Nutritional and clinical relevance of lutein in human health

British Journal of Nutrition

Volumn 90, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 487-502

  Granado, F ^a   Olmedilla, B ^a   Blanco, I ^a  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO PUERTA DE HIERRO   (Spain)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Evidence based medicine; Lutein; Molecular pigments

Indexed keywords

ALPHA CAROTENE; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; BETA CAROTENE; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CAROTENOID; CRYPTOXANTHIN; LYCOPENE; PLACEBO; XANTHOPHYLL; ZEAXANTHIN;

CANCER; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CATARACT; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONCENTRATION (PARAMETERS); COST CONTROL; DIET; DIETARY INTAKE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG METABOLISM; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; EYE DISEASE; FRUIT; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL HEALTH; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHYSIOLOGY; PIGMENT EPITHELIUM; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; RETINA; RETINA MACULA AGE RELATED DEGENERATION; RETINA MACULA LUTEA; RETINA MACULOPATHY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; SUPPLEMENTATION; VEGETABLE; VISUAL SYSTEM FUNCTION;

BETA CAROTENE; BIOLOGICAL AVAILABILITY; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CATARACT; DIET; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; FRUIT; HUMANS; LUTEIN; MACULAR DEGENERATION; NEOPLASMS; NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; RETINA; VEGETABLES; XANTHOPHYLLS;

EID: 0141830092     PISSN: 00071145     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1079/BJN2003927     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Agudo A, Amiano P, Barcos A, et al. (1999) Dietary intake of vegetables and fruits among adults in five regions of Spain. Eur J Clin Nutr 53, 174-180.
2. AIR Study Final Report (1997) AIR2-CT93-0888 (DG12), CEC, Final Consolidation Report Project. Brussels, Belgium.
3. Albanes D (1999) B-carotene and lung cancer: A case study. Am J Clin Nutr 69, Suppl., 1345S-1351S.
4. Aleman TS, Duncan JL, Bieber ML, et al. (2001) Macular pigment and lutein supplementation in retinitis pigmentosa and Usher syndrome. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42, 1873-1881.
5. Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Hernán M, et al. (1999) Relation of consumption of vitamin E, vitamin C and carotenoids to risk for stroke among men in the United States. Ann Intern Med 130, 963-970.
6. Ascherio A, Stampfer M, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Litin L & Willett WC (1992) Correlations of vitamin A and E intakes with plasma concentrations of carotenoids and tocopherols among American men and women. J Nutr 122, 1792-1801.
7. Bates CJ, Chen SJ, MacDonald A & Holden R (1996) Quantitation of vitamin E and a carotenoid pigment in cataractous human lenses and the effect of a dietary supplement. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 66, 316-321.
8. Beatty S, Boulton M, Henson D, Koh HH & Murray IJ (1999) Macular pigment and age-related macular degeneration. Br J Ophthalmol 83, 867-877.
9. Beatty S, Murray IJ, Henson DB, Carden D, Koh HH & Boulton ME (2001) Macular pigment and risk for age-related macular degeneration in subjects from a Northern European population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42, 439-446.
10. Bendich A & Olson JA (1989) Biological actions of carotenoids. FASEB J 3, 1927-1932.
11. Bernstein PS, Khachik F, Carvalho LS, et al. (2001) Identification and quantitation of carotenoids and their metabolites in the tissues of the human eye. Exp Eye Res 72, 215-223.
12. Bernstein PS, Yoshida MD, Katz NB, McClane RW & Gellermann W (1998) Raman detection of macular carotenoid pigments in intact human retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 39, 2003-2011.
13. Bernstein PS, Zhao DY, Wintch SW, Ermakov IV, McClane RW & Gellermann W (2002) Resonance Raman measurement of macular carotenoids in normal subjects and in age-related macular degeneration patients. Ophthalmology 109, 1780-1787.
14. Bertram JS (1994) The chemoprevention of cancer by dietary carotenoids: Studies in mouse and human cells. Pure Appl Chem 66, 1025-1032.
15. Bone RA, Landrum JT, Friedes LM, et al. (1997) Distribution of lutein and zeaxanthin stereoisomers in the human retina. Exp Eye Res 64, 211-218.
16. Bone RA, Landrum JT & Tarsis SL (1985) Preliminary identification of the human macular pigment. Vision Res 25, 1531-1535.
17. Botterweck AAM, Van Den Brandt PA & Goldbohm RA (2000) Vitamins, carotenoids, dietary fiber, and the risk of gastric carcinoma. Cancer 88, 737-748.
18. Broekmans WMR, Berendschot TTJM, Klöpping-Ketelaars IAA, et al. (2002) Macular pigment density in relation to serum and adipose tissue concentrations of lutein and serum concentrations of zeaxanthin. Am J Clin Nutr 76, 595-603.
19. Brown L, Rimm EB, Seddon JM, et al. (1999) A prospective study of carotenoid intake and risk of cataract extraction in US men. Am J Clin Nutr 90, 517-524.
20. Bruch-Gerharz D, Stahl W, Gerharz CD, et al. (2001) Accumulation of the xanthophyll lutein in skin amyloid deposits of systemic amyloidosis (al type). J Invest Dermatol 116, 196-197.
21. Castenmiller JJM & West C (1998) Bioavailability and bioconversion of carotenoids. Annu Rev Nutr 18, 19-39.
22. Chasan-Traber L, Willett WC, Seddon JM, et al. (1999) A prospective study of carotenoid and vitamin A intakes and risk of cataract extraction in US women. Am J Clin Nutr 70, 509-516.
23. Chopra M & Thurnham DI (1993) In vitro antioxidant activity of lutein. In Food and Cancer Prevention: Chemical and Biological Aspects, pp. 125-129 [KW Waldron, IT Johnson and Gr Fenwick, editors]. London: Royal Society of Chemistry.
24. Chug-Ahuja JK, Holden JM, Forman MR, Mangels AR, Beecher GR & Lanza E (1993) The development and application of a carotenoid database for fruits, vegetables and selected multicomponent foods. J Am Diet Assoc 93, 318-323.
25. Collins AR (2001) Carotenoids and genomic stability. Mutat Res 475, 21-28.
26. Collins AR, Gedik CM, Olmedilla B, Southon S, & Bellizzi M (1998a) Oxidative DNA damage measured in human lymphocytes: Large differences between sexes and between countries, and correlations with heart disease mortality rates. FASEB J 12, 13997-1400.
27. Collins AR, Olmedilla B, Southon S, Granado F & Duthie S (1998b) Serum carotenoids and oxidative DNA damage in human lymphocytes. Carcinogenesis 9, 2159-2162.
28. Curran-Celentano J, Hammond BR, Ciulla TA, Cooper DA, Pratt LM & Danis RB (2001) Relation between dietary intake, serum concentrations and retinal concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin in adults in a Midwest population. Am J Clin Nutr 74, 796-802.
29. Dagnelie G, Zorge IS & McDonald TM (2000) Lutein improves visual function in some patients with retinal degeneration: A pilot study via the Internet. Optometry 71, 147-164.
30. Deharveng G, Charrondiere UR, Slimani N, Southgate DAT & Riboli E (1999) Comparison of nutrients in the Food Composition Tables available in the nine European countries participating in the EPIC. Eur J Clin Nutr 53, 60-79.
31. D'Odorico A, Martines D, Kiechl S, et al. (2000) High plasma levels of alpha- and beta-carotene are associated with a lower risk of atherosclerosis: Results from the Bruneck Study. Atherosclerosis 153, 231-239.
32. Dorgan JF, Sowell A, Swanson CA, et al. (1998) Relationships of serum carotenoids, retinol, a-tocopherol and selenium with breast cancer risk: Results from a prospective study in Columbia, Missouri (United States). Cancer Causes Control 9, 89-97.
33. Dwyer JH, Navab M, Dwyer KM, et al. (2001) Oxygenated carotenoid lutein and progression of early atherosclerosis. The Los Angeles Atherosclerosis Study. Circulation 103, 2922-2927.
34. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group (1993) Antioxidant status and neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 111, 104-109.
35. Erdman JW Jr, Bierer TL & Gugger ET (1993) Absorption and transport of carotenoids. Ann N Y Acad Sci 691, 76-85.
36. Flood V, Smith W, Wang JJ, Manzi F, Webb K & Mitchell P (2002) Dietary antioxidant intake and incidence of early age-related maculopathy: The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 109, 2272-2278.
37. Gale CR, Hall NF, Phillips DIW & Martyn CN (2001) Plasma antioxidant vitamins and carotenoids and age-related cataract. Ophthalmology 108, 1992-1998.
38. García R, González CA, Agudo A & Riboli E (1999) High intake of specific carotenoids and flavonoids does not reduce the risk of bladder cancer. Nutr Cancer 35, 212-214.
39. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA & Willett WC (1995) Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 87, 1767-1776.
40. Goodwin TW & Britton G (1988) Distribution and analysis of carotenoids. In Plant Pigments, [TW Goodwin, editor]. New York, NY: Academic Press Limited.
41. Granado F, Olmedilla B, Blanco I, Gil-Martínez E & Rojas-Hidalgo E (1997) Variability in the intercomparison of food carotenoid content data: A user's point of view. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 37, 621-633.
42. Granado F, Olmedilla B, Blanco I & Rojas-Hidalgo E (1992) Carotenoid composition in raw and cooked Spanish vegetables. J Agric Food Chem 40, 2135-2140.
43. Granado F, Olmedilla B, Blanco I & Rojas-Hidalgo E (1996) Major fruit and vegetables contributors to the main serum carotenoids in Spanish diet. Eur J Clin Nutr 50, 246-250.
44. Granado F, Olmedilla B, Gil-Martínez E & Blanco I (1998) Lutein ester in serum after lutein supplementation in human subjects. Br J Nutr 80, 445-459.
45. Guerra-Romero L (1996) La medicina basada en la evidencia: Un intento de acercar la ciencia al arte de la práctica clínica (Medicine based on the evidence: An attempt to approach science with the art of clinical practice.) Med Clin (Barc) 107, 377-382.
46. Hammond BR Jr, Johnson EJ, Russell RM, et al. (1997) Dietary modification of human macular pigment density. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 38, 1795-1801.
47. Hammond BR, Wooten BR & Snodderly DM (1998) Preservation of visual sensitivity of older subjects: Association with macular pigment density. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 39, 397-406.
48. Handelman GJ, Dratz EA, Reay CC & Van Kuijk JGM (1988) Carotenoids in the human macula and whole retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 29, 850-855.
49. Hart DJ & Scott KJ (1995) Development and evaluation of an HPLC method for the analysis of carotenes in vegetables and fruits in the UK. Food Chem 54, 101-111.
50. Heinonen M, Ollilainen V, Linkola EK, Varo PT & Koivistoinen PE (1989) Carotenoids in Finnish foods. Vegetables, fruits and berries. J Agric Food Chem 37, 655-659.
51. Hercberg S, Preziosi P, Galán P, et al. (1994) Vitamin status of a healthy French population: Dietary intakes and biochemical markers. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 64, 220-232.
52. Hininger I, Meyer-Werner A, Moser U, et al. (2001) No significant effects of lutein, lycopene or b-carotene supplementation on biological markers of oxidative stress and LDL oxidability in healthy adult subjects. J Am Coll Nutr 20, 232-238.
53. Hirvonen T, Virtamo J, Khorhonen P, Albanes D & Pietinen P (2000) Intake of flavonoids, carotenoids, vitamins C and E and risk of stroke in male smokers. Stroke 31, 2301.
54. Holden JM, Eldridge AL, Beecher GR, et al. (1999) Carotenoid content of U.S. foods: An update of the database. J Food Comp Anal 12, 169-196.
55. Howard AN, Williams NR, Palmer CR, et al. (1996) Do hydroxy-carotenoids prevent coronary heart disease? A comparison between Belfast and Toulouse. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 66, 113-118.
56. Iribarren C, Folsom AR, Jacobs DR Jr, Gross MD, Belcher JD & Eckfeldt JH (1997) Association of serum vitamin levels, LDL susceptibility to oxidation and autoantibodies against MDA-LDL with carotid atherosclerosis. A case-control study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17, 1171-117.
57. Ito Y, Ochiai J, Sasaki R, Suzuki S, Kasuhara Y & Morimitsu Y (1990) Serum concentrations of carotenoids, retinol and a-tocopherol in healthy persons determined by high performance liquid chromatography. Clin Chim Acta 194, 131-144.
58. Jenkins MY, Mitchell GV & Grundel E (2001) A dietary supplement containing lutein and natural tocopherols modulates tissue levels of retinoids. 2001 FDA Science Forum. http//www.cfsan.fda.gov/frf/forum01/A143PPO.htm
59. Johnson E, Hammond BR, Yeum KJ, et al. (2000) Relation among serum and tissue concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and macular pigment density. Am J Clin Nutr 71, 1555-1562.
60. Johnson-Down L, Saundy-Unterberger H & Gray-Donald K (2002) Food habits of Canadians: Lutein and lycopene intake in the Canadian population. J Am Diet Assoc 102, 988-991.
61. Kaplan LA, Lau JM & Stein EA (1990) Carotenoid composition, concentrations and relationships in various human organs. Clin Physiol Biochem 8, 1-10.
62. Khachik F, Beecher GR, Goli MB, Lusby WR & Smith JC Jr (1992) Separation and identification of carotenoids and their oxidation products in the extracts of human plasma. Anal Chem 64, 211-222.
63. Khachik F, Beecher GR & Lusby WR (1989) Separation, identification and quantification of the major carotenoids in extracts of apricots, peaches, cantaloupe and pink grapefruit by liquid chromatography. J Agric Food Chem 37, 1465-1473.
64. Khachik F, Beecher D & Smith JC Jr (1995) Lutein, lycopene and their oxidative metabolites in chemoprevention of cancer. J Cell Biochem 22, 236-246.
65. Khachik F, Bernstein PS & Garland DL (1997a) Identification of lutein and zeaxanthin oxidation products in human and monkey retinas. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 38, 1802-1811.
66. Khachik F, Spangler CJ, Smith JC, Canfield LM, Steck A & Pfander H (1997b) Identification, quantification and relative concentrations of carotenoids and their metabolites in human milk, and serum. Anal Chem 69, 1873-1881.
67. King TJ, Khachik F, Bortkiewicz H, Fukushima LH, Morioka S & Bertram JS (1997) Metabolites of dietary carotenoids as potential cancer preventive agents. Pure Appl Chem 69, 2135-2140.
68. Klaui H & Bauerfeind JC (1981) Carotenoids as food colors. In Carotenoids as Colorants and Vitamin A Precursors. Technological and Nutritional Applications, pp. 48-292 [JC Bauerfeind, editor]. New York, NY: Academic Press.
69. Klipstein-Grobush K, Launer LJ, Geleijnse JM, Boeing H, Hofman A & Witteman JC (2000) Serum antioxidant and atherosclerosis. The Rotterdam Study. Atherosclerosis 148, 49-56.
70. Kohlmeier L, Kark JD, Gómez-Aracena E, et al. (1997) Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in EURAMIC Study. Am J Epidemiol 146, 618-626.
71. Kushi LH (1999) Vitamin E and heart disease: A case study. Am J Clin Nutr 69, Suppl., 1322S-1329S.
72. Landrum JT, Bone RA, Joa H, Kilburn MD, Moore L & Sprague K (1997) A one year study of the macular pigment: The effect of 140 days of a lutein supplement. Exp Eye Res 65, 57-62.
73. Landrum JT, Bone RA, Moore LL & Gomez CM (1999) Analysis of zeaxanthin distribution within individual human retinas. Meth Enzymol 299, 457-467.
74. Lee CM, Boileau AC, Boileau TWM, et al. (1999) Review of animal models in carotenoid research. J Nutr 129, 2271-2277.
75. Lindsay DG (2002) Food chemical safety. Limitations in current approaches to its assessment. Free Radic Res 36, Suppl. 1, 25-27.
76. Lyle BJ, Mares-Perlman JA, Klein BEK, Palta M, Bowen P & Greger JL (1999) Serum carotenoids and tocopherols and incidence of age-related nuclear cataract. Am J Clin Nutr 69, 272-277.
77. Mangels AR, Holden JM, Beecher GR, Forman MR & Lanza E (1993) Carotenoid content of fruits and vegetables: An evaluation of analytical data. J Am Diet Assoc 93, 284-296.
78. Mares-Perlman JA, Brady WE, Klein BE, et al. (1995a) Serum carotenoids and tocopherols and severity of nuclear and cortical opacities. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 36, 276-288.
79. Mares-Perlman JA, Brady WE, Klein R, et al. (1995b) Serum antioxidants and age-related macular degeneration in a population-based case-control study. Arch Ophthalmol 113, 1518-1523.
80. Michaud DS, Feskanich D, Rimm EE, et al. (2000) Intake of specific carotenoids and risk of lung cancer in 2 prospective US cohorts. Am J Clin Nutr 72, 990-997.
81. Murkovic M, Gams K, Draxl S & Pfannhauser W (2000) Development of an Austrian Carotenoid Database. J Food Comp Anal 13, 435-440.
82. National Academy of Sciences Institute of Medicine (2000) Dietary Reference Intake for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
83. Nieremberg DW & Nann SL (1992) A method for determination of concentrations of retinol, tocopherol and five carotenoids in human plasma and tissue samples. Am J Clin Nutr 56, 417-426.
84. Nussbaum JJ, Pruett RC & Delori FC (1981) Macular yellow pigment. The first 200 years. Retina 1, 296-310.
85. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Blanco I, Gil-Martínez E & Rojas-Hidalgo E (1996) Contenido de Carotenoides en Verduras y Frutas de Mayor Consumo en España. Instituto Nacional de la Salud (INSALUD). Madrid, Spain: Secretaría General.
86. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Blanco I & Rojas-Hidalgo E (1994) Seasonal and sex-related variations in six serum carotenoids, retinol and a-tocopherol. Am J Clin Nutr 60, 106-110.
87. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Blanco I, Vaquero M & Cagigal C (2001) Lutein in patients with cataracts and age-related macular degeneration: A long-term supplementation study. J Sci Food Agric 81, 904-909.
88. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Blanco I & Vaquero M (2003) Lutein, but not a-tocopherol, supplementation improves visual function in patients with age-related cataracts: A 2-y double blind, placebo-controlled study. Nutrition 19, 21-25.
89. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Gil-Martínez E & Blanco I (1997a) Supplementation with lutein (4 months) and a-tocopherol (2 months), in separate or combined oral doses, in control men. Cancer Lett 114, 179-181.
90. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Gil-Martínez E, Blanco I & Rojas-Hidalgo E (1997b) Reference levels of retinol, a-tocopherol and main carotenoids in serum of control and insulin-dependent diabetic Spanish subjects. Clin Chem 43, 1066-1071.
91. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Southon S, et al. (2001b) Baseline serum concentrations of carotenoids, vitamins A, E and C in control subjects from five European countries. Br J Nutr 85, 227-238.
92. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Southon S, et al. (2002) A European multicentre, placebo-controlled supplementation study with a-tocopherol, carotene-rich palm oil, lutein or lycopene: Analysis of serum responses. Clin Sci 102, 447-456.
93. Omenn GS (1998) Chemoprevention of lung cancer: The rise and demise of b-carotene. Ann Rev Public Health 19, 73-99.
94. O'Neill ME, Carroll Y, Corridan B, et al. (2001) A European Carotenoid Database to assess carotenoid intakes and its use in a five-country comparative study. Br J Nutr 85, 499-507.
95. Park JS, Chew BP & Wong TS (1998) Dietary lutein from marigold extract inhibits mammary tumor development in BALB/c mice. J Nutr 128, 1650-1656.
96. Parker RS (1996) Absorption, metabolism, and transport of carotenoids. FASEB J 10, 542-551.
97. Parker RS, Swanson JE, You C, Edwards AJ & Huang T (1999) Bioavailability of carotenoids in human subjects. Proc Nutr Soc 58, 155-162.
98. Poorvliet EJ & West CE (1993) The Carotenoid Content of Foods with Special Reference to Developing Countries. Vitamin A Field Support Project (VITAL). Arlington, VA: International Science and Technology Institute, Inc.
99. Rapp LM, Maple SS & Choi JH (2000) Lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in rod outer segment membranes from perifoveal and peripheral human retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41, 1200-1209.
100. Ratnasinghe D, Forman MR, Tangrea JA, et al. (2000) Serum carotenoids are associated with increased lung cancer risk among alcohol drinkers, but not among non-drinkers in a cohort of tin miners. Alcohol Alcohol 35, 355-360.
101. Richer S (1999) Part II. ARMD-pilot (case series) environmental intervention data. J Am Optom Assoc 70, 24-36.
102. Rodriguez-Amaya DB (1997) Carotenoids and Food Preparation: The Retention of Provitamin A Carotenoids in Prepared, Processed and Stored Foods. Arlington, VA: U.S. Agency for International Development.
103. Rojas-Hidalgo E (1987) Alteraciones metabólicas (Metabolic alterations). In La Mano del Diabético, pp. 57-61 Madrid, Spain: ARAN Ediciones.
104. Schmitz HH, Poor CL, Gugger ET & Erdman JW (1993) Analysis of carotenoids in human and animal tissues. Methods Enzymol 213, 102-117.
105. Scott KJ, Thurham DI, Hart D, et al. (1996) The correlation between the intake of lutein, lycopene and β-carotene from vegetables and fruits and blood plasma concentrations in a group of women aged 50-66 years in the UK. Br J Nutr 75, 409-418.
106. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, et al. (1994) Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C and E and age-related macular degeneration. Eye disease case-control study group. J Am Diet Assoc 272, 1413-1420.
107. Seddon JM & Hennekens CH (1994) Vitamins, minerals and macular degeneration. Promising but unproven hypothesis. Arch Ophthalmol 112, 176-179.
108. Sharpless D & Duewer DL (1995) Population distributions and intralaboratory reproducibility for fat-soluble vitamin-related compounds in human serum. Anal Chem 67, 4416-4422.
109. Sies H, Stahl W & Sundquist A (1992) Antioxidant functions of vitamins: Vitamins E and C, b-carotene and other carotenoids. Ann N Y Acad Sci 669, 7-21.
110. Simpson KLS (1983) Relative value of carotenoids as precursors of vitamin A. Proc Nutr Soc 42, 7-17.
111. Slattery ML, Benson J, Curtin K, Ma K-N, Schaeffer D & Potter JD (2000) Carotenoids and colon cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 71, 575-582.
112. Sommerburg O, Keunen JEE, Bird AC & Van Kuijk FJGM (1998) Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: The macular pigment in human eyes. Br J Ophthalmol 82, 907-910.
113. Stahl W, Schwarz W & Sundquist A (1992) Cis-trans isomers of lycopene and β-carotene in human serum and tissues. Arch Biochem Biophys 294, 173-177.
114. Stahl W, Sundquist AR, Hanusch M, Schwarz W & Sies H (1993) Separation of b-carotene and lycopene geometrical isomers in biological samples. Clin Chem 39, 810-814.
115. Street DA, Comstock GW, Salkeld RM, Schuep W & Klag M (1994) Serum antioxidants and myocardial infarction: Are low levels of carotenoids and a-tocopherol risk factors for myocardial infarction? Circulation 90, 1154-1161.
116. Su LC, Bui M, Kardinaal A, et al. (1998) Differences between plasma and adipose tissue biomarkers of carotenoids and tocopherols. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 7, 1043-1048.
117. Surai PF, MacPherson A, Speake BK & Sparks NHC (2000) Designer egg evaluation in a controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 54, 298-305.
118. Taylor A & Hobbs M (2001) 2001 assessment of nutritional influences on risk for cataract. Nutrition 17, 845-858.
119. Taylor A, Jacques PF, Chylack LT, et al. (2002) Long-term intake of vitamins and carotenoids and odds of early age-related cortical and posterior subcapsular lens opacities. Am J Clin Nutr 75, 540-549
120. Tee ES & Lim CL (1991) Carotenoid composition and content of Malaysian vegetables and fruits by AOAC and HPLC methods. Food Chem 41, 309-339.
121. Thurnham DI (1988) Do higher vitamin A requirements in men explain the difference between sexes in plasma provitamin A carotenoids and retinal? Proc Nutr Soc 47, 181.
122. Thurnham DI, Northrop-Clewes CA & Chopra M (1998) Biomarkers of vegetable and fruit intakes. Am J Clin Nutr 68, 756-757.
123. Toniolo P, Van Poppel AL, Akhmedkhanov A, et al. (2001) Serum carotenoids and breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 153, 1142-1147.
124. Tos TJM, Berendschot R, Goldbohm A, et al. (2000) Influence of lutein supplementation macular pigment assessed with two objective techniques. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41, 3322-3326.
125. Van Den Berg H, Faulks R, Granado F, et al. (2000) The potential for the improvement of carotenoid levels in foods and the likely systemic effects. J Sci Food Agric 80, 880-913.
126. Van Den Berg H, Heseker H, Lamand M, et al. (1993) Flair concerted action No 10 status papers. Introduction, conclusions and recommendations. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 63, 247-251.
127. Van't Veer P & Kok FJ (2000) Human studies to substantiate health effects of antioxidants: What is needed. Free Radic Res 33, S109-S115.
128. Voorrips LA, Goldbohm A, Brants HAM, et al. (2000) A prospective cohort study on antioxidant and folate intake and male lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9, 357-365.
129. Yemelyanov AY, Katz NB & Bernstein PS (2001) Ligand-binding characterization of xanthophyll carotenoids to solubilized membrane proteins derived from human retina. Exp Eye Res 72, 381-392.
130. Yeum K-J, Ahn S-H, Rupp De Paiva SA, Lee-Kim Y-Ch, Krinsky NI & Russell RM (1998) Correlation between carotenoid concentrations in serum and normal breast adipose tissue of women with benign breast tumor or breast cancer. J Nutr 128, 1920-1926.
131. Yeum K-J, Taylor A, Tang G & Russell RM (1995) Measurement of carotenoids, retinoids and tocopherols in human lenses. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 36, 2756-2761.
132. Yong L-Ch., Forman M, Beecher GR, et al. (1994) Relationship between dietary intake and plasma concentrations of carotenoids in premenopausal women: Application of the USDA-NCI carotenoid food-composition database. Am J Clin Nutr 60, 223-230.
133. Zechmeister L (1962) Cis-Trans Isomeric Carotenoids and Aryl-Polyenes. New York, NY: Academic Press.
134. Zeegers MPA, Goldbohm RA & Van Den Brandt PA (2001) Are retinal, vitamin C, vitamin E, folate and carotenoids intake associated with bladder cancer risk? Results from the Netherlands Cohort Study. Br J Cancer 85, 977-983.