Diminishing risk for age-related macular degeneration with nutrition: A current view

Nutrients

Volumn 5, Issue 7, 2013, Pages 2405-2456

  Schleicher, Molly ^a   Weikel, Karen ^b   Garber, Caren ^a   Taylor, Allen ^a  

^a TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b BOSTON MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; AMD; Antioxidants; Carotenoids; Glycemic index; Nutrition

Indexed keywords

CAROTENOID; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; TRACE ELEMENT;

AGED; BLINDNESS; DIET; DISEASE COURSE; GLYCEMIC INDEX; HUMAN; INDUSTRIALIZATION; MACRONUTRIENT; NUTRIENT; NUTRITION; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; RETINA MACULA AGE RELATED DEGENERATION; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION;

EID: 84879915910     PISSN: 20726643     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu5072405     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Gehrs, K.M.; Anderson, D.H.; Johnson, L.V.; Hageman, G.S. Age-related macular degeneration-Emerging pathogenetic and therapeutic concepts. Ann. Med. 2006, 38, 450-471.
2. Biarnes, M.; Mones, J.; Alonso, J.; Arias, L. Update on geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration. Optom. Vis. Sci. 2011, 88, 881-889.
3. Klein, R.; Cruickshanks, K.J.; Nash, S.D.; Krantz, E.M.; Javier Nieto, F.; Huang, G.H.; Pankow, J.S.; Klein, B.E. The prevalence of age-related macular degeneration and associated risk factors. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2010, 128, 750-758.
4. The Bright Focus Foundation. Facts on Macular Degeneration, Macular Degeneration Research. 2012. Avaiable online: http://www.brightfocus.org/macular/about/understanding/facts.html. (accessed on 31 January 2013).
5. National Eye Institute, N.I.H. Facts about Age-Related Macular Degeneration; National Eye Institute: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2010.
6. Zarbin, M.A. Age-related macular degeneration: Review of pathogenesis. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 1998, 8, 199-206.
7. Sung, C.H.; Chuang, J.Z. The cell biology of vision. J. Cell Biol. 2010, 190, 953-963.
8. Sivaprasad, S.; Bailey, T.A.; Chong, V.N. Bruch's membrane and the vascular intima: Is there a common basis for age-related changes and disease? Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2005, 33, 518-523.
9. Shakib, M.; Zinn, K.M. Fine structure and function of ocular tissues. The choroid, bruch's membrane, and the retinal pigment epithelium. Int. Ophthalmol. Clin. 1973, 13, 189-204.
10. Curcio, C.A.; Millican, C.L. Basal linear deposit and large drusen are specific for early age-related maculopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1999, 117, 329-339.
11. Ding, X.; Patel, M.; Chan, C.C. Molecular pathology of age-related macular degeneration. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2009, 28, 1-18.
12. Jager, R.D.; Mieler, W.F.; Miller, J.W. Age-related macular degeneration. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 358, 2606-2617.
13. Al-Hussaini, H.; Schneiders, M.; Lundh, P.; Jeffery, G. Drusen are associated with local and distant disruptions to human retinal pigment epithelium cells. Exp. Eye Res. 2009, 88, 610-612.
14. Wang, A.L.; Lukas, T.J.; Yuan, M.; Du, N.; Tso, M.O.; Neufeld, A.H. Autophagy and exosomes in the aged retinal pigment epithelium: Possible relevance to drusen formation and age-related macular degeneration. PLoS One 2009, 4, e4160.
15. Davis, M.D.; Gangnon, R.E.; Lee, L.Y.; Hubbard, L.D.; Klein, B.E.; Klein, R.; Ferris, F.L.; Bressler, S.B.; Milton, R.C. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group. The age-related eye disease study severity scale for age-related macular degeneration: Areds report no. 17. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2005, 123, 1484-1498.
16. The Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. The age-related eye disease study (areds) system for classifying cataracts from photographs: AREDS Report No. 4. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2001, 131, 167-175.
17. Friedman, D.S.; O'Colmain, B.J.; Munoz, B.; Tomany, S.C.; McCarty, C.; de Jong, P.T.; Nemesure, B.; Mitchell, P.; Kempen, J.; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration in the united states. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2004, 122, 564-572.
18. Hageman, G.S.; Anderson, D.H.; Johnson, L.V.; Hancox, L.S.; Taiber, A.J.; Hardisty, L.I.; Hageman, J.L.; Stockman, H.A.; Borchardt, J.D.; Gehrs, K.M., et al. A common haplotype in the complement regulatory gene factor h (hf1/cfh) predisposes individuals to age-related macular degeneration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 7227-7232.
19. Edwards, A.O.; Ritter, R., III; Abel, K.J.; Manning, A.; Panhuysen, C.; Farrer, L.A. Complement factor h polymorphism and age-related macular degeneration. Science 2005, 308, 421-424.
20. Haines, J.L.; Hauser, M.A.; Schmidt, S.; Scott, W.K.; Olson, L.M.; Gallins, P.; Spencer, K.L.; Kwan, S.Y.; Noureddine, M.; Gilbert, J.R., et al. Complement factor h variant increases the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Science 2005, 308, 419-421.
21. Klein, R.J.; Zeiss, C.; Chew, E.Y.; Tsai, J.Y.; Sackler, R.S.; Haynes, C.; Henning, A.K.; SanGiovanni, J.P.; Mane, S.M.; Mayne, S.T., et al. Complement factor h polymorphism in age-related macular degeneration. Science 2005, 308, 385-389.
22. Gorin, M.B. Genetic insights into age-related macular degeneration: Controversies addressing risk, causality, and therapeutics. Mol. Aspects Med. 2012, 33, 467-486.
23. Peeters, A.; Magliano, D.J.; Stevens, J.; Duncan, B.B.; Klein, R.; Wong, T.Y. Changes in abdominal obesity and age-related macular degeneration: The atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2008, 126, 1554-1560.
24. Smiddy, W.E.; Fine, S.L. Prognosis of patients with bilateral macular drusen. Ophthalmology 1984, 91, 271-277.
25. Weikel, K.A.; Chiu, C.J.; Taylor, A. Nutritional modulation of age-related macular degeneration. Mol. Aspects Med. 2012, 33, 318-375.
26. Jenkins, D.J.; Wolever, T.M.; Taylor, R.H.; Barker, H.; Fielden, H.; Baldwin, J.M.; Bowling, A.C.; Newman, H.C.; Jenkins, A.L.; Goff, D.V. Glycemic index of foods: A physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1981, 34, 362-366.
27. Chiu, C.J.; Taylor, A. Dietary hyperglycemia, glycemic index and metabolic retinal diseases. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2011, 30, 18-53.
28. Chiu, C.-J.; Liu, S.; Willett, W.C.; Wolever, T.M.S.; Brand-Miller, J.C.; Barclay, A.C.; Taylor, A. Informing food choices and health outcomes by use of the dietary glycemic index. Nutr. Rev. 2011, 69, 231-242.
29. Chiu, C.J.; Milton, R.C.; Gensler, G.; Taylor, A. Association between dietary glycemic index and age-related macular degeneration in nondiabetic participants in the age-related eye disease study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 86, 180-188.
30. Chiu, C.J.; Hubbard, L.D.; Armstrong, J.; Rogers, G.; Jacques, P.F.; Chylack, L.T., Jr.; Hankinson, S.E.; Willett, W.C.; Taylor, A. Dietary glycemic index and carbohydrate in relation to early age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 880-886.
31. Chiu, C.J.; Milton, R.C.; Klein, R.; Gensler, G.; Taylor, A. Dietary carbohydrate and the progression of age-related macular degeneration: A prospective study from the age-related eye disease study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 86, 1210-1218.
32. Chiu, C.J.; Klein, R.; Milton, R.C.; Gensler, G.; Taylor, A. Does eating particular diets alter risk of age-related macular degeneration in users of the age-related eye disease study supplements? Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2009, 93, 1241-1246.
33. Kaushik, S.; Wang, J.J.; Flood, V.; Tan, J.S.; Barclay, A.W.; Wong, T.Y.; Brand-Miller, J.; Mitchell, P. Dietary glycemic index and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 1104-1110.
34. Weikel, K.A.; Fitzgerald, P.; Shang, F.; Caceres, M.A.; Bian, Q.; Handa, J.T.; Stitt, A.W.; Taylor, A. Natural history of age-related retinal lesions that precede amd in mice fed high or low glycemic index diets. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2012, 53, 622-632.
35. Uchiki, T.; Weikel, K.A.; Jiao, W.; Shang, F.; Caceres, A.; Pawlak, D.B.; Handa, J.T.; Brownlee, M.; Nagaraj, R.; Taylor, A. Glycation-altered proteolysis as a pathobiologic mechanism that links dietary glycemic index, aging, and age-related disease (in non diabetics). Aging Cell 2012, 11, 1-13.
36. Ludwig, D.S. The glycemic index: Physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2002, 287, 2414-2423.
37. Brand-Miller, J.C.; Holt, S.H.; Pawlak, D.B.; McMillan, J. Glycemic index and obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, 281S-285S.
38. Schweigert, F.J.; Reimann, J. Micronutrients and their relevance for the eye-Function of lutein, zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids. Klin. Monbl. Augenheilkd. 2011, 228, 537-543.
39. Pilkington, S.M.; Watson, R.E.; Nicolaou, A.; Rhodes, L.E. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Photoprotective macronutrients. Exp. Dermatol. 2011, 20, 537-543.
40. Seddon, J.M.; Rosner, B.; Sperduto, R.D.; Yannuzzi, L.; Haller, J.A.; Blair, N.P.; Willett, W. Dietary fat and risk for advanced age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2001, 119, 1191-1199.
41. Seddon, J.M.; George, S.; Rosner, B. Cigarette smoking, fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acid intake, and associations with age-related macular degeneration: The us twin study of age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2006, 124, 995-1001.
42. SanGiovanni, J.P.; Chew, E.Y.; Clemons, T.E.; Davis, M.D.; Ferris, F.L., III; Gensler, G.R.; Kurinij, N.; Lindblad, A.S.; Milton, R.C.; Seddon, J.M., et al. The relationship of dietary lipid intake and age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: Areds report no. 20. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2007, 125, 671-679.
43. Christen, W.G.; Schaumberg, D.A.; Glynn, R.J.; Buring, J.E. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid and fish intake and incident age-related macular degeneration in women. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2011, 129, 921-929.
44. Cho, E.; Hung, S.; Willett, W.C.; Spiegelman, D.; Rimm, E.B.; Seddon, J.M.; Colditz, G.A.; Hankinson, S.E. Prospective study of dietary fat and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 73, 209-218.
45. Chong, E.W.; Robman, L.D.; Simpson, J.A.; Hodge, A.M.; Aung, K.Z.; Dolphin, T.K.; English, D.R.; Giles, G.G.; Guymer, R.H. Fat consumption and its association with age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2009, 127, 674-680.
46. Tan, J.S.; Wang, J.J.; Flood, V.; Mitchell, P. Dietary fatty acids and the 10-year incidence of age-related macular degeneration: The blue mountains eye study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2009, 127, 656-665.
47. Chua, B.; Flood, V.; Rochtchina, E.; Wang, J.J.; Smith, W.; Mitchell, P. Dietary fatty acids and the 5-year incidence of age-related maculopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2006, 124, 981-986.
48. Augood, C.; Chakravarthy, U.; Young, I.; Vioque, J.; de Jong, P.T.; Bentham, G.; Rahu, M.; Seland, J.; Soubrane, G.; Tomazzoli, L., et al. Oily fish consumption, dietary docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid intakes, and associations with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 398-406.
49. Johnson, E.J.; Chung, H.Y.; Caldarella, S.M.; Snodderly, D.M. The influence of supplemental lutein and docosahexaenoic acid on serum, lipoproteins, and macular pigmentation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 1521-1529.
50. Souied, E.H.; Delcourt, C.; Querques, G.; Bassols, A.; Merle, B.; Zourdani, A.; Smith, T.; Benlian, P. Oral docosahexaenoic acid in the prevention of exudative age-related macular degeneration: The nutritional amd treatment 2 study. Ophthalmology 2013, 7, 7-9.
51. Mance, T.C.; Kovacevic, D.; Alpeza-Dunato, Z.; Stroligo, M.N.; Brumini, G. The role of omega6 to omega3 ratio in development and progression of age-related macular degeneration. Coll. Antropol. 2011, 2, 307-310.
52. Chiu, C.J.; Milton, R.C.; Klein, R.; Gensler, G.; Taylor, A. Dietary compound score and risk of age-related macular degeneration in the age-related eye disease study. Ophthalmology 2009, 116, 939-946.
53. Mares-Perlman, J.A.; Brady, W.E.; Klein, R.; VandenLangenberg, G.M.; Klein, B.E.; Palta, M. Dietary fat and age-related maculopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1995, 113, 743-748.
54. Parekh, N.; Voland, R.P.; Moeller, S.M.; Blodi, B.A.; Ritenbaugh, C.; Chappell, R.J.; Wallace, R.B.; Mares, J.A. Association between dietary fat intake and age-related macular degeneration in the carotenoids in age-related eye disease study (careds): An ancillary study of the women's health initiative. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2009, 127, 1483-1493.
55. Robman, L.; Vu, H.; Hodge, A.; Tikellis, G.; Dimitrov, P.; McCarty, C.; Guymer, R. Dietary lutein, zeaxanthin, and fats and the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Can. J. Ophthalmol. 2007, 42, 720-726.
56. Meyer, B.J.; Mann, N.J.; Lewis, J.L.; Milligan, G.C.; Sinclair, A.J.; Howe, P.R. Dietary intakes and food sources of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids 2003, 38, 391-398.
57. Seddon, J.M.; Cote, J.; Rosner, B. Progression of age-related macular degeneration: Association with dietary fat, transunsaturated fat, nuts, and fish intake. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2003, 121, 1728-1737.
58. Smith, W.; Mitchell, P.; Leeder, S.R. Dietary fat and fish intake and age-related maculopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2000, 118, 401-404.
59. Swenor, B.K.; Bressler, S.; Caulfield, L.; West, S.K. The impact of fish and shellfish consumption on age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 2010, 117, 2395-2401.
60. Delcourt, C.; Carriere, I.; Cristol, J.P.; Lacroux, A.; Gerber, M. Dietary fat and the risk of age-related maculopathy: The polanut study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 61, 1341-1344.
61. Heuberger, R.A.; Mares-Perlman, J.A.; Klein, R.; Klein, B.E.; Millen, A.E.; Palta, M. Relationship of dietary fat to age-related maculopathy in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2001, 119, 1833-1838.
62. Granado, F.; Olmedilla, B.; Blanco, I. Nutritional and clinical relevance of lutein in human health. Br. J. Nutr. 2003, 90, 487-502.
63. Dietzel, M.; Zeimer, M.; Heimes, B.; Claes, B.; Pauleikhoff, D.; Hense, H.W. Determinants of macular pigment optical density and its relation to age-related maculopathy: Results from the muenster aging and retina study (mars). Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2011, 52, 3452-3457.
64. Schalch, W.; Cohn, W.; Barker, F.M.; Kopcke, W.; Mellerio, J.; Bird, A.C.; Robson, A.G.; Fitzke, F.F.; van Kuijk, F.J. Xanthophyll accumulation in the human retina during supplementation with lutein or zeaxanthin-The luxea (lutein xanthophyll eye accumulation) study. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2007, 458, 128-135.
65. Landrum, J.T.; Bone, R.A.; Joa, H.; Kilburn, M.D.; Moore, L.L.; Sprague, K.E. A one year study of the macular pigment: The effect of 140 days of a lutein supplement. Exp. Eye Res. 1997, 65, 57-62.
66. Hammond, B.R., Jr.; Johnson, E.J.; Russell, R.M.; Krinsky, N.I.; Yeum, K.-J.; Edwards, R.B.; Snodderly, D.M. Dietary modification of human macular pigment density. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1997, 38, 1795-1801.
67. Ma, L.; Dou, H.-L.; Wu, Y.-Q.; Huang, Y.-M.; Huang, Y.-B.; Xu, X.-R.; Zou, Z.-Y.; Lin, X.-M. Lutein and zeaxanthin intake and the risk of age-related macular degeneration: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Nutr. 2012, 107, 350-359.
68. SanGiovanni, J.P.; Neuringer, M. The putative role of lutein and zeaxanthin as protective agents against age-related macular degeneration: Promise of molecular genetics for guiding mechanistic and translational research in the field. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 96, 10.
69. Seddon, J.M.; Ajani, U.A.; Sperduto, R.D.; Hiller, R.; Blair, N.; Burton, T.C.; Farber, M.D.; Gragoudas, E.S.; Haller, J.; Miller, D.T., et al. Dietary carotenoids, vitamins a, c, and e, and advanced age-related macular degeneration. Eye disease case-control study group. JAMA 1994, 272, 1413-1420.
70. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Antioxidant status and neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1993, 111, 104-109.
71. Snellen, E.L.; Verbeek, A.L.; van den Hoogen, G.W.; Cruysberg, J.R.; Hoyng, C.B. Neovascular age-related macular degeneration and its relationship to antioxidant intake. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 2002, 80, 368-371.
72. Gale, C.R.; Hall, N.F.; Phillips, D.I.W.; Martyn, C.N. Lutein and zeaxanthin status and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2003, 44, 2461-2465.
73. Delcourt, C.; Carriere, I.; Delage, M.; Barberger-Gateau, P.; Schalch, W. Plasma lutein and zeaxanthin and other carotenoids as modifiable risk factors for age-related maculopathy and cataract: The pola study. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2006, 47, 2329-2335.
74. Mares-Perlman, J.A.; Fisher, A.I.; Klein, R.; Palta, M.; Block, G.; Millen, A.E.; Wright, J.D. Lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet and serum and their relation to age-related maculopathy in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2001, 153, 424-432.
75. Bucheli, P.; Vidal, K.; Shen, L.; Gu, Z.; Zhang, C.; Miller, L.E.; Wang, J. Goji berry effects on macular characteristics and plasma antioxidant levels. Optom. Vis. Sci. 2011, 88, 257-262.
76. Zeimer, M.; Hense, H.W.; Heimes, B.; Austermann, U.; Fobker, M.; Pauleikhoff, D. The macular pigment: Short- and intermediate-term changes of macular pigment optical density following supplementation with lutein and zeaxanthin and co-antioxidants. The luna study. Ophthalmologe 2009, 106, 29-36.
77. Bone, R.A.; Landrum, J.T. Dose-dependent response of serum lutein and macular pigment optical density to supplementation with lutein esters. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2010, 504, 50-55.
78. Loughman, J.; Nolan, J.M.; Howard, A.N.; Connolly, E.; Meagher, K.; Beatty, S. The impact of macular pigment augmentation on visual performance using different carotenoid formulations. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2012, 53, 7871-7880.
79. Ma, L.; Yan, S.F.; Huang, Y.M.; Lu, X.R.; Qian, F.; Pang, H.L.; Xu, X.R.; Zou, Z.Y.; Dong, P.C.; Xiao, X., et al. Effect of lutein and zeaxanthin on macular pigment and visual function in patients with early age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 2012, 119, 2290-2297.
80. Richer, S.P.; Stiles, W.; Graham-Hoffman, K.; Levin, M.; Ruskin, D.; Wrobel, J.; Park, D.W.; Thomas, C. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of zeaxanthin and visual function in patients with atrophic age-related macular degeneration: The zeaxanthin and visual function study (zvf) fda ind #78, 973. Optometry 2011, 82, 667-680.
81. Piermarocchi, S.; Saviano, S.; Parisi, V.; Tedeschi, M.; Panozzo, G.; Scarpa, G.; Boschi, G.; Lo Giudice, G. Carotenoids in age-related maculopathy italian study (CARMIS): Two-year results of a randomized study. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 2012, 22, 216-225.
82. Richer, S.; Stiles, W.; Statkute, L.; Pulido, J.; Frankowski, J.; Rudy, D.; Pei, K.; Tsipursky, M.; Nyland, J. Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degeneration: The veterans last study (lutein antioxidant supplementation trial). Optometry 2004, 75, 216-230.
83. Richer, S.; Devenport, J.; Lang, J.C. Last ii: Differential temporal responses of macular pigment optical density in patients with atrophic age-related macular degeneration to dietary supplementation with xanthophylls. Optometry 2007, 78, 213-219.
84. Trieschmann, M.; Beatty, S.; Nolan, J.M.; Hense, H.W.; Heimes, B.; Austermann, U.; Fobker, M.; Pauleikhoff, D. Changes in macular pigment optical density and serum concentrations of its constituent carotenoids following supplemental lutein and zeaxanthin: The luna study. Exp. Eye Res. 2007, 84, 718-728.
85. Cardinault, N.; Abalain, J.H.; Sairafi, B.; Coudray, C.; Grolier, P.; Rambeau, M.; Carre, J.L.; Mazur, A.; Rock, E. Lycopene but not lutein nor zeaxanthin decreases in serum and lipoproteins in age-related macular degeneration patients. Clin. Chim. Acta 2005, 357, 34-42.
86. Sanders, T.A.B.; Haines, A.P.; Wormald, R.; Wright, L.A.; Obeid, O. Essential fatty acids, plasma cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins in subjects with age-related maculopathy and matched control subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1993, 57, 428-433.
87. Seddon, J.M.; Reynolds, R.; Rosner, B. Associations of smoking, body mass index, dietary lutein, and the lipc gene variant rs10468017 with advanced age-related macular degeneration. Mol. Vis. 2010, 16, 2412-2424.
88. Michikawa, T.; Ishida, S.; Nishiwaki, Y.; Kikuchi, Y.; Tsuboi, T.; Hosoda, K.; Ishigami, A.; Iwasawa, S.; Nakano, M.; Takebayashi, T. Serum antioxidants and age-related macular degeneration among older japanese. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 18, 1-7.
89. Fletcher, A.E.; Bentham, G.C.; Agnew, M.; Young, I.S.; Augood, C.; Chakravarthy, U.; de Jong, P.T.; Rahu, M.; Seland, J.; Soubrane, G., et al. Sunlight exposure, antioxidants, and age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2008, 126, 1396-1403.
90. Mares-Perlman, J.; Klein, R.; Klein, B.E.K.; Greger, J.L.; Brady, W.E.; Palta, M.; Ritter, L.L. Association of zinc and antioxidant nutrients with age-related maculopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1996, 114, 991-997.
91. Van Leeuwen, R.; Boekhoorn, S.; Vingerling, J.R.; Witteman, J.C.; Klaver, C.C.; Hofman, A.; de Jong, P.T. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of age-related macular degeneration. JAMA 2005, 294, 3101-3107.
92. Flood, V.; Smith, W.; Wang, J.J.; Manzi, F.; Webb, K.; Mitchell, P. Dietary antioxidant intake and incidence of early age-related maculopathy: The blue mountains eye study. Ophthalmology 2002, 109, 2272-2278.
93. Tan, J.S.; Wang, J.J.; Flood, V.; Rochtchina, E.; Smith, W.; Mitchell, P. Dietary antioxidants and the long-term incidence of age-related macular degeneration: The blue mountains eye study. Ophthalmology 2008, 115, 334-341.
94. VandenLangenberg, G.M.; Mares-Perlman, J.A.; Klein, R.; Klein, B.E.; Brady, W.E.; Palta, M. Associations between antioxidant and zinc intake and the 5-year incidence of early age-related maculopathy in the beaver dam eye study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998, 148, 204-214.
95. Cho, E.; Seddon, J.M.; Rosner, B.; Willett, W.C.; Hankinson, S.E. Prospective study of intake of fruits, vegetables, vitamins, and carotenoids and risk of age-related maculopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2004, 122, 883-892.
96. Cho, E.; Hankinson, S.E.; Rosner, B.; Willett, W.C.; Colditz, G.A. Prospective study of lutein/zeaxanthin intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 1837-1843.
97. Smith, W.; Mitchell, P.; Rochester, C. Serum beta carotene, alpha tocopherol, and age-related maculopathy: The blue mountains eye study. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 1997, 124, 838-840.
98. Mares-Perlman, J.A.; Brady, W.E.; Klein, R.; Klein, B.E.; Bowen, P.; Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis, M.; Palta, M. Serum antioxidants and age-related macular degeneration in a population-based case-control study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1995, 113, 1518-1523.
99. San Giovanni, J.P.; Chew, E.Y.; Clemons, T.E.; Ferris, F.L., III; Gensler, G.; Lindblad, A.S.; Milton, R.C.; Seddon, J.M.; Sperduto, R.D. The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin a, e, and c intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: Areds report no. 22. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2007, 125, 1225-1232.
100. West, S.; Vitale, S.; Hallfrisch, J.; Munoz, B.; Muller, D.; Bressler, S.; Bressler, N.M. Are antioxidants or supplements protective for age-related macular degeneration? Arch. Ophthalmol. 1994, 112, 222-227.
101. Teikari, J.M.; Laatikainen, L.; Virtamo, J.; Haukka, J.; Rautalahti, M.; Liesto, K.; Albanes, D.; Taylor, P.; Heinonen, O.P. Six-year supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene and age-related maculopathy. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 1998, 76, 224-229.
102. Morris, M.S.; Jacques, P.F.; Chylack, L.T.; Hankinson, S.E.; Willett, W.C.; Hubbard, L.D.; Taylor, A. Intake of zinc and antioxidant micronutrients and early age-related maculopathy lesions. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2007, 14, 288-298.
103. Maiani, G.; Caston, M.J.; Catasta, G.; Toti, E.; Cambrodon, I.G.; Bysted, A.; Granado-Lorencio, F.; Olmedilla-Alonso, B.; Knuthsen, P.; Valoti, M., et al. Carotenoids: Actual knowledge on food sources, intakes, stability and bioavailability and their protective role in humans. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2009, 53, S194-S218.
104. Simonelli, F.; Zarrilli, F.; Mazzeo, S.; Verde, V.; Romano, N.; Savoia, M.; Testa, F.; Vitale, D.F.; Rinaldi, M.; Sacchetti, L. Serum oxidative and antioxidant parameters in a group of italian patients with age-related maculopathy. Clin. Chim. Acta 2002, 320, 111-115.
105. Obana, A.; Hiramitsu, T.; Gohto, Y.; Ohira, A.; Mizuno, S.; Hirano, T.; Bernstein, P.S.; Fujii, H.; Iseki, K.; Tanito, M., et al. Macular carotenoid levels of normal subjects and age-related maculopathy patients in a japanese population. Ophthalmology 2008, 115, 147-157.
106. Blumenkranz, M.S.; Russell, S.R.; Robey, M.G.; Kott-Blumenkranz, R.; Penneys, N. Risk factors in age-related maculopathy complicated by choroidal neovascularization. Ophthalmology 1986, 93, 552-558.
107. Ishihara, N.; Yuzawa, M.; Tamakoshi, A. Antioxidants and angiogenetic factor associated with age-related macular degeneration (exudative type). Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi 1997, 101, 248-251.
108. Goldberg, J.; Flowerdew, G.; Smith, E.; Brody, J.A.; Tso, M.O.M. Factors associated with age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1988, 128, 700-710.
109. Klein, B.E.; Knudtson, M.D.; Lee, K.E.; Reinke, J.O.; Danforth, L.G.; Wealti, A.M.; Moore, E.; Klein, R. Supplements and age-related eye conditions the beaver dam eye study. Ophthalmology 2008, 115, 1203-1208.
110. Belda, J.I.; Roma, J.; Vilela, C.; Puertas, F.J.; Diaz-Llopis, M.; Bosch-Morell, F.; Romero, F.J. Serum vitamin e levels negatively correlate with severity of age-related macular degeneration. Mech. Ageing Dev. 1999, 107, 159-164.
111. Delcourt, C.; Cristol, J.P.; Tessier, F.; Leger, C.L.; Descomps, B.; Papoz, L. Age-related macular degeneration and antioxidant status in the pola study. Pola study group. Pathologies oculaires liees a l'age. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1999, 117, 1384-1390.
112. Shen, X.L.; Jia, J.H.; Zhao, P.; Fan, R.; Pan, X.Y.; Yang, H.M.; Liu, L. Changes in blood oxidative and antioxidant parameters in a group of chinese patients with age-related macular degeneration. J. Nutr. Health Aging 2012, 16, 201-204.
113. Christen, W.G.; Ajani, U.A.; Glynn, R.J.; Manson, J.E.; Schaumberg, D.A.; Chew, E.C.; Buring, J.E.; Hennekens, C.H. Prospective cohort study of antioxidant vitamin supplement use and the risk of age-related maculopathy. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1999, 149, 476-484.
114. Christen, W.G.; Glynn, R.J.; Sesso, H.D.; Kurth, T.; MacFadyen, J.; Bubes, V.; Buring, J.E.; Manson, J.E.; Gaziano, J.M. Age-related cataract in a randomized trial of vitamins e and c in men. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2010, 128, 1397-1405.
115. Taylor, H.R.; Tikellis, G.; Robman, L.D.; McCarty, C.A.; McNeil, J.J. Vitamin e supplementation and macular degeneration: Randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2002, 325, 11.
116. Christen, W.G.; Glynn, R.J.; Sesso, H.D.; Kurth, T.; Macfadyen, J.; Bubes, V.; Buring, J.E.; Manson, J.E.; Gaziano, J.M. Vitamins e and c and medical record-confirmed age-related macular degeneration in a randomized trial of male physicians. Ophthalmology 2012, 119, 1642-1649.
117. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins c and e and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: Areds report no. 9. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2001, 119, 1439-1452.
118. Chew, E.Y.; Lindblad, A.S.; Clemons, T. Summary results and recommendations from the age-related eye disease study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2009, 127, 1678-1679.
119. Parisi, V.; Tedeschi, M.; Gallinaro, G.; Varano, M.; Saviano, S.; Piermarocchi, S. Carotenoids and antioxidants in age-related maculopathy italian study: Multifocal electroretinogram modifications after 1 year. Ophthalmology 2008, 115, 324-333.
120. Richer, S. Multicenter ophthalmic and nutritional age-related macular degeneration study-Part 2: Antioxidant intervention and conclusions. J. Am. Optom. Assoc. 1996, 67, 30-49.
121. Cangemi, F.E. Tozal study: An open case control study of an oral antioxidant and omega-3 supplement for dry amd. BMC Ophthalmol. 2007, 7, 3.
122. Beatty, S.; Chakravarthy, U.; Nolan, J.M.; Muldrew, K.A.; Woodside, J.V.; Denny, F.; Stevenson, M.R. Secondary outcomes in a clinical trial of carotenoids with coantioxidants versus placebo in early age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 2012, 120, 600-606.
123. Kuzniarz, M.; Mitchell, P.; Flood, V.M.; Wang, J.J. Use of vitamin and zinc supplements and age-related maculopathy: The blue mountains eye study. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2002, 9, 283-295.
124. Ho, L.; van Leeuwen, R.; Witteman, J.C.; van Duijn, C.M.; Uitterlinden, A.G.; Hofman, A.; de Jong, P.T.; Vingerling, J.R.; Klaver, C.C. Reducing the genetic risk of age-related macular degeneration with dietary antioxidants, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids: The rotterdam study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2011, 129, 758-766.
125. King, J.C. Zinc: An essential but elusive nutrient. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 94, 679S-684S.
126. Erie, J.C.; Good, J.A.; Butz, J.A.; Pulido, J.S. Reduced zinc and copper in the retinal pigment epithelium and choroid in age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2009, 147, 276-282.
127. Newsome, D.A.; Swartz, M.; Leone, N.C.; Elston, R.C.; Miller, E. Oral zinc in macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1988, 106, 192-198.
128. Yuzbasiyan-Gurkan, V.; Brewer, G.J. The therapeutic use of zinc in macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1989, 107, 1723-1724.
129. Trempe, C.L. Zinc and macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1992, 110, 1517.
130. Newsome, D.A. A randomized, prospective, placebo-controlled clinical trial of a novel zinc-monocysteine compound in age-related macular degeneration. Curr. Eye Res. 2008, 33, 591-598.
131. Smith, W.; Mitchell, P.; Webb, K.; Leeder, S.R. Dietary antioxidants and age-related maculopathy: The blue mountains eye study. Ophthalmology 1999, 106, 761-767.
132. Cho, E.; Stampfer, M.J.; Seddon, J.M.; Hung, S.; Spiegelman, D.; Rimm, E.B.; Willett, W.C.; Hankinson, S.E. Prospective study of zinc intake and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Ann. Epidemiol. 2001, 11, 328-336.
133. Stur, M.; Tittl, M.; Reitner, A.; Meisinger, V. Oral zinc and the second eye in age-related macular degeneration. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1996, 37, 1225-1235.
134. Parekh, N.; Chappell, R.J.; Millen, A.E.; Albert, D.M.; Mares, J.A. Association between vitamin d and age-related macular degeneration in the third national health and nutrition examination survey, 1988 through 1994. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2007, 125, 661-669.
135. Millen, A.E.; Voland, R.; Sondel, S.A.; Parekh, N.; Horst, R.L.; Wallace, R.B.; Hageman, G.S.; Chappell, R.; Blodi, B.A.; Klein, M.L., et al. Vitamin d status and early age-related macular degeneration in postmenopausal women. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2011, 129, 481-489.
136. Montgomery, M.P.; Kamel, F.; Pericak-Vance, M.A.; Haines, J.L.; Postel, E.A.; Agarwal, A.; Richards, M.; Scott, W.K.; Schmidt, S. Overall diet quality and age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2010, 17, 58-65.
137. Mares, J.A.; Voland, R.P.; Sondel, S.A.; Millen, A.E.; Larowe, T.; Moeller, S.M.; Klein, M.L.; Blodi, B.A.; Chappell, R.J.; Tinker, L., et al. Healthy lifestyles related to subsequent prevalence of age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2011, 129, 470-480.