RNAi therapeutic platforms for lung diseases

Pharmaceuticals

Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 223-250

  Fujita, Yu ^a,b   Takeshita, Fumitaka ^a   Kuwano, Kazuyoshi ^b   Ochiya, Takahiro ^a  

^a NATIONAL CANCER CENTER RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Japan)

^b JIKEI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

Author keywords

Drug delivery system; Lung cancer; Lung diseases; miRNA; RNAi; siRNA

Indexed keywords

ALN RSV 01; ATU 027; CORTICOSTEROID; EXCELLAIR; LENTIVIRUS VECTOR; MESSENGER RNA; MICRORNA; NANOPARTICLE; PLACEBO; RNA INDUCED SILENCING COMPLEX; SMALL INTERFERING RNA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

AEROSOL; ASTHMA; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; COMPLEX FORMATION; CONJUGATION; GENE SILENCING; HUMAN; LUNG CANCER; LUNG DISEASE; LUNG FIBROSIS; LUNG INFECTION; LUNG METASTASIS; METERED DOSE INHALER; MUCOCILIARY CLEARANCE; NONHUMAN; PLASMA HALF LIFE; POWDER INHALER; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS INFECTION; REVIEW; RNA DEGRADATION; RNA INTERFERENCE; SMOKING;

EID: 84873655073     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14248247     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ph6020223     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Kim, D.H.; Rossi, J.J. Strategies for silencing human disease using RNA interference. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2007, 8, 173-184.
2. Bumcrot, D.; Manoharan, M.; Koteliansky, V.; Sah, D.W. RNAi therapeutics: A potential new class of pharmaceutical drugs. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2006, 2, 711-719.
3. Giladi, H.; Ketzinel-Gilad, M.; Rivkin, L.; Felig, Y.; Nussbaum, O.; Galun, E. Small interfering RNA inhibits hepatitis B virus replication in mice. Mol. Ther. 2003, 8, 769-776.
4. Xia, H.; Mao, Q.; Eliason, S.L.; Harper, S.Q.; Martins, I.H.; Orr, H.T.; Paulson, H.L.; Yang, L.; Kotin, R.M.; Davidson, B.L. RNAi suppresses polyglutamine-induced neurodegeneration in a model of spinocerebellar ataxia. Nat. Med. 2004, 10, 816-820.
5. Judge, A.D.; Robbins, M.; Tavakoli, I.; Levi, J.; Hu, L.; Fronda, A.; Ambegia, E.; McClintock, K.; MacLachlan, I. Confirming the RNAi-mediated mechanism of action of siRNA-based cancer therapeutics in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 2009, 119, 661-673.
6. Chernolovskaya, E.L.; Zenkova, M.A. Chemical modification of siRNA. Curr Opin Mol. Ther. 2010, 12, 158-167.
7. Schlee, M.; Hornung, V.; Hartmann, G. siRNA and isRNA: Two edges of one sword. Mol. Ther. 2006, 14, 463-470.
8. Li, S.D.; Huang, L. Targeted delivery of antisense oligodeoxynucleotide and small interference RNA into lung cancer cells. Mol. Pharm. 2006, 3, 579-588.
9. Xu, C.X.; Jere, D.; Jin, H.; Chang, S.H.; Chung, Y.S.; Shin, J.Y.; Kim, J.E.; Park, S.J.; Lee, Y.H.; Chae, C.H.; et al. Poly(ester amine)-mediated, aerosol-delivered Akt1 small interfering RNA suppresses lung tumorigenesis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 178, 60-73.
10. Jere, D.; Xu, C.X.; Arote, R.; Yun, C.H.; Cho, M.H.; Cho, C.S. Poly(beta-amino ester) as a carrier for si/shRNA delivery in lung cancer cells. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 2535-2547.
11. Ren, X.L.; Xu, Y.M.; Bao, W.; Fu, H.J.; Wu, C.G.; Zhao, Y.; Li, Z.K.; Zhang, J.; Li, S.Q.; Chen, W.Q.; et al. Inhibition of non-small cell lung cancer cell proliferation and tumor growth by vector-based small interfering RNAs targeting HER2/neu. Cancer Lett. 2009, 281, 134-143.
12. Zamora-Avila, D.E.; Zapata-Benavides, P.; Franco-Molina, M.A.; Saavedra-Alonso, S.; Trejo-Avila, L.M.; Resendez-Perez, D.; Mendez-Vazquez, J.L.; Isaias-Badillo, J.; Rodriguez-Padilla, C. WT1 gene silencing by aerosol delivery of PEI-RNAi complexes inhibits B16-F10 lung metastases growth. Cancer Gene Ther. 2009, 16, 892-899.
13. Ge, Q.; Filip, L.; Bai, A.; Nguyen, T.; Eisen, H.N.; Chen, J. Inhibition of influenza virus production in virus-infected mice by RNA interference. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 8676-8681.
14. Li, B.J.; Tang, Q.; Cheng, D.; Qin, C.; Xie, F.Y.; Wei, Q.; Xu, J.; Liu, Y.; Zheng, B.J.; Woodle, M.C.; et al. Using siRNA in prophylactic and therapeutic regimens against SARS coronavirus in Rhesus macaque. Nat. Med. 2005, 11, 944-951.
15. Rosas-Taraco, A.G.; Higgins, D.M.; Sanchez-Campillo, J.; Lee, E.J.; Orme, I.M.; Gonzalez-Juarrero, M. Intrapulmonary delivery of XCL1-targeting small interfering RNA in mice chronically infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2009, 41, 136-145.
16. Fulton, A.; Peters, S.T.; Perkins, G.A.; Jarosinski, K.W.; Damiani, A.; Brosnahan, M.; Buckles, E.L.; Osterrieder, N.; Van de Walle, G.R. Effective treatment of respiratory alphaherpesvirus infection using RNA interference. PLoS One 2009, 4, 5.
17. DeVincenzo, J.; Lambkin-Williams, R.; Wilkinson, T.; Cehelsky, J.; Nochur, S.; Walsh, E.; Meyers, R.; Gollob, J.; Vaishnaw, A. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of an RNAi-based therapy directed against respiratory syncytial virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 8800-8805.
18. Lee, C.C.; Chiang, B.L. RNA interference: new therapeutics in allergic diseases. Curr. Gene Ther. 2008, 8, 236-246.
19. Seguin, R.M.; Ferrari, N. Emerging oligonucleotide therapies for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 2009, 18, 1505-1517.
20. Senoo, T.; Hattori, N.; Tanimoto, T.; Furonaka, M.; Ishikawa, N.; Fujitaka, K.; Haruta, Y.; Murai, H.; Yokoyama, A.; Kohno, N. Suppression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 by RNA interference attenuates pulmonary fibrosis. Thorax 2010, 65, 334-340.
21. D'Alessandro-Gabazza, C.N.; Kobayashi, T.; Boveda-Ruiz, D.; Takagi, T.; Toda, M.; Gil-Bernabe, P.; Miyake, Y.; Yasukawa, A.; Matsuda, Y.; Suzuki, N.; et al. Development and preclinical efficacy of novel transforming growth factor-beta1 short interfering RNAs for pulmonary fibrosis. Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol. 2012, 46, 397-406.
22. Lam, J.K.; Liang, W.; Chan, H.K. Pulmonary delivery of therapeutic siRNA. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2012, 64, 1-15.
23. Agu, R.U.; Ugwoke, M.I.; Armand, M.; Kinget, R.; Verbeke, N. The lung as a route for systemic delivery of therapeutic proteins and peptides. Respir. Res. 2001, 2, 198-209.
24. Jensen, D.M.; Cun, D.; Maltesen, M.J.; Frokjaer, S.; Nielsen, H.M.; Foged, C. Spray drying of siRNA-containing PLGA nanoparticles intended for inhalation. J. Control. Release 2010, 142, 138-145.
25. Jensen, D.K.; Jensen, L.B.; Koocheki, S.; Bengtson, L.; Cun, D.; Nielsen, H.M.; Foged, C. Design of an inhalable dry powder formulation of DOTAP-modified PLGA nanoparticles loaded with siRNA. J. Control. Release 2012, 157, 141-148.
26. Perl, M.; Chung, C.S.; Lomas-Neira, J.; Rachel, T.M.; Biffl, W.L.; Cioffi, W.G.; Ayala, A. Silencing of Fas, but not caspase-8, in lung epithelial cells ameliorates pulmonary apoptosis, inflammation, and neutrophil influx after hemorrhagic shock and sepsis. Am. J. Pathol. 2005, 167, 1545-1559.
27. Lomas-Neira, J.L.; Chung, C.S.; Wesche, D.E.; Perl, M.; Ayala, A. In vivo gene silencing (with siRNA) of pulmonary expression of MIP-2 versus KC results in divergent effects on hemorrhage-induced, neutrophil-mediated septic acute lung injury. J. Leukoc Biol 2005, 77, 846-853.
28. Merkel, O.M.; Beyerle, A.; Librizzi, D.; Pfestroff, A.; Behr, T.M.; Sproat, B.; Barth, P.J.; Kissel, T. Nonviral siRNA delivery to the lung: investigation of PEG-PEI polyplexes and their in vivo performance. Mol. Pharm. 2009, 6, 1246-1260.
29. Garbuzenko, O.B.; Saad, M.; Betigeri, S.; Zhang, M.; Vetcher, A.A.; Soldatenkov, V.A.; Reimer, D.C.; Pozharov, V.P.; Minko, T. Intratracheal versus intravenous liposomal delivery of siRNA, antisense oligonucleotides and anticancer drug. Pharm. Res. 2009, 26, 382-394.
30. Wang, J.C.; Lai, S.; Guo, X.; Zhang, X.; de Crombrugghe, B.; Sonnylal, S.; Arnett, F.C.; Zhou, X. Attenuation of fibrosis in vitro and in vivo with SPARC siRNA. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2010, doi: 10.1186/ar2973.
31. Gutbier, B.; Kube, S.M.; Reppe, K.; Santel, A.; Lange, C.; Kaufmann, J.; Suttorp, N.; Witzenrath, M. RNAi-mediated suppression of constitutive pulmonary gene expression by small interfering RNA in mice. Pulm. Pharmacol. Ther. 2010, 23, 334-344.
32. Driscoll, K.E.; Costa, D.L.; Hatch, G.; Henderson, R.; Oberdorster, G.; Salem, H.; Schlesinger, R.B. Intratracheal instillation as an exposure technique for the evaluation of respiratory tract toxicity: uses and limitations. Toxicol. Sci. 2000, 55, 24-35.
33. Bivas-Benita, M.; Zwier, R.; Junginger, H.E.; Borchard, G. Non-invasive pulmonary aerosol delivery in mice by the endotracheal route. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2005, 61, 214-218.
34. Lu, D.; Hickey, A.J. Pulmonary vaccine delivery. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2007, 6, 213-226.
35. Bitko, V.; Musiyenko, A.; Shulyayeva, O.; Barik, S. Inhibition of respiratory viruses by nasally administered siRNA. Nat. Med. 2005, 11, 50-55.
36. Massaro, D.; Massaro, G.D.; Clerch, L.B. Noninvasive delivery of small inhibitory RNA and other reagents to pulmonary alveoli in mice. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2004, 287, L1066-L1070.
37. Hickey, A.J.; Garcia-Contreras, L. Immunological and toxicological implications of short-term studies in animals of pharmaceutical aerosol delivery to the lungs: relevance to humans. Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier. Syst. 2001, 18, 387-431.
38. DeVincenzo, J.; Cehelsky, J.E.; Alvarez, R.; Elbashir, S.; Harborth, J.; Toudjarska, I.; Nechev, L.; Murugaiah, V.; Van Vliet, A.; Vaishnaw, A.K.; et al. Evaluation of the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of ALN-RSV01, a novel RNAi antiviral therapeutic directed against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Antiviral. Res. 2008, 77, 225-231.
39. Mastrandrea, L.D.; Quattrin, T. Clinical evaluation of inhaled insulin. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2006, 58, 1061-1075.
40. Bai, S.; Gupta, V.; Ahsan, F. Inhalable lactose-based dry powder formulations of low molecular weight heparin. J. Aerosol. Med. Pulm. Drug Deliv. 2010, 23, 97-104.
41. Sanders, N.; Rudolph, C.; Braeckmans, K.; De Smedt, S.C.; Demeester, J. Extracellular barriers in respiratory gene therapy. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2009, 61, 115-127.
42. Roy, I.; Vij, N. Nanodelivery in airway diseases: Challenges and therapeutic applications. Nanomedicine 2010, 6, 237-244.
43. Groneberg, D.A.; Eynott, P.R.; Lim, S.; Oates, T.; Wu, R.; Carlstedt, I.; Roberts, P.; McCann, B.; Nicholson, A.G.; Harrison, B.D.; et al. Expression of respiratory mucins in fatal status asthmaticus and mild asthma. Histopathology 2002, 40, 367-373.
44. Jeffery, P.K. Remodeling in asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2001, 164, S28-S38.
45. Lebhardt, T.; Roesler, S.; Beck-Broichsitter, M.; Kissel, T.; Polymeric nanocarriers for drug delivery to the lung. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 2010, 20, 171-180.
46. Akhtar, S.; Benter, I.F. Nonviral delivery of synthetic siRNAs in vivo. J. Clin. Invest. 2007, 117, 3623-3632.
47. Goula, D.; Becker, N.; Lemkine, G.F.; Normandie, P.; Rodrigues, J.; Mantero, S.; Levi, G.; Demeneix, B.A. Rapid crossing of the pulmonary endothelial barrier by polyethylenimine/DNA complexes. Gene Ther. 2000, 7, 499-504.
48. Wang, J.; Lu, Z.; Wientjes, M.G.; Au, J.L. Delivery of siRNA therapeutics: Barriers and carriers. AAPS J. 2010, 12, 492-503.
49. Endoh, T.; Ohtsuki, T. Cellular siRNA delivery using cell-penetrating peptides modified for endosomal escape. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2009, 61, 704-709.
50. Novobrantseva, T.I.; Akinc, A.; Borodovsky, A.; de Fougerolles, A. Delivering silence: advancements in developing siRNA therapeutics. Curr. Opin. Drug Discov. Devel. 2008, 11, 217-224.
51. Shen, C.; Buck, A.K.; Liu, X.; Winkler, M.; Reske, S.N. Gene silencing by adenovirus-delivered siRNA. FEBS Lett. 2003, 539, 111-114.
52. Narvaiza, I.; Aparicio, O.; Vera, M.; Razquin, N.; Bortolanza, S.; Prieto, J.; Fortes, P. Effect of adenovirus-mediated RNA interference on endogenous microRNAs in a mouse model of multidrug resistance protein 2 gene silencing. J. Virol. 2006, 80, 12236-12247.
53. Guo, X.; Wang, W.; Hu, J.; Feng, K.; Pan, Y.; Zhang, L.; Feng, Y. Lentivirus-mediated RNAi knockdown of NUPR1 inhibits human nonsmall cell lung cancer growth in vitro and in vivo. Anat. Rec. 2012, 295, 2114-2121.
54. Scanlon, K.J. Cancer gene therapy: Challenges and opportunities. Anticancer Res. 2004, 24, 501-504.
55. Teichler Zallen, D. US gene therapy in crisis. Trends Genet. 2000, 16, 272-275.
56. Musiyenko, A.; Bitko, V.; Barik, S. RNAi-dependent and-independent antiviral phenotypes of chromosomally integrated shRNA clones: role of VASP in respiratory syncytial virus growth. J. Mol. Med. 2007, 85, 745-752.
57. Thomas, M.; Lu, J.J.; Chen, J.; Klibanov, A.M. Non-viral siRNA delivery to the lung. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2007, 59, 124-133.
58. Tseng, Y.C.; Mozumdar, S.; Huang, L. Lipid-based systemic delivery of siRNA. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2009, 61, 721-731.
59. Tompkins, S.M.; Lo, C.Y.; Tumpey, T.M.; Epstein, S.L. Protection against lethal influenza virus challenge by RNA interference in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 8682-8686.
60. Han, S.W.; Roman, J. Fibronectin induces cell proliferation and inhibits apoptosis in human bronchial epithelial cells: pro-oncogenic effects mediated by PI3-kinase and NF-kappa B. Oncogene 2006, 25, 4341-4349.
61. Thomas, M.; Lu, J.J.; Ge, Q.; Zhang, C.; Chen, J.; Klibanov, A.M. Full deacylation of polyethylenimine dramatically boosts its gene delivery efficiency and specificity to mouse lung. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 5679-5684.
62. Sioud, M.; Sorensen, D.R. Cationic liposome-mediated delivery of siRNAs in adult mice. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2003, 312, 1220-1225.
63. Wu, S.Y.; McMillan, N.A. Lipidic systems for in vivo siRNA delivery. AAPS J. 2009, 11, 639-652.
64. Jackson, A.L.; Bartz, S.R.; Schelter, J.; Kobayashi, S.V.; Burchard, J.; Mao, M.; Li, B.; Cavet, G.; Linsley, P.S. Expression profiling reveals off-target gene regulation by RNAi. Nat. Biotechnol. 2003, 21, 635-637.
65. Bridge, A.J.; Pebernard, S.; Ducraux, A.; Nicoulaz, A.L.; Iggo, R. Induction of an interferon response by RNAi vectors in mammalian cells. Nat. Genet. 2003, 34, 263-264.
66. Heidel, J.D.; Hu, S.; Liu, X.F.; Triche, T.J.; Davis, M.E. Lack of interferon response in animals to naked siRNAs. Nat. Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 1579-1582.
67. Urban-Klein, B.; Werth, S.; Abuharbeid, S.; Czubayko, F.; Aigner, A. RNAi-mediated gene-targeting through systemic application of polyethylenimine (PEI)-complexed siRNA in vivo. Gene Ther. 2005, 12, 461-466.
68. Pal, A.; Ahmad, A.; Khan, S.; Sakabe, I.; Zhang, C.; Kasid, U.N.; Ahmad, I. Systemic delivery of RafsiRNA using cationic cardiolipin liposomes silences RAF-1 expression and inhibits tumor growth in xenograft model of human prostate cancer. Int. J. Oncol. 2005, 26, 1087-1091.
69. Nielsen, E.J.; Nielsen, J.M.; Becker, D.; Karlas, A.; Prakash, H.; Glud, S.Z.; Merrison, J.; Besenbacher, F.; Meyer, T.F.; Kjems, J.; Howard, K.A. Pulmonary gene silencing in transgenic EGFP mice using aerosolised chitosan/siRNA nanoparticles. Pharm. Res. 2010, 27, 2520-2527.
70. Akinc, A.; Zumbuehl, A.; Goldberg, M.; Leshchiner, E.S.; Busini, V.; Hossain, N.; Bacallado, S.A.; Nguyen, D.N.; Fuller, J.; Alvarez, R.; et al. A combinatorial library of lipid-like materials for delivery of RNAi therapeutics. Nat. Biotechnol. 2008, 26, 561-569.
71. Cosio, M.G.; Saetta, M.; Agusti, A. Immunologic aspects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. New Engl. J. Med. 2009, 360, 2445-2454.
72. Xu, L.; Anchordoquy, T. Drug delivery trends in clinical trials and translational medicine: challenges and opportunities in the delivery of nucleic acid-based therapeutics. J. Pharm. Sci. 2011, 100, 38-52.
73. Shen, J.; Samul, R.; Silva, R.L.; Akiyama, H.; Liu, H.; Saishin, Y.; Hackett, S.F.; Zinnen, S.; Kossen, K.; Fosnaugh, K.; et al. Suppression of ocular neovascularization with siRNA targeting VEGF receptor 1. Gene Ther. 2006, 13, 225-234.
74. The US National Institutes of Health. ClinicalTrials. gov. Available on line: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ (accessed on 30 November 2012).
75. Falsey, A.R.; Hennessey, P.A.; Formica, M.A.; Cox, C.; Walsh, E.E. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in elderly and high-risk adults. New Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352, 1749-1759.
76. Zamora, M.R.; Budev, M.; Rolfe, M.; Gottlieb, J.; Humar, A.; Devincenzo, J.; Vaishnaw, A.; Cehelsky, J.; Albert, G.; Nochur, S.; et al. RNA interference therapy in lung transplant patients infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 183, 531-538.
77. Dong, A.Q.; Kong, M.J.; Ma, Z.Y.; Qian, J.F.; Xu, X.H. Down-regulation of IGF-IR using small, interfering, hairpin RNA (siRNA) inhibits growth of human lung cancer cell line A549 in vitro and in nude mice. Cell Biol. Int. 2007, 31, 500-507.
78. Xia, H.; Yu, C.H.; Zhang, Y.; Yu, J.; Li, J.; Zhang, W.; Zhang, B.; Li, Y.; Guo, N. EZH2 silencing with RNAi enhances irradiation-induced inhibition of human lung cancer growth in vitro and in vivo. Oncol. Lett. 2012, 4, 135-140.
79. Aleku, M.; Schulz, P.; Keil, O.; Santel, A.; Schaeper, U.; Dieckhoff, B.; Janke, O.; Endruschat, J.; Durieux, B.; Roder, N.; et al. Atu027, a liposomal small interfering RNA formulation targeting protein kinase N3, inhibits cancer progression. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 9788-9798.
80. Leenders, F.; Mopert, K.; Schmiedeknecht, A.; Santel, A.; Czauderna, F.; Aleku, M.; Penschuck, S.; Dames, S.; Sternberger, M.; Rohl, T.; et al. PKN3 is required for malignant prostate cell growth downstream of activated PI 3-kinase. EMBO J. 2004, 23, 3303-3313.
81. Katso, R.; Okkenhaug, K.; Ahmadi, K.; White, S.; Timms, J.; Waterfield, M.D. Cellular function of phosphoinositide 3-kinases: implications for development, homeostasis, and cancer. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 2001, 17, 615-675.
82. Hao, S.; Baltimore, D. The stability of mRNA influences the temporal order of the induction of genes encoding inflammatory molecules. Nat. Immunol. 2009, 10, 281-288.
83. Falk, J.A.; Minai, O.A.; Mosenifar, Z. Inhaled and systemic corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2008, 5, 506-512.
84. Tsuji, T.; Aoshiba, K.; Nagai, A. Cigarette smoke induces senescence in alveolar epithelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2004, 31, 643-649.
85. Tuder, R.M.; Kern, J.A.; Miller, Y.E. Senescence in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2012, 9, 62-63.
86. Molfino, N.A. Genetics of COPD. Chest 2004, 125, 1929-1940.
87. Chen, Z.H.; Kim, H.P.; Ryter, S.W.; Choi, A.M. Identifying targets for COPD treatment through gene expression analyses. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2008, 3, 359-370.
88. Edwards, M.R.; Bartlett, N.W.; Clarke, D.; Birrell, M.; Belvisi, M.; Johnston, S.L. Targeting the NF-kappaB pathway in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Pharmacol. Ther. 2009, 121, 1-13.
89. Shapiro, S.D.; Goldstein, N.M.; Houghton, A.M.; Kobayashi, D.K.; Kelley, D.; Belaaouaj, A. Neutrophil elastase contributes to cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. Am. J. Pathol. 2003, 163, 2329-2335.
90. Yoshida, T.; Tuder, R.M. Pathobiology of cigarette smoke-induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Physiol. Rev. 2007, 87, 1047-1082.
91. Huang, S.L.; Su, C.H.; Chang, S.C. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene polymorphism in chronic bronchitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1997, 156, 1436-1439.
92. Stevenson, C.S.; Coote, K.; Webster, R.; Johnston, H.; Atherton, H.C.; Nicholls, A.; Giddings, J.; Sugar, R.; Jackson, A.; Press, N.J.; et al. Characterization of cigarette smoke-induced inflammatory and mucus hypersecretory changes in rat lung and the role of CXCR2 ligands in mediating this effect. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2005, 288, 29.
93. Stevenson, C.S.; Docx, C.; Webster, R.; Battram, C.; Hynx, D.; Giddings, J.; Cooper, P.R.; Chakravarty, P.; Rahman, I.; Marwick, J.A.; et al. Comprehensive gene expression profiling of rat lung reveals distinct acute and chronic responses to cigarette smoke inhalation. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2007, 293, L1183-L1193.
94. Aoshiba, K.; Yokohori, N.; Nagai, A. Alveolar wall apoptosis causes lung destruction and emphysematous changes. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2003, 28, 555-562.
95. Kasahara, Y.; Tuder, R.M.; Taraseviciene-Stewart, L.; Le Cras, T.D.; Abman, S.; Hirth, P.K.; Waltenberger, J.; Voelkel, N.F. Inhibition of VEGF receptors causes lung cell apoptosis and emphysema. J. Clin. Invest. 2000, 106, 1311-1319.
96. Barnes, P.J.; Stockley, R.A. COPD: current therapeutic interventions and future approaches. Eur. Respir. J. 2005, 25, 1084-1106.
97. Banerjee, A.; Koziol-White, C.; Panettieri, R., Jr. p38 MAPK inhibitors, IKK2 inhibitors, and TNFalpha inhibitors in COPD. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 2012, 12, 287-292.
98. World Health Organization. Chronic respiratory disease-Asthma. Available online: http://www.who.int/respiratory/asthma/en/ (accessed on 30 November 2012).
99. Huang, H.Y.; Chiang, B.L. siRNA as a therapy for asthma. Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. 2009, 11, 652-663.
100. Meinicke, H.; Darcan, Y.; Hamelmann, E. Targeting allergic airway diseases by siRNA: An option for the future? Curr. Mol. Med. 2009, 9, 483-494.
101. Popescu, F.D. Antisense-and RNA interference-based therapeutic strategies in allergy. J. Cell Mol. Med. 2005, 9, 840-853.
102. Stenton, G.R.; Kim, M.K.; Nohara, O.; Chen, C.F.; Hirji, N.; Wills, F.L.; Gilchrist, M.; Hwang, P.H.; Park, J.G.; Finlay, W.; et al. Aerosolized Syk antisense suppresses Syk expression, mediator release from macrophages, and pulmonary inflammation. J. Immunol. 2000, 164, 3790-3797.
103. Ulanova, M.; Puttagunta, L.; Marcet-Palacios, M.; Duszyk, M.; Steinhoff, U.; Duta, F.; Kim, M.K.; Indik, Z.K.; Schreiber, A.D.; Befus, A.D. Syk tyrosine kinase participates in beta1-integrin signaling and inflammatory responses in airway epithelial cells. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2005, 288, 19.
104. Winter, J.; Jung, S.; Keller, S.; Gregory, R.I.; Diederichs, S. Many roads to maturity: microRNA biogenesis pathways and their regulation. Nat. Cell. Biol 2009, 11, 228-234.
105. Pagdin, T.; Lavender, P. MicroRNAs in lung diseases. Thorax 2012, 67, 183-184.
106. Trang, P.; Medina, P.P.; Wiggins, J.F.; Ruffino, L.; Kelnar, K.; Omotola, M.; Homer, R.; Brown, D.; Bader, A.G.; Weidhaas, J.B.; et al. Regression of murine lung tumors by the let-7 microRNA. Oncogene 2010, 29, 1580-1587.
107. Wiggins, J.F.; Ruffino, L.; Kelnar, K.; Omotola, M.; Patrawala, L.; Brown, D.; Bader, A.G. Development of a lung cancer therapeutic based on the tumor suppressor microRNA-34. Cancer Res. 2010, 70, 5923-5930.
108. Liu, C.; Kelnar, K.; Liu, B.; Chen, X.; Calhoun-Davis, T.; Li, H.; Patrawala, L.; Yan, H.; Jeter, C.; Honorio, S.; et al. The microRNA miR-34a inhibits prostate cancer stem cells and metastasis by directly repressing CD44. Nat. Med. 2011, 17, 211-215.
109. Van Rooij, E.; Sutherland, L.B.; Thatcher, J.E.; DiMaio, J.M.; Naseem, R.H.; Marshall, W.S.; Hill, J.A.; Olson, E.N. Dysregulation of microRNAs after myocardial infarction reveals a role of miR-29 in cardiac fibrosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 13027-13032.
110. Lanford, R.E.; Hildebrandt-Eriksen, E.S.; Petri, A.; Persson, R.; Lindow, M.; Munk, M.E.; Kauppinen, S.; Orum, H. Therapeutic silencing of microRNA-122 in primates with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Science 2010, 327, 198-201.
111. van Rooij, E.; Sutherland, L.B.; Qi, X.; Richardson, J.A.; Hill, J.; Olson, E.N. Control of stress-dependent cardiac growth and gene expression by a microRNA. Science 2007, 316, 575-579.
112. Porrello, E.R.; Johnson, B.A.; Aurora, A.B.; Simpson, E.; Nam, Y.J.; Matkovich, S.J.; Dorn, G.W., II.; van Rooij, E.; Olson, E.N. MiR-15 family regulates postnatal mitotic arrest of cardiomyocytes. Circ. Res. 2011, 109, 670-679.
113. Zhu, H.; Yang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, J.; Schiller, P.W.; Peng, T. MicroRNA-195 promotes palmitate-induced apoptosis in cardiomyocytes by down-regulating Sirt1. Cardiovasc. Res. 2011, 92, 75-84.
114. Williams, A.H.; Valdez, G.; Moresi, V.; Qi, X.; McAnally, J.; Elliott, J.L.; Bassel-Duby, R.; Sanes, J.R.; Olson, E.N. MicroRNA-206 delays ALS progression and promotes regeneration of neuromuscular synapses in mice. Science 2009, 326, 1549-1554.
115. Patrick, D.M.; Zhang, C.C.; Tao, Y.; Yao, H.; Qi, X.; Schwartz, R.J.; Jun-Shen Huang, L.; Olson, E.N. Defective erythroid differentiation in miR-451 mutant mice mediated by 14-3-3zeta. Genes Dev. 2010, 24, 1614-1619.
116. Lewis, A.; Riddoch-Contreras, J.; Natanek, S.A.; Donaldson, A.; Man, W.D.; Moxham, J.; Hopkinson, N.S.; Polkey, M.I.; Kemp, P.R. Downregulation of the serum response factor/miR-1 axis in the quadriceps of patients with COPD. Thorax 2012, 67, 26-34.
117. Pottelberge, G.R.; Mestdagh, P.; Bracke, K.R.; Thas, O.; Durme, Y.M.; Joos, G.F.; Vandesompele, J.; Brusselle, G.G. MicroRNA expression in induced sputum of smokers and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 183, 898-906.
118. Liu, G.; Friggeri, A.; Yang, Y.; Milosevic, J.; Ding, Q.; Thannickal, V.J.; Kaminski, N.; Abraham, E. miR-21 mediates fibrogenic activation of pulmonary fibroblasts and lung fibrosis. J. Exp. Med. 2010, 207, 1589-1597.
119. Pandit, K.V.; Corcoran, D.; Yousef, H.; Yarlagadda, M.; Tzouvelekis, A.; Gibson, K.F.; Konishi, K.; Yousem, S.A.; Singh, M.; Handley, D.; et al. Inhibition and role of let-7d in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2010, 182, 220-229.
120. Cushing, L.; Kuang, P.P.; Qian, J.; Shao, F.; Wu, J.; Little, F.; Thannickal, V.J.; Cardoso, W.V.; Lu, J. miR-29 is a major regulator of genes associated with pulmonary fibrosis. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2011, 45, 287-294.
121. Yang, S.; Banerjee, S.; de Freitas, A.; Sanders, Y.Y.; Ding, Q.; Matalon, S.; Thannickal, V.J.; Abraham, E.; Liu, G. Participation of miR-200 in pulmonary fibrosis. Am. J. Pathol. 2012, 180, 484-493.
122. Rodriguez, A.; Vigorito, E.; Clare, S.; Warren, M.V.; Couttet, P.; Soond, D.R.; van Dongen, S.; Grocock, R.J.; Das, P.P.; Miska, E.A.; et al. Requirement of bic/microRNA-155 for normal immune function. Science 2007, 316, 608-611.
123. Lu, T.X.; Munitz, A.; Rothenberg, M.E. MicroRNA-21 is up-regulated in allergic airway inflammation and regulates IL-12p35 expression. J. Immunol. 2009, 182, 4994-5002.
124. Mattes, J.; Collison, A.; Plank, M.; Phipps, S.; Foster, P.S. Antagonism of microRNA-126 suppresses the effector function of TH2 cells and the development of allergic airways disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 18704-18709.
125. Chiba, Y.; Tanabe, M.; Goto, K.; Sakai, H.; Misawa, M. Down-regulation of miR-133a contributes to up-regulation of Rhoa in bronchial smooth muscle cells. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2009, 180, 713-719.
126. Ezzie, M.E.; Crawford, M.; Cho, J.H.; Orellana, R.; Zhang, S.; Gelinas, R.; Batte, K.; Yu, L.; Nuovo, G.; Galas, D.; et al. Gene expression networks in COPD: microRNA and mRNA regulation. Thorax 2012, 67, 122-131.
127. Sato, T.; Liu, X.; Nelson, A.; Nakanishi, M.; Kanaji, N.; Wang, X.; Kim, M.; Li, Y.; Sun, J.; Michalski, J.; et al. Reduced miR-146a increases prostaglandin E(2)in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease fibroblasts. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2010, 182, 1020-1029.
128. Pottier, N.; Maurin, T.; Chevalier, B.; Puissegur, M.P.; Lebrigand, K.; Robbe-Sermesant, K.; Bertero, T.; Lino Cardenas, C.L.; Courcot, E.; Rios, G.; et al. Identification of keratinocyte growth factor as a target of microRNA-155 in lung fibroblasts: Implication in epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. PLoS One 2009, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006718.
129. Izzotti, A.; Calin, G.A.; Arrigo, P.; Steele, V.E.; Croce, C.M.; de Flora, S. Downregulation of microRNA expression in the lungs of rats exposed to cigarette smoke. FASEB J. 2009, 23, 806-812.
130. Schembri, F.; Sridhar, S.; Perdomo, C.; Gustafson, A.M.; Zhang, X.; Ergun, A.; Lu, J.; Liu, G.; Zhang, X.; Bowers, J.; et al. MicroRNAs as modulators of smoking-induced gene expression changes in human airway epithelium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 2319-2324.
131. Decramer, M.; Rennard, S.; Troosters, T.; Mapel, D.W.; Giardino, N.; Mannino, D.; Wouters, E.; Sethi, S.; Cooper, C.B. COPD as a lung disease with systemic consequences--clinical impact, mechanisms, and potential for early intervention. COPD 2008, 5, 235-256.
132. Gower, A.C.; Steiling, K.; Brothers, J.F., II.; Lenburg, M.E.; Spira, A. Transcriptomic studies of the airway field of injury associated with smoking-related lung disease. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2011, 8, 173-179.
133. Agusti, A.G. COPD, a multicomponent disease: implications for management. Respir. Med. 2005, 99, 670-682.
134. Locksley, R.M. Asthma and allergic inflammation. Cell 2010, 140, 777-783.
135. Williams, A.E.; Larner-Svensson, H.; Perry, M.M.; Campbell, G.A.; Herrick, S.E.; Adcock, I.M.; Erjefalt, J.S.; Chung, K.F.; Lindsay, M.A. MicroRNA expression profiling in mild asthmatic human airways and effect of corticosteroid therapy. PLoS One 2009, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005889.
136. Oglesby, I.K.; McElvaney, N.G.; Greene, C.M. MicroRNAs in inflammatory lung disease--master regulators or target practice? Respir. Res. 2010, 11, 148.
137. Boudreau, R.L.; Martins, I.; Davidson, B.L. Artificial microRNAs as siRNA shuttles: improved safety as compared to shRNAs in vitro and in vivo. Mol. Ther. 2009, 17, 169-175.
138. Bader, A.G.; Brown, D.; Winkler, M. The promise of microRNA replacement therapy. Cancer Res. 2010, 70, 7027-7030.
139. Johnson, S.M.; Grosshans, H.; Shingara, J.; Byrom, M.; Jarvis, R.; Cheng, A.; Labourier, E.; Reinert, K.L.; Brown, D.; Slack, F.J. RAS is regulated by the let-7 microRNA family. Cell 2005, 120, 635-647.
140. He, X.Y.; Chen, J.X.; Zhang, Z.; Li, C.L.; Peng, Q.L.; Peng, H.M. The let-7a microRNA protects from growth of lung carcinoma by suppression of k-Ras and c-Myc in nude mice. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 2010, 136, 1023-1028.
141. Esquela-Kerscher, A.; Trang, P.; Wiggins, J.F.; Patrawala, L.; Cheng, A.; Ford, L.; Weidhaas, J.B.; Brown, D.; Bader, A.G.; Slack, F.J. The let-7 microRNA reduces tumor growth in mouse models of lung cancer. Cell Cycle 2008, 7, 759-764.
142. Chen, Y.; Zhu, X.; Zhang, X.; Liu, B.; Huang, L. Nanoparticles modified with tumor-targeting scFv deliver siRNA and miRNA for cancer therapy. Mol. Ther. 2010, 18, 1650-1656.
143. Ling, B.; Wang, G.X.; Long, G.; Qiu, J.H.; Hu, Z.L. Tumor suppressor miR-22 suppresses lung cancer cell progression through post-transcriptional regulation of ErbB3. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 2012, 138, 1355-1361.
144. Krutzfeldt, J.; Rajewsky, N.; Braich, R.; Rajeev, K.G.; Tuschl, T.; Manoharan, M.; Stoffel, M. Silencing of microRNAs in vivo with "antagomirs". Nature 2005, 438, 685-689.
145. Elmen, J.; Lindow, M.; Schutz, S.; Lawrence, M.; Petri, A.; Obad, S.; Lindholm, M.; Hedtjarn, M.; Hansen, H.F.; Berger, U.; et al. LNA-mediated microRNA silencing in non-human primates. Nature 2008, 452, 896-899.
146. Li, Y.J.; Zhang, Y.X.; Wang, P.Y.; Chi, Y.L.; Zhang, C.; Ma, Y.; Lv, C.J.; Xie, S.Y. Regression of A549 lung cancer tumors by anti-miR-150 vector. Oncol. Rep. 2012, 27, 129-134.
147. Zheng, T.; Wang, J.; Chen, X.; Liu, L. Role of microRNA in anticancer drug resistance. Int. J. Cancer 2010, 126, 2-10.
148. Ji, Q.; Hao, X.; Zhang, M.; Tang, W.; Yang, M.; Li, L.; Xiang, D.; Desano, J.T.; Bommer, G.T.; Fan, D.; et al. MicroRNA miR-34 inhibits human pancreatic cancer tumor-initiating cells. PLoS One 2009, 4, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006816.