Poverty and obesity: The role of energy density and energy costs

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Volumn 79, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 6-16

  Drewnowski, Adam ^a   Specter, S E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Added fat; Added sugar; Education; Energy density; Food costs; Food insecurity; Income; Obesity; Palatability; Poverty; Socioeconomic status

Indexed keywords

FAT; SUGAR;

CALORIC INTAKE; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; ECONOMIC EVALUATION; ENERGY COST; ENERGY METABOLISM; FISH; FOOD ANALYSIS; FOOD COMPOSITION; FRUIT; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HUMAN; LOWEST INCOME GROUP; MEAT; OBESITY; PALATABILITY; POPULATION RESEARCH; POVERTY; REVIEW; SOCIOECONOMICS; SYSTEM ANALYSIS; UNITED STATES; VEGETABLE;

EID: 1542370542     PISSN: 00029165     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/79.1.6     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Putnam J, Allshouse J, Kantor LS. U. S. per capita food supply trends: more calories, refined carbohydrates, and fats. Food Rev 2002;25:2-15.
2. Nielsen SJ, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM. Trends in energy intake in U. S. between 1977 and 1996; similar shifts seen across age groups. Obes Res 2002;10:370-8.
3. Kant AK. Consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods by adult Americans: nutritional and health implications. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:929-36.
4. Cavadini C, Siga-Riz AM, Popkin BM. U. S. adolescent food intake trends from 1965 to 1996. Arch Dis Child 2000;83:18-24.
5. Zizza C, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM. Significant increase in young adults' snacking between 1977-1978 and 1994-1996 represents a cause for concern! Prev Med 2001;32:303-10.
6. Harnack L, Stang J, Story M. Soft drink consumption among U. S. children and adolescents: nutritional consequences. J Am Diet Assoc 1999;99:436-41.
7. Ludwig DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 2001;357:505-8.
8. French SA, Story M, Jeffery RW. Environmental influences on eating and physical activity. Annu Rev Public Health 2001;22:309-35.
9. Bray GA, Popkin BM. Dietary fat intake does affect obesity! Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:1157-73.
10. Young LR, Nestle M. The contribution of expanding portion sizes to the obesity epidemic. Am J Public Health 2002;92:246-9.
11. McCrory MA, Fuss PJ, Hays NP, Vinken AG, Greenberg AS, Roberts SB. Overeating in America: association between restaurant food consumption and body fatness in healthy adult men and women ages 19-80. Obes Res 1999;7:564-71.
12. Chapman N, Gordon AR, Burghardt JA. Factors affecting the fat content of National School Lunch Program lunches. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61(suppl):199S-204S.
13. Besharov DJ. We're feeding the poor as if they're starving. 8 December 2002; Page B01. Internet: http://courses.washington.edu/nutr531/Besharov.doc (accessed 17 September 2003).
14. O'Beirne K. Poor and fat. A special problem in America. The National Review 2003;February 10.
15. World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization. Report of the joint WHO/FAO expert consultation on diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 2002;916.
16. Jacobson MF, Brownell KD. Small taxes on soft drinks and snack foods to promote health. Am J Public Health 2000;90:854-7.
17. Drewnowski A. Energy density, palatability, and satiety: implications for weight control. Nutr Rev 1998;56:347-53.
18. Mela DJ. Determinants of food choice: relationships with obesity and weight control. Obes Res 2001;9:249S-55S.
19. Specter SE. Fat substitutes and fat-modified foods: realistic expectations for palatability, satiety, and weight control. J Women's Health 2000;9:445.
20. US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy people 2010. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2000.
21. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CI. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults 1999-2000. JAMA 2002;288:1723-7.
22. Schoenborn CA, Adams PF, Barnes PM. Body weight status of adults: United States, 1997-98. Adv Data 2002;330:1-15.
23. Kumanyika SK. Understanding ethnic differences in energy balance: can we get there from here? Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:1-2.
24. Wardle J. Sex differences in association with SES and obesity. Am J Public Health 2002;92:1299-304.
25. Paeratakul S, Lovejoy JC, Ryan DH, Bray GA. The relation of gender, race and socioeconomic status to obesity and obesity comorbidities in a sample of U. S. adults Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2002;26:1205-10.
26. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, et al. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA 2003;289:76-9.
27. Alaimo K, Briefel RR, Frongillo EA, Olson CM. Food insufficiency exists in the United States: Results from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Am J Public Health 1998;88:419-26.
28. Basiotis PP, Lino M. Food insufficiency and prevalence of overweight among adult women. Nutrition Insights 2002;26:1-2.
29. Cook JT. Clinical implications of household food security: definitions, monitoring, and policy. Nutr Clin Care 2002;5:152-67.
30. Carlson SJ, Andrews MS, Bickel GW. Measuring food insecurity and hunger in the United States: development of a national benchmark measure and prevalence estimates. J Nutr 1999;129:510S-6S.
31. Blumberg SJ, Bialostosky K, Hamilton WL, Briefel RR. The effectiveness of a short form of the household food security scale. Am J Public Health 1999;89:1231-4.
32. Kendall A, Olson CM, Frongillo EA. Relationship of hunger and food insecurity to food availability and consumption. J Am Diet Assoc 1996;96:1019-24.
33. Levedahl JW, Oliveira V. Dietary impacts of food assistance programs, In: Frazao E, ed. America's eating habits. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 1999.
34. Rose D. Economic determinants and dietary consequences of food insecurity in the United States. J Nutr 1999;129:517-20.
35. Andrews M, Nord M, Bickel G, Carlson S. Measuring food security in the United States: household food security in the United States, 1999. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 2000. (Food Assistance and Nutrition Research report no. 8.)
36. Olson CM. Nutrition and health outcomes associated with food insecurity and hunger. J Nutr 1999;129:521S-4S.
37. Basiotis PP. Validity of the self-reported food sufficiency status item in the U. S. In: Haldeman VA, ed. American Council on Consumer Interests 38th Annual Conference, Columbia, MO. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 1992.
38. Messer E, Ross EM. Talking to patients about food insecurity. Nutr Clin Care 2002;5:168-81.
39. Prentice AM, Poppit SD. Importance of energy density and macronutrients in the regulation of energy intake. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996;20(suppl):S18-23.
40. Rolls B, Barnett RA. The volumetrics weight-control plan: feel full on fewer calories. New York: Harper Collins, 2000.
41. Drewnowski A. Palatability and satiety: models and measures. Ann Nestle [Fr] 1998;56:32-42.
42. Blundell JE, MacDiarmid JI. Passive overconsumption. Fat intake and short-term energy balance. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997;827:392-407.
43. Drewnowski A. Energy intake and sensory properties of food. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;6(suppl):1081S-5S.
44. Rolls BJ, Castellanos VH, Halford JC. Volume of foods consumed affects satiety in men. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67:1170-7.
45. Cox DN, Mela DJ. Determination of energy density of freely selected diets: methodological issues and implications. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000;24:49-54.
46. Grunwald GK, Seagle HM, Peters JC, Hill JO. Quantifying and separating the effects of macronutrient composition and non-macronutrients on energy density. Br J Nutr 2001;86:265-76.
47. Gibson SA. Associations between energy density and macronutrient composition in the diets of pre-school children: sugars vs. starch. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000;24:633-8.
48. Marti-Henneberg C, Capdevila F, Arija V, et al. Energy density of the diet, food volume and energy intake by age and sex in a healthy population. Eur J Clin Nutr 1999;53:421-8.
49. Yeomans MR, Gray RW. Opioid peptides and the control of human ingestive behaviour. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2002;26:713-28.
50. Levine AS, Kotz CM, Gosnell BA. Sugars and fats: the neurobiology of preference. J Nutr 2003;133:831S-4S.
51. Drewnowski A. Taste preferences and food intake. Annu Rev Nutr 1997;17:237-53.
52. Mela. DJ. Food choice and intake: the human factor. Proc Nutr Soc 1999;58:513-21.
53. Drewnowski A. Intense sweeteners and energy density of foods: implications for weight control. Eur J Clin Nutr 1999;53:757-63.
54. Yanovski S. Sugar and fat: cravings and aversions. J Nutr 2003;133:835S-7S.
55. Birch LL. Development of food preferences. Annu Rev Nutr 1999;19:41-62.
56. Birch LL. Children's preferences for high-fat foods. Nutr Rev 1992;50:249-55.
57. Kern DL, McPhee L, Fisher J, Johnson S, Birch LL. The postingestive consequences of fat condition preferences for flavors associated with high dietary fat. Physiol Behav 1993;54:71-6.
58. Wardle J, Sanderson S, Gibson EL, Rapoport L. Factor analytic structure of food preferences of four year old children in the UK. Appetite 2002;37:217-23.
59. Sullivan SA, Birch LL. Pass the sugar, pass the salt: experience dictates preference. Dev Psychol 1990;26:546-55.
60. Specter SE, Ello JA. Improved liking for fat-modified foods following repeated exposures may depend on food-specific sensory attributes. Obes Res 2000;8:25S (abstr).
61. Specter SE, Bellisle F, Hémerey-Véron S, Fiquet P, Bornet FRJ, Slama G. Repeated exposure to low-fat ice cream does not engender decreased acceptance or lead to subsequent energy compensation. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52:703-10.
62. Skinner JD, Carruth BR, Bounds W, Ziegler PJ. Children's food preferences: a longitudinal analysis. J Am Diet Assoc 2002;102:1638-47.
63. Drewnowski A, Popkin BM. Dietary fats and the nutrition transition: new trends in the global diet. Nutr Rev 1997;55:31-43.
64. Drewnowski A. Fat and sugar: an economic analysis. J Nutr 2003;133:8385-405.
65. Meade B, Rosen S. Income and diet differences greatly affect food spending around the globe. Food Rev 1996;4:39-44.
66. Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Patterns and trends in food portion sizes, 1977-1998. JAMA 2003;289:450-3.
67. Jeffery RW, French SA. Epidemic obesity in the United States: are fast foods and television viewing contributing? Am J Public Health 1998;88:277-80.
68. Reidpath DD, Burns C, Garrard J, Mahoney M, Townsend M. An ecological study of the relationship between social and environmental determinants of obesity. Health Place 2002;8:141-5.
69. Liu S. Intake of refined carbohydrates and whole grain foods in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary heart disease. J Am Coll Nutr 2002;21:298-306.
70. Pawlak DB, Ebbeling CB, Ludwig DS. Should obese patients be counseled to follow a low-glycemic index diet? Yes. Obes Rev 2002;3:235-43.
71. Drewnowski A, Darmon N, Briend A. Replacing fats and sweets with vegetables and fruit - a question of cost. Am J Public Health (in press).
72. Bowman SA, Linn M, Gerrior SA, Basiotis PP. The healthy eating index 1994-96. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 1998. (CNPP-5.)
73. Kennedy ET, Ohls J, Carlson S, Fleming K. The Healthy Eating Index: design and applications. J Am Diet Assoc 1995;95:1103-8.
74. Hann CS, Rock CL, King I, Drewnowski A. Validation of the Healthy Eating Index using plasma biomarkers in a clinical sample of adult females. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:479-86.
75. Cade J, Booth S. What can people eat to meet the dietary goals and how much does it cost? J Hum Nutr Diet 1990;3:199-207.
76. Kington RS, Smith JP. Socioeconomic status and racial and ethnic differences in functional status associated with chronic diseases. Am J Public Health 1997;87:805-10.
77. Michaud C, Baudier F, Loundou A, Le Bihan G, Janvrin MP, Rotily M. Habitudes, consommations et connaissances alimentaires des Français en situation de précarité financière. (Food habits, consumption, and knowledge of a low-income French population.) Santé Publique 1998;10:333-47 (in French).
78. Mooney C. Costs and availability of healthy food choices in a London health district. J Hum Nutr Diet 1990;3:111-20.
79. Sooman A, Macintyre S, Anderson A. Scotland's health - a more difficult challenge for some? The price and availability of healthy foods in socially contrasting localities in the west of Scotland. Health Bull (Edinb) 1993;51:276-84.
80. Papadaki A, Scott JA. The impact on eating habits of temporary translocation from a Mediterranean to a Northern European environment. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56:455-61.
81. Lennernas M, Fjellstrom C, Becker W, et al. Influences on food choice perceived to be important by nationally representative samples of adults in the European Union. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51(suppl 2):S8-15.
82. Irala-Estevez JD, Groth M, Johansson L, Oltersdorf U, Prattala R, Martinez-Gonzalez MA. A systematic review of socio-economic differences in food habits in Europe: consumption of fruit and vegetables. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:706-14.
83. James WP, Nelson M, Ralph A, Leather S. Socioeconomic determinants of health: the contribution of nutrition to inequalities in health. BMJ 1997;24:1545-9.
84. Sharpe DL, Abdel-Ghany M. Identifying the poor and their consumption patterns. CNPP Fam Econ Nutr Rev 1999;12:15-25.
85. Berg MC, Jonsson I, Conner MT, Lissner L. Relation between breakfast food choices and knowledge of dietary fat and fiber among Swedish schoolchildren. J Adolesc Health 2002;31:199-207.
86. Patterson RE, Kristal AR, White E. Do beliefs, knowledge, and perceived norms about diet and cancer predict dietary change? Am J Public Health 1996;86:1394-400.
87. Tepper BJ, Choi Y-S, Nayga RM Jr. Understanding food choice in adult men: influence of nutrition knowledge, food beliefs and dietary restraint. Food Qual Pref 1997;8:307-17.
88. Kaufman PR, MacDonald JM, Lutz SM, Smallwood DM. Do the poor pay more for food? Item selection and price differences affect low-income household food costs. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 1997. (Report no. 759.)
89. Cade J, Upmeier H, Calvert C, Greenwood D. Costs of a healthy diet: analysis from the UK Women's Cohort Study. Public Health Nutr 1999;2:505-12.
90. Quan T, Salomon J, Nitzke S, Reicks M. Behaviors of low-income mothers related to fruit and vegetable consumption. J Am Diet Assoc 2000;100:567-70.
91. Reicks M, Randall J, Haynes B. Factors affecting vegetable consumption in low-income households. J Am Diet Assoc 1994;94:1309-11.
92. Cox DN, Anderson AS, Lean ME, Mela DJ. UK consumer attitudes, beliefs and barriers to increasing fruit and vegetable consumption. Public Health Nutr 1998;1:61-8.
93. Dittus KL, Hillers VN, Beerman KA. Benefits and barriers to fruit and vegetable intake: relationship between attitudes and consumption. J Nutr Educ 1995;27:120-6.
94. Wilde PE, McNamara PE, Ranney CK. The effect on dietary quality of participation in the food stamp and WIC programs. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 2000. (Report no. 9.)
95. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Consumer expenditure survey 1999: diary survey. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001.
96. US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 1994-96 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals and 1994-96 Diet and Health Knowledge Survey CSFII/DHKS. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 1998 (CD-ROM).
97. Raynor HA, Kilanowski CK, Esterlis I, Epstein LH. A cost-analysis of adopting a healthful diet in a family-based obesity treatment program. J Am Diet Assoc 2002;102:645-50, 655-6.
98. Ziliak ST. Some tendencies of social welfare. Cato J 2002;21:499-513.
99. Putnam JJ, Allshouse JE. Food consumption, prices, and expenditures, 1970-97. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Economic Division, Economic Research Service, 1999. (USDA Statistical Bulletin 965.)
100. Basiotis PP, Kramer-LeBlanc CS, Kennedy ET. Maintaining nutrition security and diet quality: the role of the Food Stamp Program and WIC. Fam Econ Nutr Rev 1998;11:4-16.
101. Lutz SM, Blaylock JR, Smallwood DM. Household characteristics affect food choices. Food Rev 1993;16:12-8.
102. Glanz K, Basil M, Maibach E, Goldberg J, Snyder D. Why Americans eat what they do: taste, nutrition, cost, convenience and weight control as influences on food consumption. J Am Diet Assoc 1998; 98:1118-26.
103. Bowman SA. A methodology to price foods consumed: development of a food price database. Famy Econ Nutr Rev 1997;10:26-33.
104. US Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. The thrifty food plan: executive summary. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1999. (CNPP-7A.)
105. Hogbin M, Davis C, Escobar A. US Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. Preparing nutritious meals at minimal cost. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1999. (CNPP-7B.)
106. Darmon N, Ferguson EL, Briend A. A cost constraint alone has adverse effects on food selection and nutrient density: an analysis of human diets by linear programming. J Nutr 2002;132:3764-71.
107. Drewnowski A, Rock CL, Henderson SA, et al. Serum beta-carotene and vitamin C as biomarkers of vegetable and fruit intakes in a community-based sample of French adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:1796-802.
108. Preziosi P, Galan P, Granveau C, Deheeger M, Papoz L, Hercberg S. Consommation alimentaire d'un echantillon representatif de la population du Val-de-Marne: I. Contribution des aliments a l'apport enérgetique. (Food consumption of a representative sample of the population of Val-de-Marne: I. Contribution of foods to energy intake.) Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 1991;39:221-31 (in French).
109. Burney J, Haughton B. EFNEP: a nutrition education program that demonstrates cost-benefit. J Am Dietet Assoc 2002;102:39-45.
110. Bradbard S, Michaels E, Fleming K, Campbell M. Understanding the food choices of low-income families. Summary of findings. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Services, 1997.
111. Yanovski S. Sugar and fat: cravings and aversions. J Nutr 2003;133:835S-7S.
112. Jeffery RW, French SA. Epidemic obesity in the United States: are fast foods and television viewing contributing? Am J Public Health 1998;88:277-80.
113. Wilson N, Quigley R, Mansoor O. Food ads on TV: a health hazard for children. Aust N Z J Public Health 1999;23:647-50.
114. Tirodkar MA, Jain A. Food messages on African American television shows. Am J Public Health 2003;93:439-41.
115. Rolls BJ. The supersizing of America. Nutrition Today 2003;March/April.
116. Colditz GA. Economic costs of obesity and inactivity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999;31(suppl):S663-7.
117. Willett WC. Is dietary fat a major determinant of body fat? Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67(suppl):556S-62S.
118. Willett WC, Leibel RL. Dietary fat is not a major determinant of body fat. Am J Med 2002;13(suppl):47S-59S.
119. Willett WC. Dietary fat plays a major role in obesity: no. Obes Rev 2002;3:59-68.
120. French SA, Story M, Jeffery RW, et al. Pricing strategy to promote fruit and vegetables purchase in high school cafeterias. J Am Diet Assoc 1997;97:1008-10.
121. Wiecha JL, Palombo R. Multiple program participation: comparison of nutrition and food assistance program benefits with food costs in Boston, Massachusetts. Am J Public Health 1989;79:591-4.
122. Frazao E, ed. America's eating habits: changes & consequences. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 1999. (Agricultural Information Bulletin no. 750.)
123. Hill JO, Wyatt HR, Reed GW, Peters JC. Obesity and the environment: where do we go from here? Science 2003;299:853-5.