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of outstanding interest Robbins TW, Everitt BJ. Neurobehavioral mechanisms of reward and motivation. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 6:1996;228-236 An excellent review combining conceptual elaborations of reward functions with neurobiological correlates in limbic and basal ganglia structures. Together with a previous review [5], it also gives a detailed overview of many years of the authors' experimental and conceptual work dealing with the role of dopamine systems in behavior.
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of outstanding interest Wise RA. Neurobiology of addiction. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 6:1996;243-251 A concentrated overview of addiction and the brain structures involved. The extensive reviewing activity of the author (see e.g. [1,8,14]) provides for stimulating reading on experimentation and conceptualization of most aspects of drug abuse, reward functions and dopamine mechanisms.
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of special interest Mirenowicz J, Schultz W. Preferential activation of midbrain dopamine neurons by appetitive rather than aversive stimuli. Nature. 379:1996;449-451 The results presented in this paper suggest that only a small fraction of probably less selective dopamine neurons respond to non-noxious, but clearly aversive, stimuli, whereas the majority of dopamine neurons are activated by appetitive stimuli. The study also describes conditions of response generalization with non-appetitive stimuli, revealing a probably attentional component of appetitive dopamine neuron responses.
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of outstanding interest. This report, from extensive studies of the anatomical connections of the primate basal ganglia, provides detailed information on the topography of striatonigral projections, which are part of the projections from orbitofrontal cortex via the striatum to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra.
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of outstanding interest Haber S, Kunishio K, Mizobuchi M, Lynd-Balta E. The orbital and medial prefrontal circuit through the primate basal ganglia. J Neurosci. 15:1995;4851-4867 This report, from extensive studies of the anatomical connections of the primate basal ganglia, provides detailed information on the topography of striatonigral projections, which are part of the projections from orbitofrontal cortex via the striatum to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra.
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A receptor-mediated inhibition of rat substantia nigra of dopaminergic neurons by pars reticulata projection neurons. J Neurosci. 15:1995;3092-3103 This study addressed the issue of how activation of the inhibitory striatal projection to substantia nigra [38,39,40] could lead to activation of dopamine neurons. The results suggest that dopamine neurons are released from tonic inhibition of local axon collaterals of reticulata output neurons, in contrast to previous hypotheses assuming inhibitory reticulata interneurons in substantia nigra.
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of outstanding interest. J.C. Houk, J.L. Davis, Beiser D.G. MIT Press Cambridge, MA This report together with a previous paper [48] are the first to describe the striking similarities between the teaching signal emitted by the adaptive critic module of TD models [46] and the dopamine neuron response to primary rewards and to conditioned, reward-predicting stimuli. The report, furthermore, describes in detail the possible molecular basis for hypothetical striatal eligibility traces that would be required for modifying the weights of synapses backwards in time that were activated in relation to the stimuli and actions leading up to the reinforcer [46]. The book, as a whole, contains a collection of synthetic descriptions of the structural organization and function of the basal ganglia and provides much helpful information and formal foundations for developing basal ganglia models
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of outstanding interest Houk JC, Adams JL, Barto AG. A model of how the basal ganglia generate and use neural signals that predict reinforcement. Houk JC, Davis JL, Beiser DG. Models of Information Processing in the Basal Ganglia. 1995;249-270 MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, This report together with a previous paper [48] are the first to describe the striking similarities between the teaching signal emitted by the adaptive critic module of TD models [46] and the dopamine neuron response to primary rewards and to conditioned, reward-predicting stimuli. The report, furthermore, describes in detail the possible molecular basis for hypothetical striatal eligibility traces that would be required for modifying the weights of synapses backwards in time that were activated in relation to the stimuli and actions leading up to the reinforcer [46]. The book, as a whole, contains a collection of synthetic descriptions of the structural organization and function of the basal ganglia and provides much helpful information and formal foundations for developing basal ganglia models.
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Houk, J.C.1
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50
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of outstanding interest. J.C. Houk, J.L. Davis, Beiser D.G. MIT Press Cambridge, MA A parallel report to the previous paper [49], this text provides an excellent introduction to TD predictive reinforcement models by one of their principal creators. The report also presents an architecture of TD models (see [46]) that closely resembles the anatomical organization of the basal ganglia [38]. With the information provided, it is possible to have a basic TD model with dopamine-like teaching signals up and running within a few days and to start experimenting with it and modifying it using commercial mathematical software (see R Suri, W Schultz, Soc Neurosci Abstr 1996, 22:1389)
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of outstanding interest Barto AG. Adaptive critics and the basal ganglia. Houk JC, Davis JL, Beiser DG. Models of Information Processing in the Basal Ganglia. 1995;215-232 MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, A parallel report to the previous paper [49], this text provides an excellent introduction to TD predictive reinforcement models by one of their principal creators. The report also presents an architecture of TD models (see [46]) that closely resembles the anatomical organization of the basal ganglia [38]. With the information provided, it is possible to have a basic TD model with dopamine-like teaching signals up and running within a few days and to start experimenting with it and modifying it using commercial mathematical software (see R Suri, W Schultz, Soc Neurosci Abstr 1996, 22:1389).
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of outstanding interest. This is the first explicit and detailed computer model of dopamine neuron responses as teaching signals of the adaptive critic module of a TD predictive reinforcement model. It is applied to human decision-making.
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of outstanding interest Montague PR, Dayan P, Sejnowski TJ. A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning. J Neurosci. 16:1996;1936-1947 This is the first explicit and detailed computer model of dopamine neuron responses as teaching signals of the adaptive critic module of a TD predictive reinforcement model. It is applied to human decision-making.
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Montague, P.R.1
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56
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of outstanding interest. of special interest. A slightly different version of TD reinforcement model from the one used by Montague et al. [55], based on measured responses of an octopamine neuron in honeybees [57]. This well developed and well presented model was employed to simulate the foraging behavior of bees.
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of outstanding interest Montague PR, Dayan P, Person C, Sejnowski TJ. Bee foraging in uncertain environments using predictive Hebbian learning. of special interest Nature. 377:1995;725-728 A slightly different version of TD reinforcement model from the one used by Montague et al. [55], based on measured responses of an octopamine neuron in honeybees [57]. This well developed and well presented model was employed to simulate the foraging behavior of bees.
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Nature
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Montague, P.R.1
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of special interest. This report and a previously published paper [60] are prominent examples on how the synaptic action of dopamine, separated according to an action via D1- and D2-type receptors, might be resolved after more than 20 years of inconsistent results.
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of special interest Gonon F, Sundstrom L. Excitatory effects of dopamine released by impulse flow in the rat nucleus accumbens in vivo. Neuroscience. 75:1996;13-18 This report and a previously published paper [60] are prominent examples on how the synaptic action of dopamine, separated according to an action via D1- and D2-type receptors, might be resolved after more than 20 years of inconsistent results.
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Gonon, F.1
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63
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of outstanding interest. The first report on longer-lasting, dopamine-mediated increases of cortico-striatal transmission. Instead of using bath application of dopamine on striatal slices, this study employed pulsatile dopamine application in order to simulate phasic release from impulse responses. Dopamine was applied simultaneously with corticostriatal tetanic stimulation. In view of the theoretically interesting eligibility traces [46,49], it would be interesting to test whether dopamine application would also be efficient if applied after corticostriatal stimulation. Furthermore, one could test dopamine specificity by blocking the observed effects with dopamine receptor antagonists.
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of outstanding interest Wickens JR, Begg AJ, Arbuthnott GW. Dopamine reverses the depression of rat corticostriatal synapses which normally follows high-frequency stimulation of cortex in vitro. Neuroscience. 70:1996;1-5 The first report on longer-lasting, dopamine-mediated increases of cortico-striatal transmission. Instead of using bath application of dopamine on striatal slices, this study employed pulsatile dopamine application in order to simulate phasic release from impulse responses. Dopamine was applied simultaneously with corticostriatal tetanic stimulation. In view of the theoretically interesting eligibility traces [46,49], it would be interesting to test whether dopamine application would also be efficient if applied after corticostriatal stimulation. Furthermore, one could test dopamine specificity by blocking the observed effects with dopamine receptor antagonists.
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Wickens, J.R.1
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Aosaki T, Tsubokawa H, Ishida A, Watanabe K, Graybiel M, Kimura M. Responses of tonically active neurons in the primate's striatum undergo systematic changed during behavioral sensorimotor conditioning. J Neurosci. 14:1994;3969-3984.
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Aosaki, T.1
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72
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Temporal and spatial characteristics of tonically active neurons of the primate's striatum
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of outstanding interest. This and the previous report [71] demonstrate how tonically active striatal neurons acquire depressant responses to visual and auditory reward-predicting stimuli while monkeys undergo classical conditioning.
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of outstanding interest Aosaki T, Kimura M, Graybiel AM. Temporal and spatial characteristics of tonically active neurons of the primate's striatum. J Neurophysiol. 73:1995;1234-1252 This and the previous report [71] demonstrate how tonically active striatal neurons acquire depressant responses to visual and auditory reward-predicting stimuli while monkeys undergo classical conditioning.
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Aosaki, T.1
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73
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Responses of tonically discharging neurons in monkey striatum to visual stimuli presented under passive conditions and during task performance
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of outstanding interest. of special interest. Tonically active striatal neurons are phasically depressed by reward-predicting stimuli, independent of a behavioral reaction of the animal. As also judged from previous data [71,72], these responses resemble the phasic activations of dopamine neurons that are known to innervate tonically active striatal neurons.
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of outstanding interest Apicella P, Legallet E, Trouche E. Responses of tonically discharging neurons in monkey striatum to visual stimuli presented under passive conditions and during task performance. of special interest Neurosci Lett. 203:1996;147-150 Tonically active striatal neurons are phasically depressed by reward-predicting stimuli, independent of a behavioral reaction of the animal. As also judged from previous data [71,72], these responses resemble the phasic activations of dopamine neurons that are known to innervate tonically active striatal neurons.
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Neurosci Lett
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Apicella, P.1
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Apicella P, Scarnati E, Ljungberg T, Schultz W. Neuronal activity in monkey striatum related to the expectation of predictable environmental events. J Neurophysiol. 68:1992;945-960.
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Schultz W, Apicella P, Scarnati E, Ljungberg T. Neuronal activity in monkey ventral striatum related to the expectation of reward. J Neurosci. 12:1992;4595-4610.
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77
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Orbitofrontal cortex neurons: Role in olfactory and visual association learning
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of special interest. Orbitofrontal neurons respond to visual cues dependent on the cue's association with reward. In a visual discrimination task, these neurons differentiate between cues signalling sweet liquid and those signaling aversive saline. Reversal of the cues' associations results in rapid reversal of differential neuronal responses simultaneously with behavioral reversal.
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of special interest Rolls ET, Critchley HD, Mason R, Wakeman EA. Orbitofrontal cortex neurons: role in olfactory and visual association learning. J Neurophysiol. 75:1996;1970-1981 Orbitofrontal neurons respond to visual cues dependent on the cue's association with reward. In a visual discrimination task, these neurons differentiate between cues signalling sweet liquid and those signaling aversive saline. Reversal of the cues' associations results in rapid reversal of differential neuronal responses simultaneously with behavioral reversal.
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Rolls, E.T.1
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of outstanding interest. This report describes how the typical delay activity of neurons in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex depends on the particular liquid or food reward obtained at trial end in standard spatial delayed response tasks. The results are not entirely unexpected because previous experiments by the author [79] have shown that neuronal responses in prefrontal neurons can depend on stimulus associations with reward as opposed to no reward. As rewards represent goals of action [16], these data correspond well to general notions about prefrontal functions in the control of goal-directed behavior, as derived from human clinical cases and primate lesion experiments. These results may well lead to an enlargement of, or even a shift in paradigm in, neurophysiological concepts of prefrontal functions that presently center around short-term or working memory.
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of outstanding interest Watanabe M. Reward expectancy in primate prefrontal neurons. Nature. 382:1996;629-632 This report describes how the typical delay activity of neurons in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex depends on the particular liquid or food reward obtained at trial end in standard spatial delayed response tasks. The results are not entirely unexpected because previous experiments by the author [79] have shown that neuronal responses in prefrontal neurons can depend on stimulus associations with reward as opposed to no reward. As rewards represent goals of action [16], these data correspond well to general notions about prefrontal functions in the control of goal-directed behavior, as derived from human clinical cases and primate lesion experiments. These results may well lead to an enlargement of, or even a shift in paradigm in, neurophysiological concepts of prefrontal functions that presently center around short-term or working memory.
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Nature
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Watanabe, M.1
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Electrophysiological and pharmacological evidence for the role of the nucleus accumbens in cocaine self-administration in freely moving rats
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Chang JY, Sawyer SF, Lee RS, Woodward DJ. Electrophysiological and pharmacological evidence for the role of the nucleus accumbens in cocaine self-administration in freely moving rats. J Neurosci. 14:1994;1224-1244.
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Carelli RM, Deadwyler SA. A comparison of nucleus accumbens neuronal firing patterns during cocaine self-administration and water reinforcement in rats. J Neurosci. 14:1994;7735-7746.
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Carelli, R.M.1
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83
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Neural signals in the monkey ventral striatum related to motivation for juice and cocaine rewards
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of outstanding interest. of special interest. This study on monkeys and the previous studies on rats [81,82] are the first to use cocaine as a reward while investigating the electrical activity of neurons in brain structures that are known to be involved in drug dependence [8-10,11,12]. Activation occurs in some neurons that are also activated by liquid rewards, although other neurons are exclusively activated by cocaine. Rat and monkey studies have shown that activations occur in relation to movements made for obtaining cocaine, during the expectation of cocaine, and after the delivery of cocaine; these data suggest that the cocaine cue is processed by some neurons as if it were a reward. This suggests that cocaine effects on behavior may, in part, occur through natural reward mechanisms.
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of outstanding interest Bowman EM, Aigner TG, Richmond BJ. Neural signals in the monkey ventral striatum related to motivation for juice and cocaine rewards. of special interest J Neurophysiol. 75:1996;1061-1073 This study on monkeys and the previous studies on rats [81,82] are the first to use cocaine as a reward while investigating the electrical activity of neurons in brain structures that are known to be involved in drug dependence [8-10,11,12]. Activation occurs in some neurons that are also activated by liquid rewards, although other neurons are exclusively activated by cocaine. Rat and monkey studies have shown that activations occur in relation to movements made for obtaining cocaine, during the expectation of cocaine, and after the delivery of cocaine; these data suggest that the cocaine cue is processed by some neurons as if it were a reward. This suggests that cocaine effects on behavior may, in part, occur through natural reward mechanisms.
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J Neurophysiol
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Bowman, E.M.1
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