Update on geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration

Optometry and Vision Science

Volumn 88, Issue 7, 2011, Pages 881-889

  Biarnés, Marc ^a   Monés, Jordi ^a   Alonso, Jordi ^b   Arias, Luis ^c  

^a CENTRO MÉDICO TEKNON   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITAT POMPEU FABRA   (Spain)

^c HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARI DE BELLVITGE   (Spain)

Author keywords

age related macular degeneration; epidemiology; geographic atrophy; imaging techniques; treatment

Indexed keywords

AGE-RELATED MACULAR DEGENERATION; ANTI-ANGIOGENIC THERAPY; CHOROIDAL NEOVASCULARIZATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; GEOGRAPHIC ATROPHY; TREATMENT; VISUAL LOSS;

DISEASES; IMAGING TECHNIQUES; PATIENT TREATMENT;

OPHTHALMOLOGY;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENT;

CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE COURSE; GEOGRAPHIC ATROPHY; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; RETINA MACULA DEGENERATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SUBRETINAL NEOVASCULARIZATION; UNITED STATES; VISUAL DISORDER;

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; CHOROIDAL NEOVASCULARIZATION; DISEASE PROGRESSION; GEOGRAPHIC ATROPHY; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; MACULAR DEGENERATION; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; UNITED STATES; VISION DISORDERS;

EID: 79960342630     PISSN: 10405488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/OPX.0b013e31821988c1     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Klaver CC, Wolfs RC, Vingerling JR, Hofman A, de Jong PT. Agespecific prevalence and causes of blindness and visual impairment in an older population: The Rotterdam Study. Arch Ophthalmol 1998; 116:653-8. (Pubitemid 28414581)
2. Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Etya'ale D, Kocur I, Pararajasegaram R, Pokharel GP, Mariotti SP. Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002. Bull World Health Organ 2004;82:844-51. (Pubitemid 39573742)
3. Clemons TE, Milton RC, Klein R, Seddon JM, Ferris FL III; Age- Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. Risk factors for the incidence of Advanced Age-Related Macular Degeneration in the Age- Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) AREDS report no. 19. Ophthalmology 2005;112:533-9. (Pubitemid 41108849)
4. Zarbin MA, Rosenfeld PJ. Pathway-based therapies for age-related macular degeneration: An integrated survey of emerging treatment alternatives. Retina 2010;30:1350-67.
5. Friedman DS, O'Colmain BJ, Munoz B, Tomany SC, McCarty C, de Jong PT, Nemesure B, Mitchell P, Kempen J. Prevalence of agerelated macular degeneration in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:564-72. (Pubitemid 38456293)
6. Vingerling JR, Dielemans I, Hofman A, Grobbee DE, Hijmering M, Kramer CF, de Jong PT. The prevalence of age-related maculopathy in the Rotterdam Study. Ophthalmology 1995;102:205-10.
7. Quillen D, Blakenship G, Gardner T. Aged eyes: Ocular findings in individuals 90 years of age and older. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1996;47:S111. (Pubitemid 126822008)
8. Nonyane BA, Nitsch D, Whittaker JC, Sofat R, Smeeth L, Chakravarthy U, Fletcher AE. An ecological correlation study of late agerelated macular degeneration and the complement factor H Y402H polymorphism. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010;51:2393-402.
9. Klein R, Klein BE, Knudtson MD, Meuer SM, Swift M, Gangnon RE. Fifteen-year cumulative incidence of age-related macular degeneration: The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmology 2007;114:253-62. (Pubitemid 46161820)
10. Klein R, Klein BE, Tomany SC, Meuer SM, Huang GH. Ten-year incidence and progression of age-related maculopathy: The Beaver Dam eye study. Ophthalmology 2002;109:1767-79.
11. Thylefors B, Negrel AD, Pararajasegaram R, Dadzie KY. Global data on blindness. Bull World Health Organ 1995;73:115-21.
12. Klein R, Knudtson MD, Lee KE, Gangnon RE, Klein BE. Ageperiod- cohort effect on the incidence of age-related macular degeneration: The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmology 2008;115: 1460-7.
13. Klein R, Chou CF, Klein BE, Zhang X, Meuer SM, Saaddine JB. Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration in the US population. Arch Ophthalmol 2011;129:75-80.
14. Klein R, Klein BE, Knudtson MD, Wong TY, Cotch MF, Liu K, Burke G, Saad MF, Jacobs DR Jr. Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration in 4 racial/ethnic groups in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Ophthalmology 2006;113:373-80.
15. Allikmets R. Complement (and other genes) in pathogenesis of AMD. Paper presented at the American Academy of Ophthalmology meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, November 7-8, 2008.
16. Smith W, Assink J, Klein R, Mitchell P, Klaver CC, Klein BE, Hofman A, Jensen S, Wang JJ, de Jong PT. Risk factors for age-related macular degeneration: Pooled findings from three continents. Ophthalmology 2001;108:697-704. (Pubitemid 32238465)
17. Khan JC, Thurlby DA, Shahid H, Clayton DG, Yates JR, Bradley M, Moore AT, Bird AC. Smoking and age related macular degeneration: The number of pack years of cigarette smoking is a major determinant of risk for both geographic atrophy and choroidal neovascularisation. Br J Ophthalmol 2006;90:75-80. (Pubitemid 43029901)
18. Thornton J, Edwards R, Mitchell P, Harrison RA, Buchan I, Kelly SP. Smoking and age-related macular degeneration: A review of association. Eye (Lond) 2005;19:935-44. (Pubitemid 43114972)
19. Evans JR, Fletcher AE, Wormald RP. 28,000 cases of age related macular degeneration causing visual loss in people aged 75 years and above in the United Kingdom may be attributable to smoking. Br J Ophthalmol 2005;89:550-3. (Pubitemid 40569708)
20. SanGiovanni JP, Chew EY, Agron E, Clemons TE, Ferris FL, III, Gensler G, Lindblad AS, Milton RC, Seddon JM, Klein R, Sperduto RD. The relationship of dietary omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake with incident age-related macular degeneration: AREDS report no. 23. Arch Ophthalmol 2008;126:1274-9.
21. Tan JS, Wang JJ, Flood V, Mitchell P. Dietary fatty acids and the 10-year incidence of age-related macular degeneration: The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 2009;127:656-65.
22. SanGiovanni JP, Chew EY, Clemons TE, Davis MD, Ferris FL, III, Gensler GR, Kurinij N, Lindblad AS, Milton RC, Seddon JM, Sperduto RD. The relationship of dietary lipid intake and age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS report no. 20. Arch Ophthalmol 2007;125:671-9. (Pubitemid 46762729)
23. Seddon JM, Rosner B, Sperduto RD, Yannuzzi L, Haller JA, Blair NP, Willett W. Dietary fat and risk for advanced age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1191-9. (Pubitemid 32730008)
24. Smith W, Mitchell P, Leeder SR. Dietary fat and fish intake and age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 2000;118:401-4. (Pubitemid 30152382)
25. Chong EW, Kreis AJ, Wong TY, Simpson JA, Guymer RH. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid and fish intake in the primary prevention of agerelated macular degeneration: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Ophthalmol 2008;126:826-33. (Pubitemid 351831334)
26. Scorolli L, Scalinci SZ, Limoli PG, Morara M, Vismara S, Corazza D, Meduri R. Photodynamic therapy for age related macular degeneration with and without antioxidants. Can J Ophthalmol 2002;37: 399-404. (Pubitemid 36168129)
27. The Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group. Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2. The Lutein/Zeaxanthin and Omega-3 Supplementation Trial. Available at: Http://www.areds2.org/. Accessed July 1, 2010.
28. Schaumberg DA, Christen WG, Hankinson SE, Glynn RJ. Body mass index and the incidence of visually significant age-related maculopathy in men. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1259-65. (Pubitemid 32994869)
29. Mitchell P, Smith W, Wang JJ. Iris color, skin sun sensitivity, and age-related maculopathy. The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 1998;105:1359-63. (Pubitemid 28509750)
30. Holz FG, Piguet B, Minassian DC, Bird AC, Weale RA. Decreasing stromal iris pigmentation as a risk factor for age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol 1994;117:19-23. (Pubitemid 24028924)
31. Bockelbrink A, Roll S, Ruether K, Rasch A, Greiner W, Willich SN. Cataract surgery and the development or progression of age-related macular degeneration: A systematic review. Surv Ophthalmol 2008; 53:359-67. (Pubitemid 351842556)
32. McGwin G Jr, Owsley C, Curcio CA, Crain RJ. The association between statin use and age related maculopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 2003;87:1121-5. (Pubitemid 37064888)
33. Klein R, Klein BE, Franke T. The relationship of cardiovascular disease and its risk factors to age-related maculopathy. The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmology 1993;100:406-14. (Pubitemid 23088542)
34. Ferris FL, III, Fine SL, Hyman L. Age-related macular degeneration and blindness due to neovascular maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1984;102:1640-2. (Pubitemid 15204559)
35. Klein R, Wang Q, Klein BE, Moss SE, Meuer SM. The relationship of age-related maculopathy, cataract, and glaucoma to visual acuity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1995;36:182-91.
36. Sunness JS, Gonzalez-Baron J, Applegate CA, Bressler NM, Tian Y, Hawkins B, Barron Y, Bergman A. Enlargement of atrophy and visual acuity loss in the geographic atrophy form of age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 1999;106:1768-79. (Pubitemid 30194280)
37. Sunness JS, Applegate CA, Bressler NM, Hawkins BS. Designing clinical trials for age-related geographic atrophy of the macula: Enrollment data from the geographic atrophy natural history study. Retina 2007;27:204-10.
38. Sunness JS. The natural history of geographic atrophy, the advanced atrophic form of age-related macular degeneration. Mol Vis 1999;5:25.
39. Sunness JS, Gonzalez-Baron J, Bressler NM, Hawkins B, Applegate CA. The development of choroidal neovascularization in eyes with the geographic atrophy form of age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 1999;106:910-9. (Pubitemid 30191547)
40. Holz FG, Bindewald-Wittich A, Fleckenstein M, Dreyhaupt J, Scholl HP, Schmitz-Valckenberg S. Progression of geographic atrophy and impact of fundus autofluorescence patterns in age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol 2007;143:463-72.
41. Sunness JS, Margalit E, Srikumaran D, Applegate CA, Tian Y, Perry D, Hawkins BS, Bressler NM. The long-term natural history of geographic atrophy from age-related macular degeneration: Enlargement of atrophy and implications for interventional clinical trials. Ophthalmology 2007;114:271-7. (Pubitemid 46161807)
42. Klein R, Meuer SM, Knudtson MD, Klein BE. The epidemiology of progression of pure geographic atrophy: The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Am J Ophthalmol 2008;146:692-9.
43. Lindblad AS, Lloyd PC, Clemons TE, Gensler GR, Ferris FL, III, Klein ML, Armstrong JR. Change in area of geographic atrophy in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study: AREDS report number 26. Arch Ophthalmol 2009;127:1168-74.
44. Fleckenstein M, Adrion C, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Gobel AP, Bindewald-Wittich A, Scholl HP, Mansmann U, Holz FG. Concordance of disease progression in bilateral geographic atrophy due to AMD. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010;51:637-42.
45. Dreyhaupt J, Mansmann U, Pritsch M, Dolar-Szczasny J, Bindewald A, Holz FG. Modelling the natural history of geographic atrophy in patients with age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2005;12:353-62. (Pubitemid 41807598)
46. Zarbin MA. Current concepts in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:598-614. (Pubitemid 38456297)
47. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no. 8. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1417-36.
48. Hageman GS, Luthert PJ, Victor Chong NH, Johnson LV, Anderson DH, Mullins RF. An integrated hypothesis that considers drusen as biomarkers of immune-mediated processes at the RPE-Bruch's mem- brane interface in aging and age-related macular degeneration. Prog Retin Eye Res 2001;20:705-32. (Pubitemid 32918285)
49. Edwards AO, Ritter R, III, Abel KJ, Manning A, Panhuysen C, Farrer LA. Complement factor H polymorphism and age-related macular degeneration. Science 2005;308:421-4. (Pubitemid 40530082)
50. Haines JL, Hauser MA, Schmidt S, Scott WK, Olson LM, Gallins P, Spencer KL, Kwan SY, Noureddine M, Gilbert JR, Schnetz-Boutaud N, Agarwal A, Postel EA, Pericak-Vance MA. Complement factor H variant increases the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Science 2005;308:419-21. (Pubitemid 40530081)
51. Klein RJ, Zeiss C, Chew EY, Tsai JY, Sackler RS, Haynes C, Henning AK, SanGiovanni JP, Mane SM, Mayne ST, Bracken MB, Ferris FL, Ott J, Barnstable C, Hoh J. Complement factor H polymorphism in age-related macular degeneration. Science 2005;308:385-9. (Pubitemid 40530070)
52. Hageman GS, Anderson DH, Johnson LV, Hancox LS, Taiber AJ, Hardisty LI, Hageman JL, Stockman HA, Borchardt JD, Gehrs KM, Smith RJ, Silvestri G, Russell SR, Klaver CC, Barbazetto I, Chang S, Yannuzzi LA, Barile GR, Merriam JC, Smith RT, Olsh AK, Bergeron J, Zernant J, Merriam JE, Gold B, Dean M, Allikmets R. A common haplotype in the complement regulatory gene factor H (HF1/CFH) predisposes individuals to age-related macular degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:7227-32. (Pubitemid 40696361)
53. Gehrs KM, Jackson JR, Brown EN, Allikmets R, Hageman GS. Complement, age-related macular degeneration and a vision of the future. Arch Ophthalmol 2010;128:349-58.
54. Hollyfield JG. Age-related macular degeneration: The molecular link between oxidative damage, tissue-specific inflammation and outer retinal disease: The Proctor lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51:1275-81.
55. Rivera A, Fisher SA, Fritsche LG, Keilhauer CN, Lichtner P, Meitinger T, Weber BH. Hypothetical LOC387715 is a second major susceptibility gene for age-related macular degeneration, contributing independently of complement factor H to disease risk. Hum Mol Genet 2005;14:3227-36. (Pubitemid 41631297)
56. Jakobsdottir J, Conley YP, Weeks DE, Mah TS, Ferrell RE, Gorin MB. Susceptibility genes for age-related maculopathy on chromosome 10q26. Am J Hum Genet 2005;77:389-407. (Pubitemid 41192646)
57. Gold B, Merriam JE, Zernant J, Hancox LS, Taiber AJ, Gehrs K, Cramer K, Neel J, Bergeron J, Barile GR, Smith RT, Hageman GS, Dean M, Allikmets R. Variation in factor B (BF) and complement component 2 (C2) genes is associated with age-related macular degeneration. Nat Genet 2006;38:458-62.
58. Yates JR, Sepp T, Matharu BK, Khan JC, Thurlby DA, Shahid H, Clayton DG, Hayward C, Morgan J, Wright AF, Armbrecht AM, Dhillon B, Deary IJ, Redmond E, Bird AC, Moore AT. Complement C3 variant and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med 2007;357:553-61. (Pubitemid 47236280)
59. Klein ML. Prediction of progression of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) related to genotype. Paper presented at the American Academy of Ophthalmology Meeting. Atlanta, Georgia, November 9, 2008.
60. Scholl HP, Fleckenstein M, Fritsche LG, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Gobel A, Adrion C, Herold C, Keilhauer CN, Mackensen F, Mossner A, Pauleikhoff D, Weinberger AW, Mansmann U, Holz FG, Becker T, Weber BH. CFH, C3 and ARMS2 are significant risk loci for susceptibility but not for disease progression of geographic atrophy due to AMD. PLoS One 2009;4:e7418.
61. Neale BM, Fagerness J, Reynolds R, Sobrin L, Parker M, Raychaudhuri S, Tan PL, Oh EC, Merriam JE, Souied E, Bernstein PS, Li B, Frederick JM, Zhang K, Brantley MA Jr, Lee AY, Zack DJ, Campochiaro B, Campochiaro P, Ripke S, Smith RT, Barile GR, Katsanis N, Allikmets R, Daly MJ, Seddon JM. Genome-wide association study of advanced age-related macular degeneration identifies a role of the hepatic lipase gene (LIPC). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010;107: 7395-400.
62. Yang Z, Stratton C, Francis PJ, Kleinman ME, Tan PL, Gibbs D, Tong Z, Chen H, Constantine R, Yang X, Chen Y, Zeng J, Davey L, Ma X, Hau VS, Wang C, Harmon J, Buehler J, Pearson E, Patel S, Kaminoh Y, Watkins S, Luo L, Zabriskie NA, Bernstein PS, Cho W, Schwager A, Hinton DR, Klein ML, Hamon SC, Simmons E, Yu B, Campochiaro B, Sunness JS, Campochiaro P, Jorde L, Parmigiani G, Zack DJ, Katsanis N, Ambati J, Zhang K. Toll-like receptor 3 and geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med 2008;359:1456-63.
63. Chen W, Stambolian D, Edwards AO, Branham KE, Othman M, Jakobsdottir J, Tosakulwong N, Pericak-Vance MA, Campochiaro PA, Klein ML, Tan PL, Conley YP, Kanda A, Kopplin L, Li Y, Augustaitis KJ, Karoukis AJ, Scott WK, Agarwal A, Kovach JL, Schwartz SG, Postel EA, Brooks M, Baratz KH, Brown WL, Brucker AJ, Orlin A, Brown G, Ho A, Regillo C, Donoso L, Tian L, Kaderli B, Hadley D, Hagstrom SA, Peachey NS, Klein R, Klein BE, Gotoh N, Yamashiro K, Ferris Iii F, Fagerness JA, Reynolds R, Farrer LA, Kim IK, Miller JW, Corton M, Carracedo A, Sanchez-Salorio M, Pugh EW, Doheny KF, Brion M, Deangelis MM, Weeks DE, Zack DJ, Chew EY, Heckenlively JR, Yoshimura N, Iyengar SK, Francis PJ, Katsanis N, Seddon JM, Haines JL, Gorin MB, Abecasis GR, Swaroop A. Genetic variants near TIMP3 and high-density lipoproteinassociated loci influence susceptibility to age-related macular degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010;107:7401-6.
64. von Ruckmann A, Fitzke FW, Bird AC. Distribution of fundus autofluorescence with a scanning laser ophthalmoscope. Br J Ophthalmol 1995;79:407-12.
65. Delori FC, Dorey CK, Staurenghi G, Arend O, Goger DG, Weiter JJ. In vivo fluorescence of the ocular fundus exhibits retinal pigment epithelium lipofuscin characteristics. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1995;36:718-29.
66. Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Fleckenstein M, Gobel AP, Sehmi K, Fitzke FW, Holz FG, Tufail A. Evaluation of autofluorescence imaging with the scanning laser ophthalmoscope and the fundus camera in agerelated geographic atrophy. Am J Ophthalmol 2008;146:183-92.
67. Holz FG, Bellman C, Staudt S, Schutt F, Volcker HE. Fundus autofluorescence and development of geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2001;42:1051-6. (Pubitemid 32289803)
68. Scholl HP, Bellmann C, Dandekar SS, Bird AC, Fitzke FW. Photopic and scotopic fine matrix mapping of retinal areas of increased fundus autofluorescence in patients with age-related maculopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004;45:574-83. (Pubitemid 38140517)
69. Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Bultmann S, Dreyhaupt J, Bindewald A, Holz FG, Rohrschneider K. Fundus autofluorescence and fundus perimetry in the junctional zone of geographic atrophy in patients with age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004;45:4470-6. (Pubitemid 39564673)
70. Bindewald A, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Jorzik JJ, Dolar-Szczasny J, Sieber H, Keilhauer C, Weinberger AW, Dithmar S, Pauleikhoff D, Mansmann U, Wolf S, Holz FG. Classification of abnormal fundus autofluorescence patterns in the junctional zone of geographic atrophy in patients with age related macular degeneration. Br J Ophthalmol 2005;89:874-8.
71. Hwang JC, Chan JW, Chang S, Smith RT. Predictive value of fundus autofluorescence for development of geographic atrophy in agerelated macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006;47: 2655-61. (Pubitemid 351639854)
72. Wolf-Schnurrbusch UE, Enzmann V, Brinkmann CK, Wolf S. Morphologic changes in patients with geographic atrophy assessed with a novel spectral OCT-SLO combination. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008;49:3095-9.
73. Fleckenstein M, Charbel Issa P, Helb HM, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Finger RP, Scholl HP, Loeffler KU, Holz FG. High-resolution spectral domain-OCT imaging in geographic atrophy associated with age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49:4137-44.
74. Brar M, Kozak I, Cheng L, Bartsch DU, Yuson R, Nigam N, Oster SF, Mojana F, Freeman WR. Correlation between spectral-domain optical coherence tomography and fundus autofluorescence at the margins of geographic atrophy.AmJ Ophthalmol 2009;148:439-44.
75. Lujan BJ, Rosenfeld PJ, Gregori G, Wang F, Knighton RW, Feuer WJ, Puliafito CA. Spectral domain optical coherence tomographic imaging of geographic atrophy. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 2009;40:96-101.
76. Rosenfeld PJ, Legaretta J. Preclinical and phase 1 drugs in development for dry AMD: An overview. Retinal Physician 2009. Available at: Http://www.retinalphysician.com/archive.aspx?searchOptions- rbIssue&tm-11/1/ 2009. Accessed March 8, 2011.
77. Tao W, Wen R, Goddard MB, Sherman SD, O'Rourke PJ, Stabila PF, Bell WJ, Dean BJ, Kauper KA, Budz VA, Tsiaras WG, Acland GM, Pearce-Kelling S, Laties AM, Aguirre GD. Encapsulated cellbased delivery of CNTF reduces photoreceptor degeneration in animal models of retinitis pigmentosa. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2002; 43:3292-8.
78. Puliafito CA. Ciliary neurotrophic factor for nonexudative AMD. Paper presented at the American Academy of Ophthalmology Meeting. Atlanta, Georgia, November 7, 2008.
79. Wong WT, Kam W, Cunningham D, Harrington M, Hammel K, Meyerle CB, Cukras C, Chew EY, Sadda SR, Ferris FL. Treatment of geographic atrophy by the topical administration of OT-551: Results of a phase II clinical trial. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010;51: 6131-9.
80. Donoso LA, Kim D, Frost A, Callahan A, Hageman G. The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. Surv Ophthalmol 2006;51:137-52. (Pubitemid 43269939)