Developing Medical Educators: A Journey, not a Destination

Understanding Medical Education: Evidence, Theory and Practice

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 403-418

  Steinert, Yvonne ^a,b,c  

^a Faculty Development   (Canada)

^b Centre for Medical Education   (Canada)

^c MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

'Formal' approaches to developing medical educators; 'Informal' approaches to developing medical educators; Developing medical educators a journey, not a destination; Medical education literature using terms as 'teacher' and 'medical educator' interchangeably; Notion of 'medical educator,' role of, teacher, curriculum planner and evaluator, educational leader and administrator; Principles of adult learning; Situated learning, based on notion that knowledge contextually situated and fundamentally influenced by activity, context and culture; Staff development programme and activity evaluation; Staff development, or faculty development components of medical education; Work based learning, learning for work, learning at work and learning from work

Indexed keywords

EID: 84868702972     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444320282.ch28     Document Type: Chapter

References (105)

1. Miller G (1980) Educating Medical Teachers. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
2. Jason H and Westberg J (1982) Teachers and Teaching in US Medical Schools. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York
3. Harris D, Krause K, Parish D and Smith M (2007) Academic competencies for medical faculty. Family Medicine. 39 (5): 343-50.
4. Skeff KM, Stratos GA, Bergen MR et al. (1999) Regional teaching improvement programs for community-based teachers. American Journal of Medicine. 106: 76-80.
5. Steinert Y (2000). Faculty development in the new millennium: key challenges and future directions. Medical Teacher. 22: 44-50.
6. Clark JM, Houston TK, Kolodner K et al. (2004) Teaching the teachers: national survey of faculty development in departments of medicine of US teaching hospitals. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 19: 205-14.
7. McLean M, Cilliers F and Van Wyk J (2008) Faculty development: yesterday, today and tomorrow. Medical Teacher. 30: 555-84.
8. General Medical Council (2006) Good medical practice (http://www.gmc-uk.org; accessed 15 October 2008).
9. Postgraduate Medical Education and Training Board (2008) Generic standards for training (http://www.pmetb.org.uk; accessed 15 October 2008).
10. Eitel F, Kanz KG and Tesche A (2000) Training and certification of teachers and trainers: the professionalization of medical education. Medical Teacher. 22: 517-26.
11. Purcell N and Lloyd-Jones G (2003) Standards for medical educators. Medical Education. 37: 149-54.
12. Steinert Y (2008) From teacher to medical educator: the spectrum of medical education. Unpublished report, Centre for Medical Education, Montreal.
13. Steinert Y (2005) Staff development. In: Dent J and Harden R (eds) A Practical Guide for Medical Teachers, pp. 390-9. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
14. Centra J (1978) Types of faculty development programs. Journal of Higher Education. 49: 151-62.
15. Bland C, Schmitz C, Stritter F, Henry R and Aluise J (1990) Successful Faculty in Academic Medicine: essential skills and how to acquire them. Springer Publishing Company, New York.
16. Sheets K and Schwenk T (1990) Faculty development for family medicine educators: an agenda for future activities. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 2 (3): 141-8.
17. Steinert Y, Cruess R, Cruess S et al. (2007) Faculty development as an instrument of change: a case study on teaching professionalism. Academic Medicine. 82: 1057-64.
18. Hafferty FW (1998) Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicine's hidden curriculum. Academic Medicine. 73: 403-7.
19. Glicken A and Merenstein G (2007) Addressing the hidden curriculum: understanding educator professionalism. Medical Teacher. 29: 54-7.
20. Bligh J (2005) Faculty development. Medical Education. 39: 120-1.
21. Swanwick T (2008) See one, do one, then what? Faculty development in postgraduate medical education. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 84: 339-43.
22. Wilkerson L and Irby D (1998) Strategies for improving teaching practices: a comprehensive approach to faculty development. Academic Medicine. 73: 387-96.
23. Irby D (1994) What clinical teachers in medicine need to know. Academic Medicine. 69: 333-42.
24. Copeland H and Hewson M (2000) Developing and testing an instrument to measure the effectiveness of clinical teaching in an academic medical center. Academic Medicine. 75: 161-6.
25. Buchel T and Edwards F (2005) Characteristics of effective clinical teachers. Family Medicine. 37: 30-5.
26. Wright SM and Carrese JA (2002) Excellence in role modeling: insight and perspectives from the pros. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 167: 638-43.
27. Bordage G, Foley R and Goldyn S (2000) Skills and attributes of directors of educational programmes. Medical Education. 34: 206-10.
28. Spencer J and Jordan R (2001) Educational outcome and leadership to meet the needs of modern health care. Quality in Health Care. 10: ii38-45.
29. Boyer E (1990) Scholarship Reconsidered: priorities of the professoriate. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
30. Simpson D and Fincher R (1999) Making a case for the teaching scholar. Academic Medicine. 74: 1296-9.
31. Glassick CE (2000) Boyer's expanded definitions of scholarship, the standards for assessing scholarship and the elusiveness of the scholarship of teaching. Academic Medicine. 75: 877-80.
32. Higgs J and McAllister L (2007) Educating clinical educators: using a model of the experience of being a clinical educator. Medical Teacher. 29: e51-7.
33. Fraser SW and Greenhalgh T (2001) Coping with complexity: educating for capability. British Medical Journal. 323: 799-803.
34. Steinert Y, Mann K, Centeno A et al. (2006) A systematic review of faculty development initiatives designed to improve teaching effectiveness in medical education: BEME guide No. 8. Medical Teacher. 28: 497-526.
35. Nasmith L and Steinert Y (2001) The evaluation of a workshop to promote interactive lecturing. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 13: 43-8.
36. Nasmith L, Steinert Y, Saroyan A et al. (1997) Assessing the impact of a faculty development workshop: a methodological study. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 9: 209-14.
37. Nayer M (1995) Faculty development for problem-based learning programs. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 7: 138-48.
38. Olmesdahl PJ and Manning DM (1999) Impact of training on PBL facilitators. Medical Education. 33: 753-5.
39. Quirk ME, DeWitt T, Lasser D et al. (1998) Evaluation of primary care futures: a faculty development program for community health center preceptors. Academic Medicine. 73: 705-7.
40. Wilkerson L and Sarkin RT (1998) Arrows in the quiver: evaluation of a workshop on ambulatory teaching. Academic Medicine. 73 (s10): s67-9.
41. Steinert Y, Nasmith L and Daigle N (2003) Executive skills for medical faculty: a workshop description and evaluation. Medical Teacher. 25: 666-8.
42. Steinert Y, Cruess S, Cruess R and Snell L (2005) Faculty development for teaching and evaluating professionalism: from programme design to curriculum change. Medical Education. 39: 127-36.
43. Baldwin CD, Goldblum RM, Rason DK and Levine HG (1994) Facilitating faculty development and research through critical review of grant proposals and articles. Academic Medicine. 69: 62-4.
44. Steinert Y, McLeod P, Liben S and Snell L (2008) Writing for publication in medical education: the benefits of a faculty development workshop and peer writing group. Medical Teacher. 30: e280-5.
45. Cusimano M and David M (1998) A compendium of higher education opportunities in health professions education. Academic Medicine. 73: 1255-9.
46. Hitchcock MA, Lamkin BD, Mygdal WK et al. (1986) Affective changes in faculty development fellows in family medicine. Journal of Medical Education. 61: 394-403.
47. Searle N, Hatem C, Perkowski L and Wilkerson L (2006) Why invest in an educational fellowship program ? Academic Medicine. 81: 936-40.
48. Gruppen L, Simpson D, Searle N et al. (2006) Educational fellowship programs: common themes and overarching issues. Academic Medicine. 81: 990-4.
49. Steinert Y, Nasmith L, McLeod P and Conochie L (2003) A teaching scholars program to develop leaders in medical education. Academic Medicine. 78: 142-9.
50. Steinert Y and McLeod J (2006) From novice to informed educator: the teaching scholars program for educators in the health sciences. Academic Medicine. 81: 969-74.
51. Rosenbaum ME, Lenoch S and Ferguson KJ (2005) Outcomes of a teaching scholars program to promote leadership in faculty development. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 17: 247-52.
52. Muller JH and Irby D (2006) Developing educational leaders: the teaching scholars program at the University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine. Academic Medicine. 81: 959-64.
53. Wilkerson L, Uijtdehaage S and Relan A (2006) Increasing the pool of educational leaders for UCLA. Academic Medicine. 81: 954-8.
54. Hatem C, Lown B and Newman L (2006) The academic health centre coming of age: helping faculty become better teachers and agents of educational change. Academic Medicine. 81: 941-4.
55. Dearing R (1997) Higher Education in the Learning Society: report of the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. HMSO, London.
56. Walsh K (2007) Professionalism in medical education: could an academy play a role? Medical Teacher. 29: 425-6.
57. Cohen R, Murnaghan L, Collins J and Pratt D (2005) An update on Master's degrees in medical education. Medical Teacher. 27: 686-92.
58. Pugsley L, Brigley S, Allery L and Macdonald J (2008) Counting quality because quality counts: differing standards in Master's in medical education programmes. Medical Teacher. 30: 80-5.
59. Hesketh E, Bagnall G, Buckley EG et al. (2001) A framework for developing excellence as a clinical educator. Medical Education. 35: 555-64.
60. Flynn S, Bedinghaus J, Snyder C and Hekelman F (1994) Peer coaching in clinical teaching: a case report. Family Medicine. 26: 569-70.
61. Orlander J, Gupta M, Fincke B et al. (2000) Co-teaching: a faculty development strategy. Medical Education. 34: 257-65.
62. Boud D and Middleton H (2003) Learning from others at work: communities of practice and informal learning. Journal of Workplace Learning. 15 (5): 194-202.
63. Lave J and Wenger E (1991) Situated Learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press, New York.
64. Barab SA, Barnett M and Squire K (2002) Developing an empirical account of a community of practice: characterizing the essential tensions. The Journal of the Learning Sciences. 11: 489-542.
65. Wenger E (1998) Communities of Practice: learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge University Press, New York.
66. Wenger E, McDermott R and Snyder W (2002) Cultivating Communities of Practice. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
67. Bligh J and Brice J (2007) The Academy of Medical Educators: a professional home for medical educators in the UK. Medical Education. 41: 625-7.
68. Cooke M, Irby D and Debas H (2003) The UCSF academy of medical educators. Academic Medicine. 78: 666-72.
69. Irby D, Cooke M, Lowenstein D and Richards B (2004) The academy movement: a structural approach to reinvigorating the educational mission. Academic Medicine. 79: 729-36.
70. Bligh J (1999) Mentoring: an invisible support network. Medical Education. 33: 2-3.
71. Morzinski J, Diehr S, Bower D and Simpson D (1996) A descriptive, cross-sectional study of formal mentoring for faculty. Family Medicine. 28: 434-8.
72. Pololi L, Knight S, Dennis K and Frankel R (2002) Helping medical school faculty realize their dreams: an innovative, collaborative mentoring program. Academic Medicine. 77: 377-84.
73. Daloz L (1986) Effective Teaching and Mentoring. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
74. Epstein RM, Cole DR, Gawinski BA et al. (1998) How students learn from community-based preceptors. Archives of Family Medicine. 7: 149-54.
75. Ricer RE (1998) Defining preceptor, mentor, and role model. Family Medicine. 30: 328.
76. Paice E, Heard S and Moss F (2002) How important are role models in making good doctors? British Medical Journal. 325: 707-10.
77. Steinert Y and Walsh A (2006) A Faculty Development Program for Teachers of International Medical Graduates. Association of Faculties of Medicine of Canada, Ottawa.
78. Grant J (1998) Offering training and support to trainers. In: Paice E (ed.) Delivering the New Doctor. Association for the Study of Medical Education, Edinburgh.
79. Jolly B and Grant J (eds) (1997) The Good Assessment Guide: a practical guide to assessment and appraisal for higher specialist training. Joint Centre for Education in Medicine, London.
80. Azer S (2005) The qualities of a good teacher: how can they be acquired and sustained? Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 98 (2): 67-9.
81. Steinert Y, McLeod P, Boillat M et al. (2008) Faculty development: a field of dreams? Medical Education. 43: 42-9.
82. MacDougall J and Drummond M (2005) The development of medical teachers: an enquiry into the learning histories of 10 experienced medical teachers. Medical Education. 39: 1213-20.
83. Brown J, Collins A and Duguid P (1989) Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher. 18: 32-42.
84. Knowles M (1985) Andragogy in action. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
85. Knowles M (1980) The Modern Practice of Adult Education: from pedagogy to androgogy. Cambridge Books, New York.
86. Kolb D and Fry R (1975) Towards an applied theory of experiential learning. In: Cooper C (ed.) Theories of Group Processes. John Wiley, London.
87. Cruess R and Cruess S (2006) Teaching professionalism: general principles. Medical Teacher. 28: 205-8.
88. McLellan H (1996) Situated Learning Perspectives. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
89. Mann K (2006) Learning and teaching in professional character development. In: Kenney N (ed.) Lost Virtue: professional character development in medical education. Elsevier, New York.
90. Schön D (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. Basic Books, New York.
91. Hewson M (1991) Reflection in clinical teaching: an analysis of reflection-on-action and its implications for staffing residents. Medical Teacher. 13: 227-31.
92. Lachman N and Pawlina W (2006) Integrating professionalism in early medical education: the theory and application of reflective practice in the anatomy curriculum. Clinical Anatomy. 19: 456-60.
93. Robertson K (2005) Reflection in professional practice and education. Australian Family Physician. 34: 781-3.
94. Norman G (1999) The adult learner: a mythical species. Academic Medicine. 74: 886-9.
95. Merriam S (1996) Updating our knowledge of adult learning. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions. 16: 136-43.
96. Boud D, Keogh R and Walker D (1985) Reflection: turning experience into learning. Kogan Page, London.
97. Rubeck R and Witzke D (1998) Faculty development: a field of dreams. Academic Medicine. 73 (s9): S32-7.
98. Grant J (2002) Learning needs assessment: assessing the need. British Medical Journal. 324: 156-9.
99. Lockyer J (1998) Needs assessment: lessons learned. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions. 18: 190-2.
100. Kaufman D, Mann K and Jennett P (2000) Teaching and Learning in Medical Education: how theory can inform practice. Association for the Study of Medical Education, Edinburgh.
101. Steinert Y (2005) Staff development for clinical teachers. The Clinical Teacher 2: 104-10.
102. Kirkpatrick D (1994) Evaluating Training Programs: the four levels. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, San Francisco, CA.
103. Karle H (2007) European specifications for global standards in medical education. Medical Education. 41: 924-5.
104. World Federation for Medical Education (2007) Global standards programme (http://www.wfme.org; accessed 24 October 2008).
105. Steinert Y (2009) Educational theory and strategies for teaching and learning professionalism. In: Cruess R, Cruess S and Steinert Y (eds) Teaching Medical Professionalism, pp. 31-52. Cambridge University Press, New York.