Degradation of organic photovoltaic devices: A review

Nanomaterials and Energy

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 42-58

  Gupta, Shailendra Kumar ^a   Dharmalingam, K ^a   Pali, L Sowjanya ^a   Rastogi, Shivam ^a   Singh, Arjun ^a   Garg, Ashish ^a  

^a INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR   (India)

Author keywords

Degradation; Encapsulation; Lifetimes; Organic solar cells; Stability

Indexed keywords

BUFFER LAYERS; CONVERGENCE OF NUMERICAL METHODS; DEGRADATION; ENCAPSULATION; ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY; SOLAR POWER GENERATION; THROUGHPUT;

ASSOCIATED MECHANISM; CONSTITUENT MATERIALS; DEVICE ARCHITECTURES; INORGANIC THIN FILMS; LIFETIMES; ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES; PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY; STANDARD TEST CONDITION (STC);

ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS;

EID: 84887955845     PISSN: 20459831     EISSN: 2045984X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1680/nme.12.00027     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. Hoppe, H.; Sariciftci, N. S. Organic solar cells: an overview. Journal of Materials Research 2004, 19(7), 1924-1944.
2. Krebs, F. C. All solution roll-to-roll processed polymer solar cells free from indium-tin-oxide and vacuum coating steps. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(5), 761-768.
3. Beaujuge, P. M.; Amb, C. M.; Reynolds, J. R. Spectral engineering in p-conjugated polymers with intramolecular donor-acceptor interactions. Accounts of Chemical Research 2010, 43(11), 1396-1407.
4. Green, M. A.; Emery, K.; Hishikawa, Y.; Warta, W.; Dunlop, E. D. Solar cell efficiency tables (version 39). Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 2012, 20(1), 12-20.
5. Liang, Y.; Xu, Z.; Xia, J.; Tsai, S.-T.; Wu, Y.; Li, G.; Ray, C.; Yu, L. For the bright future bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells with power conversion efficiency of 7.4%. Advanced Materials 2010, 22(20), E135-E8.
6. http://www.heliatek.com/newscenter/latest_news/heliatek-erzielt-mit-107-effizienz-neuen-weltrekord-fur-seine-organische-tandemzelle/. Accessed 24 July 2012
7. Scharber, M. C.; Mühlbacher, D.; Koppe, M.; Denk, P.; Waldauf, C.; Heeger, A. J.; Brabec, C. J. Design rules for donors in bulk-heterojunction solar cells towards 10 % energy-conversion efficiency. Advanced Materials 2006, 18(6), 789-794.
8. Vázquez, M.; Rey-Stolle, I. Photovoltaic module reliability model based on field degradation studies. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 2008, 16(5), 419-433.
9. Martin, S. B.; Martin, S. An alternative degradation method for amorphous hydrogenated silicon: The constant degradation method. Journal of Applied Physics 1994, 75(5), 2507-2515.
10. Ahn, J. Y.; Lim, K. S. Amorphous silicon solar cells with stable protocrystalline silicon and unstable microcrystalline silicon at the onset of a microcrystalline regime as i-layers. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 2005, 351(8-9), 748-753.
11. Jeng-Hua, W.; Ming-Shyan, S.; Si-Chen, L. A possible mechanism for improved light-induced degradation in deuterated amorphous-silicon alloy. Applied Physics Letters 1997, 71(11), 1498-1500.
12. Cueto, J. A.; von Roedern, B. Long-term transient and metastable effects in cadmium telluride photovoltaic modules. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 2006, 14(7), 615-628.
13. Carlsson, T.; Brinkman, A. Identification of degradation mechanisms in field-tested CdTe modules. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 2006, 14(3), 213-224.
14. Grossiord, N.; Kroon, J. M.; Andriessen, R.; Blom, P. W. M. Degradation mechanisms in organic photovoltaic devices. Organic Electronics 2011, 13(3), 432-456.
15. Song, Q. L.; Wang, M. L.; Obbard, E. G.; Sun, X. Y.; Ding, X. M.; Hou, X. Y.; Li, C. M. Degradation of small-molecule organic solar cells. Applied Physics Letters 2006, 89(25), 251118.
16. Bert, C.; Sabine, B.; Koen, V.; Alessia, S.; Jan, D. H.; Jean, M.; Janssen, R. A. J. Modeling the temperature induced degradation kinetics of the short circuit current in organic bulk heterojunction solar cells. Applied Physics Letters 2010, 96(16), 163301.
17. Biswajit, R.; Muhammad, A. A. A compact physical model for morphology induced intrinsic degradation of organic bulk heterojunction solar cell. Applied Physics Letters 2011, 99(3), 033303.
18. Bertho, S.; Janssen, G.; Cleij, T. J.; Conings, B.; Moons, W.; Gadisa, A.; D'Haena, J.; Goovaerts, E.; Lutsen, L.; Manca, J.; Vanderzande, D. Effect of temperature on the morphological and photovoltaic stability of bulk heterojunction polymer:fullerene solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2008, 92(7), 753-760.
19. Ebadian, S.; Gholamkhass, B.; Shambayati, S.; Holdcroft, S.; Servati, P. Effects of annealing and degradation on regioregular polythiophene-based bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaic devices. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 94(12), 2258-2264.
20. Jorgensen, M.; Norrman, K.; Krebs, F. C. Stability/degradation of polymer solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2008, 92(7), 686-714.
21. Schafferhans, J.; Baumann, A.; Wagenpfahl, A.; Deibel, C.; Dyakonov, V. Oxygen doping of P3HT:PCBM blends: Influence on trap states, charge carrier mobility and solar cell performance. Organic Electronics 2010, 11(10), 1693-1700.
22. Rivaton, A.; Chambon, S.; Manceau, M.; Gardette, J.-L.; Lemitre, N.; Guillerez, S. Light-induced degradation of the active layer of polymer-based solar cells. Polymer Degradation and Stability 2010, 95(3), 278-284.
23. Salaneck, W. R.; Brédas, J.-L. The metal-on-polymer interface in polymer light emitting diodes. Advanced Materials 1996, 8(1), 48-52.
24. Manceau, M.; Rivaton, A.; Gardette, J.-L.; Guillerez, S.; Lemaitre, N. Light-induced degradation of the P3HT-based solar cells active layer. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 95(5), 1315-1325.
25. Tromholt, T.; Manceau, M.; Helgesen, M.; Carle, J. E.; Krebs, F. C. Degradation of semiconducting polymers by concentrated sunlight. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 95(5), 1308-1314.
26. Voroshazi, E.; Verreet, B.; Aernouts, T.; Heremans, P. Longterm operational lifetime and degradation analysis of P3HT:PCBM photovoltaic cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 95(5), 1303-1307.
27. Moujoud, A.; Oh, S. H.; Hye, J. J.; Kim, H. J. Improvement in stability of poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)/[6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester bulk heterojunction solar cell by using UV light irradiation. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2011, 95(4), 1037-1041.
28. Manceau, M.; Chambon, S.; Rivaton, A.; Gardette, J.-L.; Guillerez, S.; Lemitre, N. Effects of long-term UV-visible light irradiation in the absence of oxygen on P3HT and P3HT:PCBM blend. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 94(10), 1572-1577.
29. Schafer, S.; Petersen, A.; Wagner, T. A.; Kniprath, R.; Lingenfelser, D.; Zen, A.; Kirchartz, T.; Zimmermann, B.; Wurfel, U.; Feng, X.; Mayer, T. Influence of the indium tin oxide/organic interface on open-circuit voltage, recombination, and cell degradation in organic small-molecule solar cells. Physical Review B 2011, 83(16), 165311.
30. Parlak, E. A. The blend ratio effect on the photovoltaic performance and stability of poly (3-hexylthiophene):[6,6]-phenyl-C61 butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) and poly(3- octylthiophene):PCBM solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2012, 100, 174-184.
31. Kawano, K.; Pacios, R.; Poplavskyy, D.; Nelson, J.; Bradley, D. D. C.; Durrant, J. R. Degradation of organic solar cells due to air exposure. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2006, 90(20), 3520-3530.
32. Jong, M. P.; IJzendoorn, L. J.; Voigt, M. J. A. Stability of the interface between indium-tin-oxide and poly(3,4-ethylenediox-ythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfonate) in polymer light-emitting diodes. Applied Physics Letters 2000, 77(14), 2255-2257.
33. Ecker, B.; Nolasco, J. C.; Pallarés, J.; Marsal, L. F.; Posdorfer, J.; Parisi, J.; Hauff, E. V. Degradation effects related to the hole transport layer in organic solar cells. Advanced Functional Materials 2011, 21(14), 2705-2711.
34. Seemann, A.; Egelhaaf, H. J.; Brabec, C. J.; Hauch, J. A. Influence of oxygen on semi-transparent organic solar cells with gas permeable electrodes. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(8), 1424-1428.
35. Norrman, K.; Gevorgyan, S. A.; Krebs, F. C. Water-induced degradation of polymer solar cells studied by H218O labeling. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2008, 1(1), 102-112.
36. Norrman, K.; Krebs, F. C. Lifetimes of organic photovoltaics: Using TOF-SIMS and 18O2 isotopic labelling to characterise chemical degradation mechanisms. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2006, 90(2), 213-227.
37. Norrman, K.; Larsen, N. B.; Krebs, F. C. Lifetimes of organic photovoltaics: Combining chemical and physical characterisation techniques to study degradation mechanisms. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2006, 90(17), 2793-2814.
38. Jeranko, T.; Tributsch, H.; Sariciftci, N. S.; Hummelen, J. C. Patterns of efficiency and degradation of composite polymer solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2004, 83(2-3), 247-262.
39. Abad, J.; Urbina, A.; Colchero, J. Influence of UV radiation and ozone exposure on the electro-optical properties and nanoscale structure of P3OT films. Organic Electronics 2011, 12(8), 1389-1398.
40. Vijila, C.; Ging Meng, N.; Mein Jin, T.; Wei-Peng, G.; Furong, Z. Imbalanced charge mobility in oxygen treated polythiophene/fullerene based bulk heterojunction solar cells. Applied Physics Letters 2009, 95(26), 263305.
41. Reese, M. O.; Nardes, A. M.; Rupert, B. L.; Larsen, R. E.; Olson, D. C.; Lloyd, M. T.; Shaheen, S. E.; Ginley, D. S.; Rumbles, D. S.; Kopidakis, N. Photoinduced degradation of polymer and polymer-fullerene active layers: experiment and theory. Advanced Functional Materials 2010, 20(20), 3476-3483.
42. Bhattacharya, J.; Mayer, R. W.; Samiee, M.; Dalal, V. L. Photo-induced changes in fundamental properties of organic solar cells. Applied Physics Letters 2012, 100(19), 193501.
43. Aguirre, A.; Meskers, S. C. J.; Janssen, R. A. J.; Egelhaaf, H. J. Formation of metastable charges as a first step in photoinduced degradation in p-conjugated polymer:fullerene blends for photovoltaic applications. Organic Electronics 2011, 12(10), 1657-1662.
44. Hugh, D. B.; Melo, J. S.; Serpa, C.; Arnaut, L. G.; Andrew, P. M.; Hamblett, I.; Navaratnam, N. S1~> T1 intersystem crossing in pi-conjugated organic polymers. Journal of Chemical Physics 2001, 115(20), 9601-9606.
45. Seemann, A.; Sauermann, T.; Lungenschmied, C.; Armbruster, O.; Bauer, S.; Egelhaaf, H. J. Reversible and irreversible degradation of organic solar cell performance by oxygen. Solar Energy 2011, 85(6), 1238-1249.
46. Chambon, S.; Rivaton, A.; Gardette, J.-L.; Firon, M. Reactive intermediates in the initiation step of the photo-oxidation of MDMO-PPV. Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry 2009, 47(22), 6044-6052.
47. Chang, Y.-M.; Su, W.-F.; Wang, L. Influence of photo-induced degradation on the optoelectronic properties of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene). Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2008, 92(7), 761-765.
48. Goutam, P. J.; Singh, D. K.; Giri, P. K.; Iyer, P. K. Enhancing the photostability of Poly(3-hexylthiophene) by preparing composites with multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2011, 115(5), 919-924.
49. Tae-Min, K.; Ji Whan, K.; Hyun-Sub, S.; Jang-Joo, K. High efficiency and high photo-stability zinc-phthalocyanine based planar heterojunction solar cells with a double interfacial layer. Applied Physics Letters 2012, 101(11), 113301.
50. Junghwan, K.; Geunjin, K.; Youna, C.; Jongjin, L.; Sung Heum, P.; Kwanghee, L. Light-soaking issue in polymer solar cells: photoinduced energy level alignment at the sol-gel processed metal oxide and indium tin oxide interface. Journal of Applied Physics 2012, 111(11), 114511.
51. Wang, M.; Xie, F.; Du, J.; Tang, Q.; Zheng, S.; Miao, Q.; Chen, J.; Zhao, N.; Xu, J. B. Degradation mechanism of organic solar cells with aluminum cathode. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2011, 95(12), 3303-3310.
52. Aziz, H.; Xu, G. A degradation mechanism of organic light- emitting devices. Synthetic Metals 1996, 80(1), 7-10.
53. Nguyen, T. P.; Le Rendu, P.; Long, P. D.; De Vos, S. A. Chemical and thermal treatment of PEDOT:PSS thin films for use in organic light emitting diodes. Surface and Coatings Technology 2004, 180-181, 646-649.
54. Girtan, M.; Rusu, M. Role of ITO and PEDOT:PSS in stability/degradation of polymer:fullerene bulk heterojunctions solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 94(3), 446-450.
55. Nguyen, T. P.; Massardier, V.; Tran, V. H.; Guyot, A. Studies of the polymer-metal interface in metal-PPV-metal devices. Synthetic Metals 1993, 55(1), 235-240.
56. Logdlund, M.; Bredas, J. L. Theoretical studies of the inter- action between aluminum and poly(p-phenylenevinylene) and derivatives. Journal of Chemical Physics 1994, 101(5), 4357-4364.
57. Yambem, S. D.; Liao, K.-S.; Alley, N. J.; Curran, S. A. Stable organic photovoltaics using Ag thin film anodes. Journal of Materials Chemistry 2012, 22(14), 6894-6898.
58. Park, G-S.; Kwon, J.-K. Degradation of ITO/PET films in humid and contaminative environments studied by TEM. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 2001, 12(9), 497-503.
59. Andersen, M.; Carle, J. E.; Cruys-Bagger, N.; Lilliedal, M. R.; Hammond, M. A.; Winther-Jensen, B.; Krebs, F. C. Transparent anodes for polymer photovoltaics: Oxygen permeability of PEDOT. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2007, 91(6), 539-543.
60. Forrest, S. R. The path to ubiquitous and low-cost organic electronic appliances on plastic. Nature 2004, 428(6986), 911-918.
61. Suo, Z.; Ma, E. Y.; Gleskova, H.; Wagner, S. Mechanics of rollable and foldable film-on-foil electronics. Applied Physics Letters 1999, 74(8), 1177-1179.
62. Kaltenbrunner, M.; White, M. S.; Głowacki, E. D.; Sekitani, T.; Someya, T.; Sariciftci, N. S.; Bauer, S. Ultrathin and lightweight organic solar cells with high flexibility. Nature Communications 2012, 3, 770.
63. Gleskova H.; Cheng, I. C.; Wagner, S.; Sturm, J. C.; Suo Z. Mechanics of thin-film transistors and solar cells on flexible substrates. Solar Energy 2006, 80(6), 687-693.
64. Abdelhadi, O. M.; Ladani, L.; Razmi, J. Fracture toughness of bonds using interfacial stresses in four-point bending test. Mechanics of Materials 2011, 43(12), 885-900.
65. Gan, Z.; Mhaisalkar, S. G.; Chen, Z.; Zhang, S.; Chen, Z.; Prasad, K. Study of interfacial adhesion energy of multilayered ULSI thin film structures using four-point bending test. Surface and Coatings Technology 2005, 198(1-3), 85-89.
66. Brand, V.; Bruner, C.; Dauskardt, R. H. Cohesion and device reliability in organic bulk heterojunction photovoltaic cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2012, 99, 182-189.
67. Dupont, S. R.; Oliver, M.; Krebs, F. C.; Dauskardt, R. H. Interlayer adhesion in roll-to-roll processed flexible inverted polymer solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2012, 97, 171-175.
68. Tong, T.; Babatope, B.; Admassie, S.; Meng, J.; Akwogu, O.; Akande, W.; Soboyejo, W. O. Adhesion in organic electronic structures. Journal of Applied Physics 2009, 106(8), 083708.
69. Lang, U.; Naujoks, N.; Dual, J. Mechanical characterization of PEDOT:PSS thin films. Synthetic Metals 2009, 159(5-6), 473-479.
70. Krebs, F. C.; Nielsen, T. D.; Fyenbo, J.; Wadstrom, M.; Pedersen, M. S. Manufacture, integration and demonstration of polymer solar cells in a lamp for the "Lighting Africa" initiative. Energy & Environmental Science 2010, 3(5), 512-525.
71. Leterrier, Y.; Medico, L.; Demarco, F.; Manson, J. A. E.; Betz, U.; Escola, M. F.; Olsson, M. K.; Atamny, F. Mechanical integrity of transparent conductive oxide films for flexible polymer-based displays. Thin Solid Films 2004, 460(1-2), 156-166.
72. Lim, J.-W.; Cho, D.-Y.; Eun, K.; Choa, S.-H.; Na, S.-I.; Kim, J.; Kim, H. J. Mechanical integrity of flexible Ag nanowire network electrodes coated on colorless PI substrates for flexible organic solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2012, 105, 69-76.
73. Cho, C.-K.; Hwang, W.-J.; Eun, K.; Choa, S.-H.; Na, S.-I.; Kim, H.-K. Mechanical flexibility of transparent PEDOT:PSS electrodes prepared by gravure printing for flexible organic solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2011, 95(12), 3269-3275.
74. Hau, S. K.; Yip, H.-L.; Zou, J.; Jen, A. K. Y. Indium tin oxide- free semi-transparent inverted polymer solar cells using conducting polymer as both bottom and top electrodes. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(7), 1401-1407.
75. Kang, M.-G.; Joon Park, H.; Hyun Ahn, S.; Jay Guo, L. Transparent Cu nanowire mesh electrode on flexible substrates fabricated by transfer printing and its application in organic solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 94(6), 1179-1184.
76. Cao, W.; Zheng, Y.; Li, Z.; Wrzesniewski, E.; Hammond, W. T.; Xue, J. Flexible organic solar cells using an oxide/metal/oxide trilayer as transparent electrode. Organic Electronics 2012, 13(11), 2221-2228.
77. Na, S.-I.; Kim, S.-S.; Jo, J.; Kim, D.-Y. Efficient and flexible ITO-free organic solar cells using highly conductive polymer anodes. Advanced Materials 2008, 20(21), 4061-4067.
78. Chen, L.-M.; Hong, Z.; Li, G.; Yang, Y. Recent progress in polymer solar cells: manipulation of polymer:fullerene morphology and the formation of efficient inverted polymer solar cells. Advanced Materials 2009, 21(14-15), 1434-1449.
79. Xu, Z.; Chen, L.-M.; Yang, G.; Huang, C.-H.; Hou, J.; Wu, Y.; Li, G.; Hsu, C. H.; Yang, Y. Vertical phase separation in poly(3- hexylthiophene): fullerene derivative blends and its advantage for inverted structure solar cells. Advanced Functional Materials 2009, 19(8), 1227-1234.
80. White, M. S.; Olson, D. C.; Shaheen, S. E.; Kopidakis, N.; Ginley, D. S. Inverted bulk-heterojunction organic photovoltaic device using a solution-derived ZnO underlayer. Applied Physics Letters 2006, 89(14), 143517.
81. Huang, J.; Li, G.; Yang, Y. A semi-transparent plastic solar cell fabricated by a lamination process. Advanced Materials 2008, 20(3), 415-419.
82. Yu, B.-Y.; Tsai, A.; Tsai, S.-P.; Wong, K.-T.; Yang, Y.; Chu, C.-W.; Shyue, J.-J. Efficient inverted solar cells using TiO2 nanotube arrays. Nanotechnology 2008, 19(25), 255202.
83. Manuel, R.; Jonas, H.; Zhenhao, Z.; Erik, A.; Alexander, C.; Uli, L. Inverted organic solar cells comprising a solution-processed cesium fluoride interlayer. Applied Physics Letters 2011, 98(5), 053303.
84. Hua-Hsien, L.; Li-Min, C.; Zheng, X.; Gang, L.; Yang, Y. Highly efficient inverted polymer solar cell by low temperature annealing of Cs2CO3 interlayer. Applied Physics Letters 2008, 92(17), 173303.
85. Kuwabara, T.; Sugiyama, H.; Yamaguchi, T.; Takahashi, K. Inverted type bulk-heterojunction organic solar cell using electrodeposited titanium oxide thin films as electron collector electrode. Thin Solid Films 2009, 517(13), 3766-3769.
86. Lin, M.-Y.; Lee, C.-Y.; Shiu, S.-C.; Wang, I.-J.; Sun, J.-Y.; Wu, W.-H.; Lin, Y.-H; Huang, J.-S; Lin, C.-F. Sol-gel processed CuOx thin-film as an anode interlayer for inverted polymer solar cells. Organic Electronics 2010, 11(11), 1828-1834.
87. Vishal, S.; Gang, L.; Yan, Y.; Chih-Wei, C.; Yang, Y. Transition metal oxides as the buffer layer for polymer photovoltaic cells. Applied Physics Letters 2006, 88(7), 073508.
88. Chen, T.; Shengping, R.; Guohua, X.; Xiangzi, K.; Liang, S.; Fanxu, M.; Meng, F.; Liu, C.; Zhang, X.; Dong, W.; Chen, W. Role of tungsten oxide in inverted polymer solar cells. Applied Physics Letters 2009, 94(4), 043311.
89. Huang, J.-S.; Chou, C.-Y.; Liu, M.-Y.; Tsai, K.-H.; Lin, W.-H.; Lin, C.-F. Solution-processed vanadium oxide as an anode interlayer for inverted polymer solar cells hybridized with ZnO nanorods. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(6), 1060-1065.
90. Small, C. E.; Chen, S.; Subbiah, J.; Amb, C. M.; Tsang, S.-W.; Lai, T.-H; Reynolds, J.-R.; So, F. High-efficiency inverted dithienogermole-thienopyrrolodione-based polymer solar cells. Nature Photonics 2011, 6(2), 115-120.
91. Wang, J.-C.; Weng, W.-T.; Tsai, M.-Y.; Lee, M.-K.; Horng, S.-F.; Perng, T.-P.; Kei, C.-C.; Yuc, C.-C.; Meng, H.-I. Highly efficient flexible inverted organic solar cells using atomic layer deposited ZnO as electron selective layer. Journal of Materials Chemistry 2009, 20(5), 862-826.
92. Chou, C.-Y.; Huang, J.-S.; Wu, C.-H.; Lee, C.-Y.; Lin, C.-F. Lengthening the polymer solidification time to improve the performance of polymer/ZnO nanorod hybrid solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2009, 93(9), 1608-1612.
93. Kyaw, A. K. K.; Sun, X. W.; Jiang, C. Y.; Lo, G. Q.; Zhao, D. W.; Kwong, D. L. An inverted organic solar cell employing a sol-gel derived ZnO electron selective layer and thermal evaporated MoO3 hole selective layer. Applied Physics Letters 2008, 93(22), 221107.
94. Ravirajan, P.; Peir, A. M.; Nazeeruddin, M. K.; Graetzel, M.; Bradley, D. D. C.; Durrant, J. Hybrid polymer/zinc oxide photovoltaic devices with vertically oriented Zno nanorods and an amphiphilic molecular interface layer. Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2006, 110(15), 7635-7639.
95. Steven, K. H.; Hin-Lap, Y.; Nam Seob, B.; Jingyu, Z.; Kevin, O. M.; Alex, K. Y. J. Air-stable inverted flexible polymer solar cells using zinc oxide nanoparticles as an electron selective layer. Applied Physics Letters 2008, 92(25), 253301.
96. Sun, Y.; Takacs, C. J.; Cowan, S. R.; Seo, J. H.; Gong, X.; Roy, A.; Heeger, A. J. Efficient, air-stable bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells using MoOx as the anode interfacial layer. Advanced Materials 2011, 23(19), 2226-2230.
97. Voroshazi, E.; Verreet, B.; Buri, A.; Muller, R.; Di Nuzzo, D.; Heremans, P. Influence of cathode oxidation via the hole extraction layer in polymer:fullerene solar cells. Organic Electronics 2011, 12(5), 736-744.
98. Kanai, Y.; Matsushima, T.; Murata, H. Improvement of stability for organic solar cells by using molybdenum trioxide buffer layer. Thin Solid Films 2009, 518(2), 537-540.
99. Han, S.; Shin, W. S.; Seo, M.; Gupta, D.; Moon, S.-J.; Yoo, S. Improving performance of organic solar cells using amorphous tungsten oxides as an interfacial buffer layer on transparent anodes. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(5), 791-797.
100. Irwin, M. D.; Buchholz, D. B.; Hains, A. W.; Chang, R. P. H.; Marks, T. J. p-Type semiconducting nickel oxide as an efficiency-enhancing anode interfacial layer in polymer bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2008, 105(8), 2783-2787.
101. Zilberberg, K.; Trost, S.; Schmidt, H.; Riedl, T. Solution processed vanadium pentoxide as charge extraction layer for organic solar cells. Advanced Energy Materials 2011, 1(3), 377-381.
102. Sun, N.; Fang, G.; Qin, P.; Zheng, Q.; Wang, M.; Fan, X.; Efficient flexible organic solar cells with room temperature sputtered and highly conductive NiO as hole-transporting layer. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 2010, 43(44), 445101.
103. Lee, K.; Kim, J. Y.; Park, S. H.; Kim, S. H.; Cho, S.; Heeger, A. J. Air-stable polymer electronic devices. Advanced Materials 2007, 19(18), 2445-2449.
104. Li, J.; Kim, S.; Edington, S.; Nedy, J.; Cho, S.; Lee, K.; Heeger, A.-J.; Gupta, M.-C.; Yates, J.-T. A study of stabilization of P3HT/PCBM organic solar cells by photochemical active TiOx layer. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 95(4), 1123-1130.
105. Wang, D. H.; Im, S. H.; Lee, H. K.; Park, O. O.; Park, J. H. Enhanced high-temperature long-term stability of polymer solar cells with a thermally stable TiOx inter- layer. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2009, 113(39), 17268-17273.
106. Mingdong, W.; Fangyan, X.; Weiguang, X.; Shizhao, Z.; Ning, K.; Jian, C.; Zhao, N.; Xu, J.-B. Device lifetime improvement of polymer-based bulk heterojunction solar cells by incorporating copper oxide layer at Al cathode. Applied Physics Letters 2011, 98(18), 183304.
107. Fang-Chung, C.; Jyh-Lih, W.; Sidney, S. Y.; Kuo-Huang, H.; Wen-Chang, C. Cesium carbonate as a functional interlayer for polymer photovoltaic devices. Journal of Applied Physics 2008, 103(10), 103721.
108. Yang, L.; Xu, H.; Tian, H.; Yin, S.; Zhang, F. Effect of cathode buffer layer on the stability of polymer bulk heterojunction solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 94(10), 1831-1834.
109. Garg, A.; Gupta, S. K.; Singh, B.; Jasieniak, J.; Watkins, S. E. Improved lifetimes of organic solar cells with molybdenum oxide hole transport layers. Presented at International workshop on physics of semiconductor devices (IWPSD), IIT, Kanpur, 2011.
110. Jeon, S. O.; Lee, J. Y. Improved high temperature stability of organic solar cells using a phosphine oxide type cathode modification layer. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2010, 95(4), 1102-1106.
111. Wang, Y.; Yang, L.; Yao, C.; Qin, W.; Yin, S.; Zhang, F. Enhanced performance and stability in polymer photo-voltaic cells using lithium benzoate as cathode interfacial layer. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2011, 95(4), 1243-1247.
112. Jin, H.; Tuomikoski, M.; Hiltunen, J.; Kopola, Pl.; Maaninen, A.; Pino, F. Polymer electrode interfacial effect on photo-voltaic performances in poly(3-hexylthiophene):phenyl- C61-butyric acid methyl ester based solar cells. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2009, 113(38), 16807-16810.
113. Lare, Y.; Kouskoussa, B.; Benchouk, K.; Ouro Djobo, S.; Cattin, L.; Morsli, M.; Diaz, F. R.; Gacitua, M.; Abachi, T.; del Valle, M.-A.; Armijo, F.; East, G.-A.; Bernède, J. C. Influence of the exciton blocking layer on the stability of layered organic solar cells. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 2010, 72(2), 97-103.
114. Krebs, F. C.; Carle, J. E.; Cruys-Bagger, N.; Andersen, M.; Lilliedal, M. R.; Hammond, M. A.; Hvidt, S. Lifetimes of organic photovoltaics: photochemistry, atmosphere effects and barrier layers in ITO-MEHPPV:PCBM-aluminium devices. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2005, 86(4), 499-516.
115. Sun Ryu, M.; Jin Cha, H.; Jang, J. Improvement of operation lifetime for conjugated polymer:fullerene organic solar cells by introducing a UV absorbing film. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2009, 94(2), 152-156.
116. Katz, E. A.; Gevorgyan, S.; Orynbayev, M. S.; Krebs, F. C. Out-door testing and long-term stability of plastic solar cells. The European Physical Journal - Applied Physics 2006, 36(03), 307-311.
117. Wang, D. H.; Kim, J. K.; Seo, J. H.; Park, O. O.; Park, J. H. Stability comparison: A PCDTBT/PC71BM bulk-hetero-junction versus a P3HT/PC71BM bulk-heterojunction. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2012, 101, 249-255.
118. Li, X.; Choy, W. C. H.; Huo, L.; Xie, F.; Sha, W. E. I.; Ding, B.; Guo, X.; Li, Y.; Hou, J.; You, J.; Yang, Y. Dual plasmonic nanostructures for high performance inverted organic solar cells. Advanced Materials 2012, 24(22), 3046-3052.
119. Kumar, A.; Hong, Z.; Sista, S.; Yang, Y. The critical role of processing and morphology in determining degradation rates in polymer solar cells. Advanced Energy Materials 2011, 1(1), 124-131.
120. Lin, C.; Lin, E.-Y.; Tsai, F.-Y. Enhanced thermal stability and efficiency of polymer bulk-heterojunction solar cells by low-temperature drying of the active layer. Advanced Functional Materials 2010, 20(5), 834-839.
121. Meng, X.; Zhang, W.; Tan, Z.; Du, C.; Li, C.; Bo, Z.; Li, Y.; Yang, X.; Zhen, M.; Jiang, F.; Zheng, J.; Wang, T.; Jiang, L.; Chunying Shu, C.; Wang, C. Dihydronaphthyl-based [60] fullerene bisadducts for efficient and stable polymer solar cells. Chemical Communications 2012, 48(3), 425-427.
122. Kim, S.-O.; Sung Chung, D.; Cha, H.; Wan Jang, J.; Kim, Y.-H.; Kang, J.-W.; Jeong. Y.-S.; Park, C.-E.; Kwon, S.-K. Thermally stable organic bulk heterojunction photo-voltaic cells incorporating an amorphous fullerene derivative as an electron acceptor. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2011, 95(2), 432-439.
123. Dupuis, Al.; Wong-Wah-Chung, P.; Rivaton, A.; Gardette, J.-L. Influence of the microstructure on the photooxidative degradation of poly(3-hexylthiophene). Polymer Degradation and Stability 2012, 97(3), 366-374.
124. Hoppe, H.; Niggemann, M.; Winder, C.; Kraut, J.; Hiesgen, R.; Hinsch, A.; Dieter Meissner, D.; Sariciftci, N.-S. Nanoscale morphology of conjugated polymer/fullerene-based bulk- heterojunction solar cells. Advanced Functional Materials 2004, 14(10), 1005-1011.
125. Bertho, S.; Haeldermans, I.; Swinnen, A.; Moons, W.; Martens, T.; Lutsen, L.; Vanderzande, D.; Manca, J.; Senes, A.; Bonfiglio, A. Influence of thermal ageing on the stability of polymer bulk heterojunction solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2007, 91(5), 385-389.
126. Chen, L.-M.; Xu, Z.; Hong, Z.; Yang, Y. Interface investigation and engineering - achieving high performance polymer photovoltaic devices. Journal of Materials Chemistry 2010, 20(13), 2575-2598.
127. Lloyd, M. T.; Olson, D. C.; Lu, P.; Fang, E.; Moore, D. L.; White, M. S.; Reese, M.-O.; Ginley, D.-S.; Hsu, J. W.-P. Impact of contact evolution on the shelf life of organic solar cells. Journal of Materials Chemistry 2009, 19(41), 7638-7642.
128. Meyer, J.; Hamwi, S.; Kröger, M.; Kowalsky, W.; Riedl, T.; Kahn, A. Transition metal oxides for organic electronics: energetics, device physics and applications. Advanced Materials 2012, 24(40), 5408-5427.
129. Vitoratos, E.; Sakkopoulos, S.; Dalas, E.; Paliatsas, N.; Karageorgopoulos, D.; Petraki, F.; Kennou, S.; Choulis, S. A. Thermal degradation mechanisms of PEDOT:PSS. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(1), 61-66.
130. Ishii, H.; Hayashi, N.; Ito, E.; Washizu, Y.; Sugi, K.; Kimura, Y.; Niwano, M.; Ouchi, Y.; Seki, K. Kelvin probe study of band bending at organic semiconductor/metal interfaces: examination of Fermi level alignment. Physica Status Solidi (A) 2004, 201(6), 1075-1094.
131. Andreasen, B.; Tanenbaum, D. M.; Hermenau, M.; Voroshazi, E.; Lloyd, M. T.; Galagan, Y.; Zimmernann, B.; Kudret, S.; Maes, W.; Lutsen, L.; Vanderzande, D.; Würfel, U.; Andriessen, R.; Rösch, R.; Hoppe, H.; Teran-Escobar, G.; Lira-Cantu, M.; Rivaton, A.; Uzunoǧlu, G.-Y.; Germack, D.-S.; Hösel, M.; Dam, H. F.; Jørgensen, M.; Gevorgyan, S.-A.; Madsen, M.-V.; Bundgaard, E.; Krebs, F.-C.; Norrman, K. TOF-SIMS investigation of degradation pathways occurring in a variety of organic photovoltaic devices - the ISOS-3 inter-laboratory collaboration. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2012, 14(33), 11780-11789.
132. Lin, Y.-Y.; Chu, T.-H.; Li, S.-S.; Chuang, C.-H.; Chang, C.-H.; Su, W.-F.; Chang, C.-P.; Chang, M.-W.; Chang, C.-W. Interfacial nanostructuring on the performance of polymer/TiO2 nanorod bulk heterojunction solar cells. Journal of the American Chemical Society 2009, 131(10), 3644-3649.
133. Fahlteich, J.; Fahland, M.; Schonberger, W.; Schiller, N. Permeation barrier properties of thin oxide films on flexible polymer substrates. Thin Solid Films 2009, 517(10), 3075-3080.
134. Cros, S.; de Bettignies, R.; Berson, S.; Bailly, S.; Maisse, P.; Lemaitre, N.; Guillerez, S. Definition of encapsulation barrier requirements: a method applied to organic solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2011, 95(Suppl 1), S65-S69.
135. Dennler, G.; Lungenschmied, C.; Neugebauer, H.; Sariciftci, N. S.; Latrache, M.; Czeremuszkin, G.; Wertheimer, M.-R. A new encapsulation solution for flexible organic solar cells. Thin Solid Films 2006, 511-512, 349-353.
136. Gaume, J.; Taviot-Gueho, C.; Cros, S.; Rivaton, A.; Therias, S.; Gardette, J.-L. Optimization of PVA clay nanocomposite for ultra-barrier multilayer encapsulation of organic solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2012, 99, 240-249.
137. Hayoung, J.; Kwonwoo, S.; Chanwoo, Y.; Chan Eon, P.; Sang-Hee Ko, P. Thin-film passivation by atomic layer deposition for organic field-effect transistors. Applied Physics Letters 2008, 93(16), 163304.
138. Sarkar, S.; Culp, J. H.; Whyland, J. T.; Garvan, M.; Misra, V. Encapsulation of organic solar cells with ultrathin barrier layers deposited by ozone-based atomic layer deposition. Organic Electronics 2010, 11(12), 1896-1900.
139. Jin, J.; Lee, J. J.; Bae, B.-S.; Park, S. J.; Yoo, S.; Jung, K. Silica nanoparticle-embedded sol-gel organic/inorganic hybrid nanocomposite for transparent OLED encapsulation. Organic Electronics 2011, 13(1), 53-57.
140. Zhong, C.; Bongmook, L.; Smita, S.; Srivardhan, G.; Veena, M. A molecular memory device formed by HfO2 encapsulation of redox-active molecules. Applied Physics Letters 2007, 91(17), 173111.
141. Graff, G. L.; Williford, R. E.; Burrows, P. E. Mechanisms of vapor permeation through multilayer barrier films: Lag time versus equilibrium permeation. Journal of Applied Physics 2004, 96(4), 1840-1849.
142. Chang, C.-Y.; Chou, C.-T.; Lee, Y.-J.; Chen, M.-J.; Tsai, F.-Y. Thin-film encapsulation of polymer-based bulk-het-erojunction photovoltaic cells by atomic layer deposition. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(7), 1300-1306.
143. Choi, D.-W.; Kim, S.-J.; Lee, J. H.; Chung, K.-B.; Park, J.-S. A study of thin film encapsulation on polymer substrate using low temperature hybrid ZnO/Al2O3 layers atomic layer deposition. Current Applied Physics 2012, 12, S19-S23.
144. Choi, J.-H.; Kim, Y.-M.; Park, Y.-W.; Park, T.-H.; Jeong, J.-W.; Choi, H.-J.; Song, E.-H.; Lee, J.-W.; Kim, C.-H.; Ju, B.-K. Highly conformal SiO2/Al2O3 nanolaminate gas-diffusion barriers for large-area flexible electronics applications. Nanotechnology 2010, 21(47), 475203.
145. Meyer, J.; Görrn, P.; Bertram, F.; Hamwi, S.; Winkler T.; Johannes, H.-H.; Weimann, T.; Hinze, P.; Riedl, T.; Kowalsky, W. Al2O3/ZrO2 nanolaminates as ultrahigh gas-diffusion barriers - a strategy for reliable encapsulation of organic electronics. Advanced Materials 2009, 21(18), 1845-1849.
146. Lee, Y. G.; Choi, Y.-H.; Kee, I. S.; Shim, H. S.; Jin, Y.; Lee, S.; Koh, K.-H. Thin-film encapsulation of top-emission organic light-emitting devices with polyurea/Al2O3 hybrid multi-layers. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(7), 1352-1355.
147. Wong, F. L.; Fung, M. K.; Ng, C. Y.; Ng, A.; Bello, I.; Lee, S.T.; Lee, C. S. Co-sputtered oxide thin film encapsulated organic electronic devices with prolonged lifetime. Thin Solid Films 2011, 520(3), 1131-1135.
148. Fumagalli, L.; Binda, M.; Lopez, I. S.; Natali, D.; Sampietro, M.; Ferrari, S.; et al. Multi layer structure for encapsulation of organic transistors. Organic Electronics 2009, 10(4), 692-695.
149. Han, Y. C.; Jang, C.; Kim, K. J.; Choi, K. C.; Jung, K.; Bae, B.-S. The encapsulation of an organic light-emitting diode using organic-inorganic hybrid materials and MgO. Organic Electronics 2011, 12(4), 609-613.
150. Kim, N.; Potscavage, W. J. Jr.; Sundaramoothi, A.; Henderson, C.; Kippelen, B.; Graham, S. A correlation study between barrier film performance and shelf lifetime of encapsulated organic solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 2012, 101, 140-146.