memory consolidation: Essays in honor of James L. McGaugh 2001, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
79. Goldstone R.L. Isolated and interrelated concepts. Memory & Cognition 1996, 24(5):608-628. 10.3758/BF03201087.
80. Gong L.Q., He L.J., Dong Z.Y., Lu X.H., Poo M.M., Zhang X.H. Postinduction requirement of NMDA receptor activation for late-phase long-term potentiation of developing retinotectal synapses in vivo. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 2011, 31(9):3328-3335. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5936-10.2011.
81. Greene R.L. Spacing effects in memory: Evidence for a two-process account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1989, 15(3):371-377.
82. Greene R.L. Spacing effects on implicit memory tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1990, 16(6):1004-1011. 10.1037/0278-7393.16.6.1004.
83. Greene R.L. Repetition and spacing effects. Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference 2008, 2:65-78.
84. Greene R.L., Stillwell A.M. Effects of encoding variability and spacing on frequency discrimination. Journal of Memory and Language 1995, 34:468-476. 10.1006/jmla.1995.1021.
85. Halamish V., Bjork R.A. When does testing enhance retention? A distribution-based interpretation of retrieval as a memory modifier. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2011, 37(4):801-812. 10.1037/a0023219.
86. Hintzman D.L. Theoretical implications of the spacing effect. Theories in cognitive psychology: The Loyola symposium 1974, 77-99. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. R.L. Solso (Ed.).
87. Hintzman D.L. Memory judgments. The Oxford handbook of memory 2000, 165-177. Oxford University, New York, NY. E. Tulving, F.I.M. Craik (Eds.).
88. Hintzman D.L. Judgment of frequency versus recognition confidence: Repetition and recursive reminding. Memory & Cognition 2004, 32(2):336-350. 10.3758/BF03196863.
89. Hintzman D.L. How does repetition affect memory? Evidence from judgments of recency. Memory & Cognition 2010, 38(1):102-115. 10.1037/h0030907.
90. Hintzman D.L., Block R.A. Repetition and memory: Evidence for a multiple-trace hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1971, 88(3):297-306. 10.1037/h0030907.
91. Hintzman D.L., Block R.A. Memory for the spacing of repetitions. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1973, 99(1):70-74. 10.1037/h0034761.
92. Hintzman D.L., Block R.A., Summers J.J. Modality tags and memory for repetitions: Locus of the spacing effect. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1973, 12(3):229-238. 10.1016/S0022-5371(73)80013-1.
93. Hintzman D.L., Summers J.J., Block R.A. Spacing judgment as an index of study-phase retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1975, 104(1):31-40. 10.1037/0278-7393.1.1.31.
94. Hintzman D.L., Summers J.J., Eki N.T., Moore M.D. Voluntary attention and the spacing effect. Memory & Cognition 1975, 3:576-580.
95. Hupbach A., Gomez R., Hardt O., Nadel L. Reconsolidation of episodic memories: A subtle reminder triggers integration of new information. Learning & Memory 2007, 14:47-53. 10.1101/lm.365707.
96. Izawa C. Function of test trials in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1967, 75(2):194-209. 10.1037/h0024971.
97. Izawa C. Optimal potentiating effects and forgetting-prevention effects of tests in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1970, 83(2(Pt. 1)):340-344. 10.1037/h0028541.
98. Jacoby L.L. On interpreting the effects of repetition: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1978, 17(6):649-667. 10.1016/S0022-5371(78)90393-6.
99. Jacoby L.L. A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language 1991, 30(5):513-541. 10.1016/0749-596X(91)90025-F.
100. Jang Y., Wixted J.T., Pecher D., Zeelenberg R., Huber D.E. Decomposing the interaction between retention interval and study/test practice: The role of retrievability. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 2012, 65(5):962-975. 10.1080/17470218.2011.638079.
101. Jensen T.D., Freund J.S. Persistence of the spacing effect in incidental free recall: The effect of external list comparisons and inter-task correlations. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 1981, 18:183-186. 10.3758/BF03213192.
102. Johnston W.A., Coots J.H., Flickinger R.G. Controlled semantic encoding and the effect of repetition lag on free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1972, 11(6):784-788. 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80013-6.
103. Johnston W.A., Uhl C.N. The contributions of encoding effort and variability to the spacing effect on free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1976, 2(2):153-160. 10.1037/0278-7393.2.2.153.
104. Jost A. Die Assoziationsfestigkeit in ihrer Abhängigkeit von der Verteilung der Wiederholungen [The strength of associations in their dependence on the distribution of repetitions]. Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane 1897, 14:436-472.
105. Kahana M.J., Howard M.W. Spacing and lag effects in free recall of pure lists. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2005, 12(1):159-164. 10.3758/BF03196362.
106. Kahneman D. Attention and effort 1973, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
107. Kahneman D., Beatty J. Pupil diameter and load on memory. Science 1966, 154(3756):1583-1585. 10.1126/science.154.3756.1583.
108. Kane M.J., Engle R.W. Working memory capacity, proactive interference, and divided attention: Limits on long-term memory retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2000, 26:336-358. 10.1037/0278-7393.26.2.336.
109. Kang S.H.K., Pashler H. Learning painting styles: Spacing is advantageous when it promotes discriminative contrast. Applied Cognitive Psychology 2012, 26(1):1-165. 10.1002/acp.1801.
110. Karpicke J.D., Roediger H.L. Expanding retrieval practice promotes short-term retention, but equally spaced retrieval enhances long-term retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2007, 33(4):704-719. 10.1037/0278-7393.33.4.704.
111. Karpicke J.D., Roediger H.L. Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to long-term retention. Journal of Memory and Language 2007, 57:151-162. 10.1016/j.jml.2006.09.004.
112. Karpicke J.D., Roediger H.L. The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science 2008, 319(5865):966-968. 10.1126/science.1152408.
113. Karpicke J.D., Smith M.A. Separate mnemonic effects of retrieval practice and elaborative encoding. Journal of Memory and Language 2012, 67(1):17-29. 10.1016/j.jml.2012.02.004.
114. Kornell N., Bjork R.A. Learning concepts and categories: Is spacing the "enemy of induction"?. Psychological Science 2008, 19(6):585-592. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02127.x.
115. Kornell N., Bjork R.A., Garcia M.A. Why tests appear to prevent forgetting: A distribution-based bifurcation model. Journal of Memory and Language 2011, 65(2):85-97. 10.1016/j.jml.2011.04.002.
116. Kornell N., Castel A.D., Eich T.S., Bjork R.A. Spacing as the friend of both memory and induction in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging 2010, 25(2):498-503. 10.1037/a0017807.
117. Kornmeier J., Sosic-Vasic Z. Parallels between spacing effects during behavioral and cellular learning. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2012, 6(203). 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00203.
118. Kriegeskorte N., Mur M., Bandettini P. Representational similarity analysis-Connecting the branches of systems neuroscience. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience 2008, 2(4). 10.3389/neuro.06.004.2008.
119. Krug D., Davis T.B., Glover J.A. Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall?. Journal of Educational Psychology 1990, 82(2):366-371. 10.1037/0022-0663.82.2.366.
120. Küpper-Tetzel C.E., Erdfelder E. Encoding, maintenance, and retrieval processes in the lag effect: A multinomial processing tree analysis. Memory 2012, 20(1):37-47. 10.1080/09658211.2011.631550.
121. Küpper-Tetzel C.E., Erdfelder E., Dickhäuser O. The lag effect in secondary school classrooms: Enhancing students' memory for vocabulary. Instructional Science 2013, 10.1007/s11251-013-9285-2.
122. Kurtz K.H., Hovland C.I. Concept learning with differing sequences of instances. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1956, 51(4):239-243. 10.1037/h0040295.
123. Landauer T.K. Reinforcement as consolidation. Psychological Review 1969, 76(1):82-96. 10.1037/h0026746.
124. Lawrence D.H. The nature of the stimulus: Some relationships between learning and perception. Psychology: A study of a science 1963, Vol. 5:179-212. McGraw-Hill, New York. S. Koch (Ed.).
125. Lee T.D., Genovese E.D. Distribution of practice in motor skill acquisition: Learning and performance effects reconsidered. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 1988, 59:277-287. 10.1080/02701367.1988.10609373.
126. Litman L., Davachi L. Distributed learning enhances relational memory consolidation. Learning & Memory 2008, 15(9):711-716. 10.1101/lm.1132008.
127. Lohnas L.J., Polyn S.M., Kahana M.J. Contextual variability in free recall. Journal of Memory and Language 2011, 64(3):249-255. 10.1016/j.jml.2010.11.003.
128. Madigan S.A. Intraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1969, 8(6):828-835. 10.1016/S0022-5371(69)80050-2.
129. Magliero A. Pupil dilations following pairs of identical and related to-be-remembered words. Memory & Cognition 1983, 11(6):609-615. 10.3758/BF03198285.
130. Malmberg K.J., Shiffrin R.M. The "one-shot" hypothesis for context storage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2005, 31(2):322-336. 10.1037/0278-7393.31.2.322.
131. Mammarella N., Avons S., Russo R. A short-term perceptual priming account of spacing effects in explicit cued-memory tasks for unfamiliar stimuli. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 2004, 16:387-402. 10.1080/09541440340000042.
132. Mammarella N., Russo R., Avons S. Spacing effects in cued-memory tasks for unfamiliar faces and nonwords. Memory & Cognition 2002, 30:1238-1251. 10.3758/BF03213406.
133. Mandler G. Recognizing: The judgment of previous occurrence. Psychological Review 1980, 87(3):252-271. 10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.252.
134. Mäntylä T., Cornoldi C. Remembering changes: Repetition effects in face recollection. Acta Psychologica 2002, 109(1):95-105. 10.1016/S0001-6918(01)00054-3.
135. Martin E. Stimulus meaningfulness and paired-associate transfer: An encoding variability hypothesis. Psychological Review 1968, 75(5):421-441.
136. Martin S.J., Grimwood P.D., Morris R.G.M. Synaptic plasticity and memory: An evaluation of the hypothesis. Annual Review of Neuroscience 2000, 23:649-711.
137. Maskarinec A.S., Thompson C.P. The within-list distributed practice effect: Tests of varied context and varied encoding hypotheses. Memory & Cognition 1976, 4:741-747. 10.3758/BF03213242.
138. McBride D.M., Dosher B.A. A comparison of forgetting in an implicit and explicit memory task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1997, 126(4):371-392. 10.1037/0096-3445.126.4.371.
139. McFarland C.E., Rhodes D.D., Frey T.J. Semantic-feature variability and the spacing effect. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1979, 18(2):163-172. 10.1016/S0022-5371(79)90100-2.
140. Melton A.W. Repetition and retrieval from memory. Science 1967, 158(3800):532. 10.1126/science.158.3800.532-b.
141. Melton A.W. The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1970, 9(5):596-606. 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80107-4.
142. Meltzer J.A., Constable R.T. Activation of human hippocampal formation reflects success in both encoding and cued recall of paired associates. NeuroImage 2005, 24(2):384-397. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.09.001.
143. Menzel R., Manz G., Menzel R., Greggers U. Massed and spaced learning in honeybees: The role of CS, US, the intertrial interval, and the test interval. Learning & Memory 2001, 8(4):198-208. 10.1101/lm.40001.
144. Metcalfe J., Kornell N. The dynamics of learning and allocation of study time to a region of proximal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2003, 132(4):530-542. 10.1037/0096-3445.132.4.530.
145. Meyer D.E., Schvaneveldt R.W. Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1971, 90(2):227-234. 10.1037/h0031564.
146. Misanin J.R., Miller R.R., Lewis D.J. Retrograde amnesia produced by electroconvulsive shock after reactivation of a consolidated memory trace. Science 1968, 160(3827):554-555. 10.1126/science.160.3827.554.
147. Modigliani V. Effects on a later recall by delaying initial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1976, 2(5):609-622.
148. Modigliani V., Hedges D.G. Distributed rehearsals and the primacy effect in single-trial free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1987, 13:426-436. 10.1037/0278-7393.13.3.426.
149. Morris C.D., Bransford J.D., Franks J.J. Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1977, 16(5):519-533. 10.1016/S0022-5371(77)80016-9.
150. Morris R.G.M., Moser E.I., Riedel G., Martin S.J., Dandin J., Day M., et al. Elements of a neurobiological theory of the hippocampus: The role of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 2003, 358(1432):773-786. 10.1098/rstb.2002.1264.
151. Mozer M.C., Pashler H., Cepeda N., Lindsey R., Vul E. Predicting the optimal spacing of study: A multiscale context model of memory. Advances in neural information processing systems 2009, Vol. 22:1321-1329. NIPS Foundation, La Jolla, CA. Y. Bengio, D. Schuurmans, J. Lafferty, C.K.I. Williams, A. Culotta (Eds.).
152. Murnane K., Shiffrin R.M. Interference and the representation of events in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1991, 17(5):855-874. 10.1037/0278-7393.17.5.855.
153. Nader K., Schafe G.E., LeDoux J.E. Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature 2000, 406:722-726. 10.1038/35021052.
154. Nguyen P.V., Abel T., Kandel E.R. Requirement of a critical period of transcription for induction of a late phase of LTP. Science 1994, 265(5175):1104-1107. 10.1126/science.8066450.
155. Nitsch K.E. Structuring decontextualized forms of knowledge 1977, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville.
156. Paivio A. Spacing of repetitions in the incidental and intentional free recall of pictures and words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1974, 13(5):497-511. 10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80002-2.
157. Paivio A., Clark J.M., Lambert W.E. Bilingual dual-coding theory and semantic repetition effects on recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1988, 14(1):163-172. 10.1037/0278-7393.14.1.163.
158. Parkin A.J., Gardiner J.M., Rosser R. Functional aspects of recollective experience in face recognition. Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal 1995, 4(4):387-398. 10.1006/ccog.1995.1046.
159. Parkin A.J., Reid T.K., Russo R. On the differential nature of implicit and explicit memory. Memory & Cognition 1990, 18(5):507-514. 10.3758/BF03198483.
160. Parkin A.J., Russo R. On the origin of functional differences in recollective experience. Memory 1993, 1(3):231-237. 10.1080/09658219308258235.
161. Pavlik P.I., Anderson J.R. Practice and forgetting effects on vocabulary memory: An activation-based model of the spacing effect. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal 2005, 29(4):559-586. 10.1207/s15516709cog0000_14.
162. Perruchet P. The effect of spaced practice on explicit and implicit memory. British Journal of Psychology 1989, 80(1):113-130. 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1989.tb02306.x.
163. Peterson L.R., Wampler R., Kirkpatrick M., Saltzman D. Effect of spacing presentations on retention of a paired associate over short intervals. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1963, 66(2):206-209. 10.1037/h0046694.
164. Postman L. A pragmatic view of organization theory. Organization of memory 1972, Academic Press, Oxford, England. E. Tulving, W. Donaldson (Eds.).
165. Postman L., Knecht K. Encoding variability and retention. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1983, 22:133-152. 10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90101-9.
166. Pressley M., Hilden K. Cognitive strategies: Production deficiencies and successful strategy instruction everywhere. Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language 2006, 511-556. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. 6th ed. W. Damon, R. Lerner, D. Kuhn, R. Siegler (Eds.).
167. Pyc M.A., Dunlosky J. Toward an understanding of students' allocation of study time: Why do they decide to mass or space their practice?. Memory & Cognition 2010, 38(4):431-440. 10.3758/MC.38.4.431.
168. Pyc M.A., Rawson K.A. Testing the retrieval effort hypothesis: Does greater difficulty correctly recalling information lead to higher levels of memory?. Journal of Memory and Language 2009, 60(4):437-447. 10.1016/j.jml.2009.01.004.
169. Pyc M.A., Rawson K.A. Why testing improves memory: Mediator effectiveness hypothesis. Science 2010, 330(6002):335. 10.1126/science.1191465.
170. Raaijmakers J.G.W. Spacing and repetition effects in human memory: Application of the SAM model. Cognitive Science 2003, 27:431-452. 10.1016/S0364-0213(03)00007-7.
171. Raaijmakers J.G.W., Shiffrin R.M. SAM: A theory of probabilistic search of associative memory. The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory 1980, Vol. 14:207-262. Academic Press, New York. G.H. Bower (Ed.).
172. Raaijmakers J.G.W., Shiffrin R.M. Search of associative memory. Psychological Review 1981, 88(2):93-134. 10.1037/0033-295X.88.2.93.
173. Rajaram S. Remembering and knowing: Two means of access to the personal past. Memory & Cognition 1993, 21(1):89-102. 10.3758/BF03211168.
174. Ratcliff R., Clark S.E., Shiffrin R.M. List-strength effect: I. Data and discussion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1990, 16(2):163-178.
175. Rawson K.A. Why do rereading lag effects depend on test delay?. Journal of Memory and Language 2012, 66(4):870-884. 10.1016/j.jml.2012.03.004.
176. Rawson K.A., Kintsch W. Rereading effects depend on time of test. Journal of Educational Psychology 2005, 97(1):70-80. 10.1037/0022-0663.97.1.70.
177. Rea C.P., Modigliani V. The spacing effect in 4- to 9-year-old children. Memory & Cognition 1987, 15(5):436-443. 10.3758/BF03197733.
178. Roediger H.L., Butler A.C. The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2011, 15(1):20-27. 10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003.
179. Roediger H.L., Karpicke J.D. Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science 2006, 17(3):249-255. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x.
180. Roediger H.L., Karpicke J.D. The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2006, 1(3):181-210. 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x.
181. Rohrer D. The effects of spacing and mixing practice problems. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 2009, 40(1):4-17.
182. Rose R.J. Encoding variability, levels of processing, and the effects of spacing of repetitions upon judgments of frequency. Memory & Cognition 1980, 8(1):84-93. 10.3758/BF03197555.
183. Rose R.J. Processing time for repetitions and the spacing effect. Canadian Journal of Psychology 1984, 83:537-550. 10.1037/h0080870.
184. Rose R.J., Rowe E.J. Effects of orienting task and spacing of repetitions on frequency judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1976, 2(2):142-152. 10.1037/0278-7393.2.2.142.
185. Ross B.H., Landauer T.K. Memory for at least one of two items: Test and failure of several theories of spacing effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1978, 17:669-676. 10.1016/S0022-5371(78)90403-6.
186. Rundus D. Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1971, 89(1):63-77. 10.1037/h0031185.
187. Runquist W.N. Some effects of remembering on forgetting. Memory & Cognition 1983, 11(6):641-650. 10.3758/BF03198289.
188. Russo R., Mammarella N. Spacing effects in recognition memory: When meaning matters. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 2002, 14(1):49-59. 10.1080/09541440042000133.
189. Russo R., Mammarella N., Avons S.E. Toward a unified account of spacing effects in explicit cued-memory tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2002, 28(5):819-829. 10.1037/0278-7393.28.5.819.
190. Russo R., Parkin A.J., Taylor S.R., Wilks J. Revising current two-process accounts of spacing effects in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1998, 24(1):161-172. 10.1037/0278-7393.24.1.161.
191. Schmidt R.A., Bjork R.A. New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science 1992, 3:207-217.
192. Schneider W., Bjorklund D.F. Memory. Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language 1998, 467-521. Wiley, New York. 5th ed. W. Damon, D. Kuhn, R.S. Siegler (Eds.).
193. Schwartz M. The effect of constant vs. varied encoding and massed vs. distributed presentations on recall of paired associates. Memory & Cognition 1975, 3(4):390-394. 10.3758/BF03212930.
194. Schwartz R.G., Terrell B.Y. The role of input frequency in lexical acquisition. Journal of Child Language 1983, 10(1):57-64. 10.1017/S0305000900005134.
195. Shaughnessy J.J. Persistence of the spacing effect in free recall under varying incidental learning conditions. Memory & Cognition 1976, 4(4):369-377. 10.3758/BF03213192.
196. Shaughnessy J.J., Zimmerman J., Underwood B.J. Further evidence on the MP-DP effect in free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1972, 11(1):1-12. 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80053-7.
197. Shaughnessy J.J., Zimmerman J., Underwood B.J. The spacing effect in the learning of word pairs and the components of word pairs. Memory & Cognition 1974, 2(4):742-748. 10.3758/BF03198150.
198. Shiffrin R.M., Ratcliff R., Clark S.E. List-strength effect: II. Theoretical mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1990, 16(2):179-195. 10.1037/0278-7393.16.2.179.
199. Slamecka N.J., McElree B. Normal forgetting of verbal lists as a function of their degree of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1983, 9(3):384-397.
200. Smith S.M., Glenberg A., Bjork R.A. Environmental context and human memory. Memory & Cognition 1978, 6(4):342-353. 10.3758/BF03197465.
201. Stern L.D., Hintzman D.L. Spacing and the retention of synonyms. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 1979, 13(6):363-366.
202. Sternberg R.J., Tulving E. The measurement of subjective organization in free recall. Psychological Bulletin 1977, 84(3):539-556. 10.1037/0033-2909.84.3.539.
203. Stoff D.M., Eagle M.N. The relationship among reported strategies, presentation rate, and verbal ability and their effects on free recall learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1971, 87(3):423-428. 10.1037/h0030541.
204. Strange B.A., Kroes M.C., Fan J.E., Dolan R.J. Emotion causes targeted forgetting of established memories. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 2010, 4(175). 10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00175.
205. Terrace H.S., Gibbon J., Farrell L., Baldock M.D. Temporal factors influencing the acquisition and maintenance of an autoshaped keypeck. Animal Learning & Behavior 1975, 3(1):53-62. 10.3758/BF03209099.
206. Thios S.J. Memory for words in repeated sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1972, 11(6):789-793. 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80014-8.
207. Thios S.J., D'Agostino P.R. Effects of repetition as a function of study-phase retrieval. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1976, 15(5):529-536. 10.1016/0022-5371(76)90047-5.
208. Toppino T.C. Free recall of repeated events: Two tests of encoding variability 1980.
209. Toppino T.C. The spacing effect in young children's free recall: Support for automatic-process explanations. Memory & Cognition 1991, 19(2):159-167. 10.3758/BF03197112.
210. Toppino T.C. The spacing effect in preschool children's free recall of pictures and words. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 1993, 31(1):27-30.
211. Toppino T.C. Effect of spacing repetitions: Evidence from development and individual differences. Distributed practice 2004, Annual Ellis-Battig memory syposium conducted at the meeting of the Rocky Mountain Psychological Association, Reno. E. DeLosh (Ed.).
212. Toppino T.C., Bloom L.C. Incidental frequency judgments as a function of spacing and presentation rate 2000, Unpublished raw data.
213. Toppino T.C., Bloom L.C. The spacing effect, free recall, and two-process theory: A closer look. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2002, 28:437-444. 10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.437.
214. Toppino T.C., Cohen M.S. The testing effect and the retention interval: Questions and answers. Experimental Psychology 2009, 56(4):252-257. 10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.252.
215. Toppino T.C., Cohen M.S., Davis M.L., Moors A.C. Metacognitive control over the distribution of practice: When is spacing preferred?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2009, 35(5):1352-1358. 10.1037/a0016371.
216. Toppino T.C., DeMesquita M. Effects of spacing repetitions on children's memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1984, 37:637-648. 10.1016/0022-0965(84)90081-X.
217. Toppino T.C., DiGeorge W. The spacing effect in free recall emerges with development. Memory & Cognition 1984, 12(2):118-122. 10.3758/BF03198425.
218. Toppino T.C., Fearnow-Kenney M.D., Kiepert M.H., Teremula A.C. The spacing effect in intentional and incidental free recall by children and adults: Limits on the automaticity hypothesis. Memory & Cognition 2009, 37(3):316-325. 10.3758/MC.37.3.316.
219. Toppino T.C., Gracen T.F. The lag effect and differential organization theory: Nine failures to replicate. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1985, 11:185-191. 10.1037/0278-7393.11.1.185.
220. Toppino T.C., Hara Y., Hackman J. The spacing effect in the free recall of homogenous lists: Present and accounted for. Memory & Cognition 2002, 30:601-606. 10.3758/BF03194961.
221. Toppino T.C., Kasserman J.E., Mracek W.A. The effect of spacing repetitions on the recognition memory of young children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1991, 51(1):123-138. 10.1016/0022-0965(91)90079-8.
222. Toppino T.C., Schneider M.A. The mix-up regarding mixed and unmixed lists in spacing-effect research. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1999, 25(4):1071-1076. 10.1037/0278-7393.25.4.1071.
223. Tulving E. Subjective organization in free recall of "unrelated" words. Psychological Review 1962, 69(4):344-354. 10.1037/h0043150.
224. Tulving E. Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne 1985, 26(1):1-12. 10.1037/h0080017.
225. Tulving E., Hastie R. Inhibition effects of intralist repetition in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1972, 92(3):297-304. 10.1037/h0032367.
226. Tulving E., Schacter D.L. Priming and human memory systems. Science 1990, 247(4940):301-306. 10.1126/science.2296719.
227. Tulving E., Thomson D.M. Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review 1973, 80(5):352-373. 10.1037/h0020071.
228. Underwood B.J. An orientation for research on thinking. Psychological Review 1952, 59(3):209-220. 10.1037/h0059415.
229. Underwood B.J. Ten years of massed practice on distributed practice. Psychological Review 1961, 68(4):229-247. 10.1037/h0047516.
230. Underwood B.J. Stimulus selection in verbal learning. Verbal behavior and learning: Problems and processes: McGraw-Hill series in psychology 1963, 33-75. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY. 10.1037/11178-003. C.N. Cofer, B.S. Musgrave (Eds.).
231. Underwood B.J., Kapelak S.M., Malmi R.A. The spacing effect: Additions to the theoretical and empirical puzzles. Memory & Cognition 1976, 4:391-400. 10.3758/BF03213195.
232. Van Strien J.W., Verkoeijen P.P.J.L., Van der Meer N., Franken I.H.A. Electrophysiological correlates of word repetition spacing: ERP and induced band power old/new effects with massed and spaced repetitions. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2007, 66:205-214. 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2007.07.003.
233. Verkoeijen P.P.J.L., Delaney P.F. Rote rehearsal and spacing effects in the free recall of pure and mixed lists. Journal of Memory and Language 2008, 58(1):35-47. 10.1016/j.jml.2007.07.006.
234. Verkoeijen P.P.J.L., Rikers R.M.J.P., Özsoy B. Distributed rereading can hurt the spacing effect in text memory. Applied Cognitive Psychology 2008, 22:685-695. 10.1002/acp.1388.
235. Verkoeijen P.P.J.L., Rikers R.M.J.P., Schmidt H.G. Detrimental influence of contextual change on spacing effects in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2004, 30(4):796-800. 10.1037/0278-7393.30.4.796.
236. Verkoeijen P.P.J.L., Rikers R.M.J.P., Schmidt H.G. Limitations to the spacing effect: Demonstration of an inverted u-shaped relationship between interrepetition spacing and free recall. Experimental Psychology 2005, 52(4):257-263. 10.1027/1618-3169.52.4.257.
237. Vlach H.A., Ankowski A.A., Sandhofer C.M. At the same time or apart in time? The role of presentation timing and retrieval dynamics in generalization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 2012, 38(1):246-254. 10.1037/a0025260.
238. Vlach H.A., Sandhofer C.M., Kornell N. The spacing effect in children's memory and category induction. Cognition 2008, 109(1):163-167. 10.1016/j.cognition.2008.07.013.
239. von Wright J.M. Effects of context variation, intracategory variation, and spacing on the free recll of picture. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 1976, 17:303-308.
240. Wagner A.D., Maril A., Schacter D.L. Interactions between forms of memory: When priming hinders new episodic learning. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2000, 12(Suppl. 2):52-60. 10.1162/089892900564064.
241. Wahlheim C.N., Dunlosky J., Jacoby L.L. Spacing enhances the learning of natural concepts: An investigation of mechanisms, metacognition, and aging. Memory and Cognition 2011, 39:750-763. 10.3758/s13421-010-0063-y.
242. Wang S.-H., Morris R.G.M. Hippocampal-neocortical interactions in memory formation, consolidation, and reconsolidation. Annual Review of Psychology 2010, 61:49-79. 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100523.
243. Waters H.S., Waters E. Semantic processing in children's free recall: Evidence for the importance of attentional factors and encoding variability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1976, 2(4):370-380. 10.1037/0278-7393.2.4.370.
244. Watkins M.J., Kerkar S.P. Recall of a twice-presented item without recall of either presentation: Generic memory for events. Journal of Memory and Language 1985, 24(6):666-678. 10.1016/0749-596X(85)90052-X.
245. Waugh N.C. On the effective duration of a repeated word. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1970, 9:587-595. 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80106-2.
246. Wenger S.K. The within-list distributed practice effect: More evidence for the inattention hypothesis. American Journal of Psychology 1979, 92:105-113. 10.3758/BF03213242.
247. Wheeler M.A., Ewers M., Buonanno J.F. Different rates of forgetting following study versus test trials. Memory 2003, 11(6):571-580.
248. Whitten W.B., Bjork R.A. Learning from tests: Effects of spacing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1977, 16(4):465-478. 10.1016/S0022-5371(77)80040-6.
249. Wilkinson A.C., Koestler R. Repeated recall: A new model and tests of its generality from childhood to old age. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1983, 112:423-451. 10.1037/0096-3445.112.3.423.
250. Wilson W.P. Developmental changes in the lag effect: An encoding hypothesis for repeated word recall. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1976, 22(1):113-122. 10.1016/0022-0965(76)90094-1.
251. Winograd E., Raines S.R. Semantic and temporal variation in recognition memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1972, 11(1):114-119. 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80067-7.
252. Wright J., Brelsford J. Changes in the spacing effect with instructional variables in free recall. American Journal of Psychology 1978, 91:631-643. 10.2307/1421511.
253. Xue G., Dong Q., Chen C., Zhonglin L., Mumford J.A., Poldrack R.A. Greater neural pattern similarity across repetitions is associated with better memory. Science 2010, 330(6000):97-101. 10.1126/science.1193125.
254. Xue G., Mei L., Chen C., Lu Z.-L., Poldrack R.A., Dong Q. Spaced learning enhances subsequent recognition memory by reducing neural repetition suppression. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2010, 23(7):1624-1633. 10.1162/jocn.2010.21532.
255. Young J.L. Reinforcement-test intervals in paired-associate learning. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 1971, 8(1):58-81. 10.1016/0022-2496(71)90023-X.
256. Young D.R., Bellezza F.S. Encoding variability memory organization, and the repetition effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 1982, 8:545-559. 10.1037/0278-7393.8.6.545.
257. Zimmerman J. Free recall after self-paced study: A test of the attention explanation of the spacing effect. American Journal of Psychology 1975, 88:277-291.
258. Zulkiply N., Burt J.S. The exemplar interleaving effect in inductive learning: Moderation by the difficulty of category discriminations. Memory and Cognition 2013, 41(1):16-27. 10.3758/s13421-012-0238-9.
259. Zulkiply N., McLean J., Burt J.S., Bath D. Spacing and induction: Application to exemplars presented as auditory and visual text. Learning and Instruction 2012, 22(3):215-221. 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.11.002.