How does an axon grow?

Genes and Development

Volumn 17, Issue 8, 2003, Pages 941-958

  Goldberg, Jeffrey L ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CILIARY NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CYTOPLASM PROTEIN; GUANOSINE DIPHOSPHATE; GUANOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE; GUANOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE ACTIVATING PROTEIN; GUANOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE; MESSENGER RNA; NERVE PROTEIN; PROTEIN CDC42; RAC PROTEIN; RHO FACTOR; SIGNAL PEPTIDE;

CELL STRUCTURE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CYTOPLASM; DENDRITE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FILOPODIUM; HUMAN; LAMELLIPODIUM; NERVE CELL MEMBRANE; NERVE FIBER GROWTH; NERVE FIBER REGENERATION; NONHUMAN; PERIKARYON; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; RIBOSOME; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYNAPSE; UPREGULATION;

ANIMALS; AXONS; HUMANS; NERVE REGENERATION; NERVE TISSUE PROTEINS; NEURONS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 0037447204     PISSN: 08909369     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1101/gad.1062303     Document Type: Review

References (184)

1. Aguayo, A.J., Vidal-Sanz, M., Villegas-Perez, M.P., and Bray, G.M. 1987. Growth and connectivity of axotomized retinal neurons in adult rats with optic nerves substituted by PNS grafts linking the eye and the midbrain. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 495: 1-9.
2. Ahmad, F.J., Echeverri, C.J., Vallee, R.B., and Baas, P.W. 1998. Cytoplasmic dynein and dynactin are required for the transport of microtubules into the axon. J. Cell. Biol. 140: 391-401.
3. Araki, W. and Wurtman, R.J. 1997. Control of membrane phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis by diacylglycerol levels in neuronal cells undergoing neurite outgrowth. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 94: 11946-11950.
4. Argiro, V. and Johnson, M.I. 1982. Patterns and kinetics of neurite extension from sympathetic neurons in culture are age dependent. J. Neurosci. 2: 503-512.
5. Atwal, J.K., Massie, B., Miller, F.D., and Kaplan, D.R. 2000. The TrkB-Shc site signals neuronal survival and local axon growth via MEK and P13-kinase. Neuron 27: 265-277.
6. Baas, P.W., Deitch, J.S., Black, M.M., and Banker, G.A. 1988. Polarity orientation of microtubules in hippocampal neurons: Uniformity in the axon and nonuniformity in the dendrite. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 85: 8335-8339.
7. Baas, P.W., Black, M.M., and Banker, G.A. 1989. Changes in microtubule polarity orientation during the development of hippocampal neurons in culture. J. Cell. Biol. 109: 3085-3094.
8. Balkowiec, A. and Katz, D.M. 2000. Activity-dependent release of endogenous brain-derived neurotrophic factor from primary sensory neurons detected by ELISA in situ. J. Neurosci. 20: 7417-7423.
9. Bandtlow, C.E. and Loschinger, J. 1997. Developmental changes in neuronal responsiveness to the CNS myelin-associated neurite growth inhibitor NI-35/250. Eur. J. Neurosci. 9: 2743-2752.
10. Bassell, G.J., Zhang, H., Byrd, A.L., Femino, A.M., Singer, R.H., Taneja, K.L., Lifshitz, L.M., Herman, I.M., and Kosik, K.S. 1998. Sorting of β-actin mRNA and protein to neurites and growth cones in culture. J. Neurosci. 18: 251-265.
11. Benowitz, L.I., Jing, Y., Tabibiazar, R., Jo, S.A., Petrausch, B., Stuermer, C.A., Rosenberg, P.A., and Irwin, N. 1998. Axon outgrowth is regulated by an intracellular purine-sensitive mechanism in retinal ganglion cells. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 29626-29634.
12. Bibel, M. and Barde, Y.A. 2000. Neurotrophins: Key regulators of cell fate and cell shape in the vertebrate nervous system. Genes & Dev. 14: 2919-2937.
13. Biernat, J., Wu, Y.Z., Timm, T., Zheng-Fischhofer, Q., Mandelkow, E., Meijer, L., and Mandelkow, E.M. 2002. Protein kinase MARK/PAR-1 is required for neurite outgrowth and establishment of neuronal polarity. Mol. Biol. Cell 13: 4013-4028.
14. Bito, H., Furuyashiki, T., Ishihara, H., Shibasaki, Y., Ohashi, K., Mizuno, K., Maekawa, M., Ishizaki, T., and Narumiya, S. 2000. A critical role for a rho-associated kinase, p160ROCK, in determining axon outgrowth in mammalian CNS neurons. Neuron 26: 431-441.
15. Bomze, H.M., Bulsara, K.R., Iskandar, B.J., Caroni, P., and Pate Skene, J.H. 2001. Spinal axon regeneration evoked by replacing two growth cone proteins in adult neurons. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 38-43.
16. Bonilla, I.E., Tanabe, K., and Strittmatter, S.M. 2002. Small proline-rich repeat protein 1A is expressed by axotomized neurons and promotes axonal outgrowth. J. Neurosci. 22: 1303-1315.
17. Braga, V. 2002. Cell-cell adhesion and signalling. Curr. Opin. Cell. Biol. 14: 546.
18. Bray, G.M., Villegas-Perez, M.P., Vidal-Sanz, M., and Aguayo, A.J. 1987. The use of peripheral nerve grafts to enhance neuronal survival, promote growth and permit terminal reconnections in the central nervous system of adult rats. J. Exp. Biol. 132: 5-19.
19. Brittis, P.A., Lu, Q., and Flanagan, J.G. 2002. Axonal protein synthesis provides a mechanism for localized regulation at an intermediate target. Cell 110: 223-235.
20. Bulsara, K.R., Dai, H.H., Diehn, M., Brown, P.O., and Skene, J.H. 2002. Distinct, but overlapping, genetic programs for developmental axon growth and adult nerve regeneration. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. Program No. 734.11.
21. Burden-Gulley, S.M. and Brady-Kalnay, S.M. 1999. PTPmu regulates N-cadherin-dependent neurite outgrowth. J. Cell. Biol. 144: 1323-1336.
22. Cai, D., Shen, Y., De Bellard, M., Tang, S., and Filbin, M.T. 1999. Prior exposure to neurotrophins blocks inhibition of axonal regeneration by MAG and myelin via a cAMP-dependent mechanism. Neuron 22: 89-101.
23. Cai, D., Qiu, J., Cao, Z., McAtee, M., Bregman, B.S., and Filbin, M.T. 2001. Neuronal cyclic AMP controls the developmental loss in ability of axons to regenerate. J. Neurosci 21: 4731-4739.
24. Cai, D., Deng, K., Mellado, W., Lee, J., Ratan, R.R., and Filbin, M.T. 2002. Arginase I and polyamines act downstream from cyclic AMP in overcoming inhibition of axonal growth MAG and myelin in vitro. Neuron 35: 711-719.
25. Campbell, D.S. and Holt, C.E. 2001. Chemotropic responses of retinal growth cones mediated by rapid local protein synthesis and degradation. Neuron 32: 1013-1026.
26. Campenot, R.B. 1994. NGF and the local control of nerve terminal growth. J. Neurobiol. 25: 599-611.
27. Cantallops, I., Haas, K., and Cline, H.T. 2000. Postsynaptic CPG15 promotes synaptic maturation and presynaptic axon arbor elaboration in vivo. Nat. Neurosci. 3: 1004-1011.
28. Catalano, S.M. and Shatz, C.J. 1998. Activity-dependent cortical target selection by thalamic axons. Science 281: 559-562.
29. Chen, D.F., Jhaveri, S., and Schneider, G.E. 1995. Intrinsic changes in developing retinal neurons result in regenerative failure of their axons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 92: 7287-7291.
30. Chen, D.F., Schneider, G.E., Martinou, J.C., and Tonegawa, S. 1997. Bcl-2 promotes regeneration of severed axons in mammalian CNS. Nature 385: 434-439.
31. Chierzi, S., Strettoi, E., Cenni, M.C., and Maffei, L. 1999. Optic nerve crush: Axonal responses in wild-type and bcl-2 transgenic mice. J. Neurosci. 19: 8367-8376.
32. Cho, E.Y. and So, K.F. 1987. Rate of regrowth of damaged retinal ganglion cell axons regenerating in a peripheral nerve graft in adult hamsters. Brain Res. 419: 369-374.
33. Cohen, J. and Johnson, A.R. 1991. Differential effects of laminin and merosin on neurite outgrowth by developing retinal ganglion cells. J. Cell. Sci. Suppl. 15: 1-7.
34. Cohen, J., Nurcombe, V., Jeffrey, P., and Edgar, D. 1989. Developmental loss of functional laminin receptors on retinal ganglion cells is regulated by their target tissue, the optic tectum. Development 107:381-387.
35. Cohen-Cory, S. 1999. BDNF modulates, but does not mediate, activity-dependent branching and remodeling of optic axon arbors in vivo. J. Neurosci. 19: 9996-10003.
36. Condic, M.L. 2001. Adult neuronal regeneration induced by transgenic integrin expression. J. Neurosci. 21: 4782-4788.
37. -. 2002. Neural development: axon regeneration derailed by dendrites. Curr. Biol. 12: R455-R457.
38. Condic, M.L. and Letourneau, P.C. 1997. Ligand-induced changes in integrin expression regulate neuronal adhesion and neurite outgrowth. Nature 389: 852-856.
39. Conlon, I.J., Dunn, G.A., Mudge, A.W., and Raff, M.C. 2001. Extracellular control of cell size. Nat. Cell. Biol. 3: 918-921.
40. Craig, A.M., Wyborski, R.J., and Banker, G. 1995. Preferential addition of newly synthesized membrane protein at axonal growth cones. Nature 375: 592-594.
41. Da Silva, J.S. and Dotti, C.G. 2002. Breaking the neuronal sphere: Regulation of the actin cytoskeleton in neuritogenesis. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3: 694-704.
42. David, S. and Aguayo, A.J. 1981. Axonal elongation into peripheral nervous system 'bridges' after central nervous system injury in adult rats. Science 214: 931-933.
43. Davies, A.M. 1989. Intrinsic differences in the growth rate of early nerve fibres related to target distance. Nature 337: 553-555.
44. de Curtis, I. and Reichardt, L.F. 1993. Function and spatial distribution in developing chick retina of the laminin receptor α 6 β 1 and its isoforms. Development 118: 377-388.
45. de Curtis, I., Quaranta, V., Tamura, R.N., and Reichardt, L.F. 1991. Laminin receptors in the retina: sequence analysis of the chick integrin α 6 subunit. Evidence for transcriptional and posttranslational regulation. J. Cell. Biol. 113: 405-416.
46. Devadas, M., Sugawara, K., Shimada, Y., Sugitani, K., Liu, Z.W., Matsukawa, T., and Kato, S. 2000. Slow recovery of goldfish retinal ganglion cells' soma size during regeneration. Neurosci. Res. 37: 289-297.
47. de Waegh, S.M., Lee, V.M., and Brady, S.T. 1992. Local modulation of neurofilament phosphorylation, axonal caliber, and slow axonal transport by myelinating Schwann cells. Cell 68: 451-463.
48. DiTella, M.C., Feiguin, F., Carri, N., Kosik, K.S., and Caceres, A. 1996. MAP-1B/TAU functional redundancy during laminin-enhanced axonal growth. J. Cell. Sci. 109 (Pt 2): 467-477.
49. Dotti, C.G., Sullivan, C.A., and Banker, G.A. 1988. The establishment of polarity by hippocampal neurons in culture. J. Neurosci. 8: 1454-1468.
50. Du, J., Feng, L., Yang, F., and Lu, B. 2000. Activity- and Ca(2+)-dependent modulation of surface expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptors in hippocampal neurons. J. Cell. Biol. 150: 1423-1434.
51. Dusart, I., Airaksinen, M.S., and Sotelo, C. 1997. Purkinje cell survival and axonal regeneration are age dependent: an in vitro study. J. Neurosci. 17: 3710-3726.
52. Eng, H., Lund, K., and Campenot, R.B. 1999. Synthesis of β-tubulin, actin, and other proteins in axons of sympathetic neurons in compartmented cultures. J. Neurosci. 19: 1-9.
53. Fawcett, J.W. 1997. Astrocytic and neuronal factors affecting axon regeneration in the damaged central nervous system. Cell. Tissue Res. 290: 371-377.
54. Fields, R.D., Neale, E.A., and Nelson, P.G. 1990. Effects of patterned electrical activity on neurite outgrowth from mouse sensory neurons. J. Neurosci. 10: 2950-2964.
55. Forscher, P. and Smith, S.J. 1988. Actions of cytochalasins on the organization of actin filaments and microtubules in a neuronal growth cone. J. Cell. Biol. 107: 1505-1516.
56. Fukata, Y., Itoh, T.J., Kimura, T., Menager, C., Nishimura, T., Shiromizu, T., Watanabe, H., Inagaki, N., Iwamatsu, A., Hotani, H., et al. 2002. CRMP-2 binds to tubulin heterodimers to promote microtubule assembly. Nat. Cell. Biol. 4: 583-591.
57. Futerman, A.H. and Banker, G.A. 1996. The economics of neurite outgrowth - the addition of new membrane to growing axons. Trends Neurosci. 19: 144-149.
58. Gaete, J., Kameid, G., and Alvarez, J. 1998. Regenerating axons of the rat require a local source of proteins. Neurosci. Lett. 251:197-200.
59. Goldberg, D.J. and Schacher, S. 1987. Differential growth of the branches of a regenerating bifurcate axon is associated with differential axonal transport of organelles. Dev. Biol. 124: 35-40.
60. Goldberg, J.L. and Barres, B.A. 2000. The relationship between neuronal survival and regeneration. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 23:579-612.
61. Goldberg, J.L., Espinosa, J.S., Xu, Y., Davidson, N., Kovacs, G.T., and Barres, B.A. 2002a. Retinal ganglion cells do not extend axons by default: Promotion by neurotrophic signaling and electrical activity. Neuron 33: 689-702.
62. Goldberg, J.L., Klassen, M.P., Hua, Y., and Barres, B.A. 2002b. Amacrine-signaled loss of intrinsic axon growth ability by retinal ganglion cells. Science 296: 1860-1864.
63. Gould, R.M., Connell, F., and Spivack, W. 1987a. Phospholipid metabolism in mouse sciatic nerve in vivo. J. Neurochem. 48: 853-859.
64. Gould, R.M., Holshek, J., Silverman, W., and Spivack, W.D. 1987b. Localization of phospholipid synthesis to Schwann cells and axons. J. Neurochem. 48: 1121-1131.
65. Greenlund, L.J., Korsmeyer, S.J., and Johnson Jr., E.M. 1995. Role of BCL-2 in the survival and function of developing and mature sympathetic neurons. Neuron 15: 649-661.
66. Griffin, J.W., Price, D.L., Drachman, D.B., and Morris, J. 1981. Incorporation of axonally transported glycoproteins into axolemma during nerve regeneration. J. Cell. Biol. 88: 205-214.
67. Griffin, R.S., Costigan, M., Mills, C.D., Karchewski, L.A., Allchome, A.J., and Woolf, C.J. 2002. Growth associated gene expression in primary sensory neurons. Soc. Neurosc. Abstr. Program No. 99.1.
68. Hall, G.F., Chu, B., Lee, S., Liu, Y., and Yao, J. 2000. The single neurofilament subunit of the lamprey forms filaments and regulates axonal caliber and neuronal size in vivo. Cell. Motil. Cytoskeleton 46: 166-182.
69. Harada, A., Teng, J., Takei, Y., Oguchi, K., and Hirokawa, N. 2002. MAP2 is required for dendrite elongation, PKA anchoring in dendrites, and proper PKA signal transduction. J. Cell. Biol. 158:541-549.
70. Harel, R. and Futerman, A.H. 1996. A newly-synthesized GPI-anchored protein, TAG-1/axonind-1, is inserted into axonal membranes along the entire length of the axon and not exclusively at the growth cone. Brain Res. 712: 345-348.
71. Harris, W.A., Holt, C.E., and Bonhoeffer, F. 1987. Retinal axons with and without their somata, growing to and arborizing in the tectum of Xenopus embryos: a time-lapse video study of single fibres in vivo. Development 101: 123-133.
72. Higgins, D., Burack, M., Lein, P., and Banker, G. 1997. Mechanisms of neuronal polarity. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 7: 599-604.
73. Honjo, M., Tanihara, H., Suzuki, S., Tanaka, T., Honda, Y., and Takeichi, M. 2000. Differential expression of cadherin adhesion receptors in neural retina of the postnatal mouse. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41: 546-551.
74. Howe, C.L., Valletta, J.S., Rusnak, A.S., and Mobley, W.C. 2001. NGF signaling from clathrin-coated vesicles: evidence that signaling endosomes serve as a platform for the Ras-MAPK pathway. Neuron 32: 801-814.
75. Huang, D.W., McKerracher, L., Braun, P.E., and David, S. 1999. A therapeutic vaccine approach to stimulate axon regeneration in the adult mammalian spinal cord. Neuron 24: 639-647.
76. Huber, K.M., Kayser, M.S., and Bear, M.F. 2000. Role for rapid dendritic protein synthesis in hippocampal mGluR-dependent long-term depression. Science 288: 1254-1257.
77. Ivins, J.K., Yurchenco, P.D., and Lander, A.D. 2000. Regulation of neurite outgrowth by integrin activation. J. Neurosci. 20: 6551-6560.
78. Job, C. and Eberwine, J. 2001. Localization and translation of mRNA in dendrites and axons. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2: 889-898.
79. Kabir, N., Schaefer, A.W., Nakhost, A., Sossin, W.S., and Forscher, P. 2001. Protein kinase c activation promotes microtubule advance in neuronal growth cones by increasing average microtubule growth lifetimes. J. Cell. Biol. 152: 1033-1044.
80. Kalil, K. and Reh, T. 1982. A light and electron microscopic study of regrowing pyramidal tract fibers. J. Comp. Neurol. 211: 265-275.
81. Kalil, R.E., Dubin, M.W., Scott, G., and Stark, L.A. 1986. Elimination of action potentials blocks the structural development of retinogeniculate synapses. Nature 323: 156-158.
82. Kang, H. and Schuman, E.M. 1996. A requirement for local protein synthesis in neurotrophin-induced hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Science 273: 1402-1406.
83. Kaplan, D.R. and Miller, F.D. 2000. Neurotrophin signal transduction in the nervous system. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 10: 381-391.
84. Katz, L.C. and Shatz, C.J. 1996. Synaptic activity and the construction of cortical circuits. Science 274: 1133-1138.
85. Klausner, R.D., Donaldson, J.G., and Lippincott-Schwartz, J. 1992. Brefeldin A: Insights into the control of membrane traffic and organelle structure. J. Cell. Biol. 116: 1071-1080.
86. Knowles, R.B. and Kosik, K.S. 1997. Neurotrophin-3 signals redistribute RNA in neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 94: 14804-14808.
87. Koenig, E., Martin, R., Titmus, M., and Sotelo-Silveira, J.R. 2000. Cryptic peripheral ribosomal domains distributed intermittently along mammalian myelinated axons. J. Neurosci. 20: 8390-8400.
88. Kohara, K., Kitamura, A., Morishima, M., and Tsumoto, T. 2001. Activity-dependent transfer of brain-derived neurotrophic factor to postsynaptic neurons. Science 291: 2419-2423.
89. Lafont, F., Rouget, M., Triller, A., Prochiantz, A., and Rousselet, A. 1992. In vitro control of neuronal polarity by glycosaminoglycans. Development 114: 17-29.
90. Lamoureux, P., Altun-Gultekin, Z.F., Lin, C., Wagner, J.A., and Heidemann, S.R. 1997. Rac is required for growth cone function but not neurite assembly. J. Cell. Sci. 110: 635-641.
91. Lamoureux, P., Buxbaum, R.E., and Heidemann, S.R. 1998. Axonal outgrowth of cultured neurons is not limited by growth cone competition. J. Cell. Sci. 111: 3245-3252.
92. Lanier, L.M., Gates, M.A., Witke, W., Menzies, A.S., Wehman, A.M., Macklis, J.D., Kwiatkowski, D., Soriano, P., and Gertler, F.B. 1999. Mena is required for neurulation and commissure formation. Neuron 22: 313-325.
93. Lehmann, M., Fournier, A., Selles-Navarro, I., Dergham, P., Sebok, A., Leclerc, N., Tigyi, G., and McKerracher, L. 1999. Inactivation of rho signaling pathway promotes CNS axon regeneration. J. Neurosci. 19: 7537-7547.
94. Lein, P.J. and Higgins, D. 1991. Protein synthesis is required for the initiation of dendritic growth in embryonic rat sympathetic neurons in vitro. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 60: 187-196.
95. Lentz, S.I., Knudson, C.M., Korsmeyer, S.J., and Snider, W.D. 1999. Neurotrophins support the development of diverse sensory axon morphologies. J. Neurosci. 19: 1038-1048.
96. Letourneau, P.C. 1978. Chemotactic response of nerve fiber elongation to nerve growth factor. Dev. Biol. 66: 183-196.
97. Lin, C.H. and Forscher, P. 1995. Growth cone advance is inversely proportional to retrograde F-actin flow. Neuron 14: 763-771.
98. Lin, C.H., Espreafico, E.M., Mooseker, M.S., and Forscher, P. 1996. Myosin drives retrograde F-actin flow in neuronal growth cones. Neuron 16: 769-782.
99. Lindsay, R.M. 1988. Nerve growth factors (NGF, BDNF) enhance axonal regeneration but are not required for survival of adult sensory neurons. J. Neurosci. 8: 2394-2405.
100. Lindsay, R.M., Thoenen, H., and Barde, Y.A. 1985. Placode and neural crest-derived sensory neurons are responsive at early developmental stages to brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Dev. Biol. 112: 319-328.
101. Liu, C.W., Lee, G., and Jay, D.G. 1999. Tau is required for neurite outgrowth and growth cone motility of chick sensory neurons. Cell. Motil. Cytoskeleton 43: 232-242.
102. Liu, R.Y. and Snider, W.D. 2001. Different signaling pathways mediate regenerative versus developmental sensory axon growth. J. Neurosci. 21: RC164.
103. Lodovichi, C., Di Cristo, G., Cenni, M.C., and Maffei, L. 2001. Bcl-2 overexpression per se does not promote regeneration of neonatal crushed optic fibers. Eur. J. Neurosci. 13: 833-838.
104. Lu, M., Witke, W., Kwiatkowski, D.J., and Kosik, K.S. 1997. Delayed retraction of filopodia in gelsolin null mice. J. Cell. Biol. 138: 1279-1287.
105. MacInnis, B.L. and Campenot, R.B. 2002. Retrograde support of neuronal survival without retrograde transport of nerve growth factor. Science 295: 1536-1539.
106. Markus, A., Zhong, J., and Snider, W.D. 2002. Raf and akt mediate distinct aspects of sensory axon growth. Neuron 35: 65-76.
107. Martenson, C., Stone, K., Reedy, M., and Sheetz, M. 1993. Fast axonal transport is required for growth cone advance. Nature 366: 66-69.
108. McAllister, A.K., Lo, D.C., and Katz, L.C. 1995. Neurotrophins regulate dendritic growth in developing visual cortex. Neuron 15:791-803.
109. McQuarrie, I.G. and Grafstein, B. 1982. Protein synthesis and axonal transport in goldfish retinal ganglion cells during regeneration accelerated by a conditioning lesion. Brain Res. 251: 25-37.
110. Meberg, P.J., Ono, S., Minamide, L.S., Takahashi, M., and Bamburg, J.R. 1998. Actin depolymerizing factor and cofilin phosphorylation dynamics: Response to signals that regulate neurite extension. Cell. Motil. Cytoskeleton 39: 172-190.
111. Meyer-Franke, A., Kaplan, M.R., Pfrieger, F.W., and Barres, B.A. 1995. Characterization of the signaling interactions that promote the survival and growth of developing retinal ganglion cells in culture. Neuron 15: 805-819.
112. Meyer-Franke, A., Wilkinson, G.A., Kruttgen, A., Hu, M., Munro, E., Hanson Jr., M.G., Reichardt, L.F., and Barres, B.A. 1998. Depolarization and cAMP elevation rapidly recruit TrkB to the plasma membrane of CNS neurons. Neuron 21:681-693.
113. Michaelidis, T.M., Sendtner, M., Cooper, J.D., Airaksinen, M.S., Holtmann, B., Meyer, M., and Thoenen, H. 1996. Inactivation of bcl-2 results in progressive degeneration of motoneurons, sympathetic and sensory neurons during early postnatal development. Neuron 17: 75-89.
114. Ming, G., Henley, J., Tessier-Lavigne, M., Song, H., and Poo, M. 2001. Electrical activity modulates growth cone guidance by diffusible factors. Neuron 29: 441-452.
115. Ming, G.L., Wong, S.T., Henley, J., Yuan, X.B., Song, H.J., Spitzer, N.C., and Poo, M.M. 2002. Adaptation in the chemotactic guidance of nerve growth cones. Nature 417: 411-418.
116. Mitchison, T.J. and Cramer, L.P. 1996. Actin-based cell motility and cell locomotion. Cell 84: 371-379.
117. Mitchison, T. and Kirschner, M. 1988. Cytoskeletal dynamics and nerve growth. Neuron 1: 761-772.
118. Moon, L.D., Asher, R.A., Rhodes, K.E., and Fawcett, J.W. 2001. Regeneration of CNS axons back to their target following treatment of adult rat brain with chondroitinase ABC. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 465-466.
119. Mueller, B.K. 1999. Growth cone guidance: First steps towards a deeper understanding. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 22: 351-388.
120. Murray, M. and Grafstein, B. 1969. Changes in the morphology and amino acid incorporation of regenerating goldfish optic neurons. Exp. Neurol. 23: 544-560.
121. Nedivi, E., Wu, G.Y., and Cline, H.T. 1998. Promotion of dendritic growth by CPG15, an activity-induced signaling molecule. Science 281: 1863-1866.
122. Neumann, S., Bradke, F., Tessier-Lavigne, M., and Basbaum, A.I. 2002. Regeneration of sensory axons within the injured spinal cord induced by intraganglionic cAMP elevation. Neuron 34: 885-893.
123. Oudega, M. and Hagg, T. 1996. Nerve growth factor promotes regeneration of sensory axons into adult rat spinal cord. Exp. Neurol. 140: 218-229.
124. Ouyang, Y., Rosenstein, A., Kreiman, G., Schuman, E.M., and Kennedy, M.B. 1999. Tetanic stimulation leads to increased accumulation of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II via dendritic protein synthesis in hippocampal neurons. J. Neurosci. 19: 7823-7833.
125. Patel, B.N. and Van Vactor, D.L. 2002. Axon guidance: the cytoplasmic tail. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 14: 221-229.
126. Polleux, F., Morrow, T., and Ghosh, A. 2000. Semaphorin 3A is a chemoattractant for cortical apical dendrites. Nature 404: 567-573.
127. Posse de Chaves, E., Vance, D.E., Campenot, R.B., and Vance, J.E. 1995a. Alkylphosphocholines inhibit choline uptake and phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis in rat sympathetic neurons and impair axonal extension. Biochem. J. 312 (Pt 2): 411-417.
128. -. 1995b. Axonal synthesis of phosphatidylcholine is required for normal axonal growth in rat sympathetic neurons. J. Cell. Biol. 128: 913-918.
129. Posse de Chaves, E.I., Rusinol, A.E., Vance, D.E., Campenot, R.B., and Vance, J.E. 1997. Role of lipoproteins in the delivery of lipids to axons during axonal regeneration. J. Biol. Chem. 272: 30766-30773.
130. Posse De Chaves, E.I., Vance, D.E., Campenot, R.B., Kiss, R.S., and Vance, J.E. 2000. Uptake of lipoproteins for axonal growth of sympathetic neurons. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 19883-19890.
131. Qiu, J., Cai, D., Dai, H., McAtee, M., Hoffman, P.N., Bregman, B.S., and Filbin, M.T. 2002. Spinal axon regeneration induced by elevation of cyclic AMP. Neuron 34: 895-903.
132. Rashid, N.A. and Cambray-Deakin, M.A. 1992. N-methyl-D-aspartate effects on the growth, morphology and cytoskeleton of individual neurons in vitro. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 67: 301-308.
133. Reh, T. and Kalil, K. 1982. Functional role of regrowing pyramidal tract fibers. J. Comp. Neurol. 211: 276-283.
134. Reichardt, L.F. and Tomaselli, K.J. 1991. Extracellular matrix molecules and their receptors: Functions in neural development. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 14: 531-570.
135. Riccio, A., Pierchala, B.A., Ciarallo, C.L., and Ginty, D.D. 1997. An NGF-TrkA-mediated retrograde signal to transcription factor CREB in sympathetic neurons. Science 277: 1097-1100.
136. Riehl, R., Johnson, K., Bradley, R., Grunwald, G.B., Cornel, E., Lilienbaum, A., and Holt, C.E. 1996. Cadherin function is required for axon outgrowth in retinal ganglion cells in vivo. Neuron 17: 837-848.
137. Rochlin, M.W., Wickline, K.M., and Bridgman, P.C. 1996. Mictotubule stability decreases axon elongation but not axoplasm production. J. Neurosci. 16: 3236-3246.
138. Roth, L.W., Bormann, P., Wiederkehr, C., and Reinhard, E. 1999. β-thymosin, a modulator of the actin cytoskeleton is increased in regenerating retinal ganglion cells. Eur. J. Neurosci. 11: 3488-3498.
139. Ruthel, G. and Hollenbeck, P.J. 2000. Growth cones are not required for initial establishment of polarity or differential axon branch growth in cultured hippocampal neurons. J. Neurosci. 20: 2266-2274.
140. Saunders, N.R., Balkwill, P., Knott, G., Habgood, M.D., Mollgard, K., Treherne, J.M., and Nicholls, J.G. 1992. Growth of axons through a lesion in the intact CNS of fetal rat maintained in long-term culture. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 250: 171-180.
141. Schmidt, A. and Hall, M.N. 1998. Signaling to the actin cytoskeleton. Annu. Rev. Cell. Dev. Biol. 14: 305-338.
142. Schnell, L., Schneider, R., Kolbeck, R., Barde, Y.A., and Schwab, M.E. 1994. Neurotrophin-3 enhances sprouting of corticospinal tract during development and after adult spinal cord lesion. Nature 367: 170-173.
143. Schwab, M.E. and Bartholdi, D. 1996. Degeneration and regeneration of axons in the lesioned spinal cord. Physiol. Rev, 76: 319-370.
144. Schwarz, A., Rapaport, E., Hirschberg, K., and Futerman, A.H. 1995. A regulatory role for sphingolipids in neuronal growth. Inhibition of sphingolipid synthesis and degradation have opposite effects on axonal branching. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 10990-10998.
145. Serafini, T., Kennedy, T.E., Galko, M.J., Mirzayan, C., Jessell, T.M., and Tessier-Lavigne, M. 1994. The netrins define a family of axon outgrowth-promoting proteins homologous to C. elegans UNC-6. Cell 78: 409-424.
146. Shatz, C.J. and Stryker, M.P. 1988. Prenatal tetrodotoxin infusion blocks segregation of retinogeniculate afferents. Science 242: 87-89.
147. Shaw, G. and Bray, D. 1977. Movement and extension of isolated growth cones. Exp. Cell. Res. 104: 55-62.
148. Shen, S., Wiemelt, A.P., McMorris, F.A., and Barres, B.A. 1999. Retinal ganglion cells lose trophic responsiveness after axotomy. Neuron 23: 285-295.
149. Smith, D.S. and Skene, J.H. 1997. A transcription-dependent switch controls competence of adult neurons for distinct modes of axon growth. J. Neurosci. 17: 646-658.
150. Starr, R., Attema, B., DeVries, G.H., and Monteiro, M.J. 1996. Neurofilament phosphorylation is modulated by myelination. J. Neurosci. Res. 44: 328-337.
151. Steketee, M.B. and Tosney, K.W. 2002. Three functionally distinct adhesions in filopodia: Shaft adhesions control lamellar extension. J. Neurosci. 22: 8071-8083.
152. Suter, D.M. and Forscher, P. 2000. Substrate-cytoskeletal coupling as a mechanism for the regulation of growth cone motility and guidance. J. Neurobiol. 44: 97-113.
153. -. 2001. Transmission of growth cone traction force through apCAM-cytoskeletal linkages is regulated by Src family tyrosine kinase activity. J. Cell. Biol. 155: 427-438.
154. Suter, D.M., Errante, L.D., Belotserkovsky, V., and Forscher, P. 1998. The Ig superfamily cell adhesion molecule, apCAM, mediates growth cone steering by substrate-cytoskeletal coupling. J. Cell. Biol. 141: 227-240.
155. Takei, Y., Teng, J., Harada, A., and Hirokawa, N. 2000. Defects in axonal elongation and neuronal migration in mice with disrupted tau and maplb genes. J. Cell. Biol. 150: 989-1000.
156. Tanaka, E. and Sabry, J. 1995. Making the connection: cytoskeletal rearrangements during growth cone guidance. Cell 83: 171-176.
157. Teng, J., Takei, Y., Harada, A., Nakata, T., Chen, J., and Hirokawa, N. 2001. Synergistic effects of MAP2 and MAP1B knockout in neuronal migration, dendritic outgrowth, and microtubule organization. J. Cell. Biol. 155: 65-76.
158. Tennyson, V.M. 1970. The fine structure of the axon and growth cone of the dorsal root neuroblast of the rabbit embryo. J. Cell. Biol. 44: 62-79.
159. Tetzlaff, W. and Steeves, J.D. 2000. Intrinsic neuronal and extrinsic glial determinants of axonal regeneration in the injured spinal cord. In Degeneration and regeneration in the nervous system (ed. N.R. Saunders and K.M. Dziegielewska), pp. 93-118. OPA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
160. Toews, A.D., Armstrong, R., Ray, R., Gould, R.M., and Morell, P. 1988. Deposition and transfer of axonally transported phospholipids in rat sciatic nerve. J. Neurosci. 8: 593-601.
161. Torocsik, B., Angelastro, J.M., and Greene, L.A. 2002. The basic region and leucine zipper transcription factor MafK is a new nerve growth factor-responsive immediate early gene that regulates neurite outgrowth. J. Neurosci. 22: 8971-8980.
162. Tucker, K.L., Meyer, M., and Barde, Y.A. 2001. Neurotrophins are required for nerve growth during development. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 29-37.
163. Udvadia, A.J., Koster, R.W., and Skene, J.H. 2001. GAP-43 promoter elements in transgenic zebrafish reveal a difference in signals for axon growth during CNS development and regeneration. Development 128: 1175-1182.
164. Vance, J.E., Pan, D., Vance, D.E., and Campenot, R.B. 1991. Biosynthesis of membrane lipids in rat axons. J. Cell. Biol. 115: 1061-1068.
165. Vance, J.E., Pan, D., Campenot, R.B., Bussiere, M., and Vance, D.E. 1994. Evidence that the major membrane lipids, except cholesterol, are made in axons of cultured rat sympathetic neurons. J. Neurochem. 62: 329-337.
166. Verhage, M., Maia, A.S., Plomp, J.J., Brussaard, A.B., Heeroma, J.H., Vermeer, H., Toonen, R.F., Hammer, R.E., van den Berg, T.K., Missler, M., et al. 2000. Synaptic assembly of the brain in the absence of neurotransmitter secretion. Science 287: 864-869.
167. Vieira, A.V., Lamaze, C., and Schmid, S.L. 1996. Control of EGF receptor signaling by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Science 274: 2086-2089.
168. Wang, H. and Tessier-Lavigne, M. 1999. En passant neurotrophic action of an intermediate axonal target in the developing mammalian CNS. Nature 401: 765-769.
169. Wang, K.H., Brose, K., Arnott, D., Kidd, T., Goodman, C.S., Henzel, W., and Tessier-Lavigne, M. 1999. Biochemical purification of a mammalian slit protein as a positive regulator of sensory axon elongation and branching. Cell 96: 771-784.
170. Watson, F.L., Heerssen, H.M., Moheban, D.B., Lin, M.Z., Sauvageot, C.M., Bhattacharyya, A., Pomeroy, S.L., and Segal, R.A. 1999. Rapid nuclear responses to target-derived neurotrophins require retrograde transport of ligand-receptor complex. J. Neurosci. 19: 7889-7900.
171. Weiler, I.J. and Greenough, W.T. 1993. Metabotropic glutamate receptors trigger postsynaptic protein synthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 90: 7168-7171.
172. Weinberger, R., Schevzov, G., Jeffrey, P., Gordon, K., Hill, M., and Gunning, P. 1996. The molecular composition of neuronal microfilaments is spatially and temporally regulated. J. Neurosci. 16: 238-252.
173. Wills, Z., Bateman, J., Korey, C.A., Comer, A., and Van Vactor, D. 1999a. The tyrosine kinase Abl and its substrate enabled collaborate with the receptor phosphatase Dlar to control motor axon guidance. Neuron 22: 301-312.
174. Wills, Z., Marr, L., Zinn, K., Goodman, C.S., and Van Vactor, D. 1999b. Profilin and the Abl tyrosine kinase are required for motor axon outgrowth in the Drosophila embryo. Neuron 22: 291-299.
175. Wu, C. and Dedhar, S. 2001. Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) and its interactors: A new paradigm for the coupling of extracellular matrix to actin cytoskeleton and signaling complexes. J. Cell. Biol. 155: 505-510.
176. Xu, B., Zang, K., Ruff, N.L., Zhang, Y.A., McConnell, S.K., Stryker, M.P., and Reichardt, L.F. 2000. Cortical degeneration in the absence of neurotrophin signaling: Dendritic retraction and neuronal loss after removal of the receptor TrkB. Neuron 26: 233-245.
177. Yamashita, T., Tucker, K.L., and Barde, Y.A. 1999. Neurotrophin binding to the p75 receptor modulates rho activity and axonal outgrowth. Neuron 24: 585-593.
178. Yu, W., Cook, C., Sauter, C., Kuriyama, R., Kaplan, P.L., and Baas, P.W. 2000. Depletion of a microtubule-associated motor protein induces the loss of dendritic identity. J. Neurosci. 20:5782-5791.
179. Zakharenko, S. and Popov, S. 1998. Dynamics of axonal microtubules regulate the topology of new membrane insertion into the growing neurites. J. Cell. Biol. 143: 1077-1086.
180. Zhang, H.L., Singer, R.H., and Bassell, G.J. 1999. Neurotrophin regulation of β-actin mRNA and protein localization within growth cones. J. Cell. Biol. 147: 59-70.
181. Zhang, H.L., Eom, T., Oleynikov, Y., Shenoy, S.M., Liebelt, D.A., Dictenberg, J.B., Singer, R.H., and Bassell, G.J. 2001. Neurotrophin-induced transport of a β-actin mRNP complex increases β-actin levels and stimulates growth cone motility. Neuron 31: 261-275.
182. Zhang, X. and Poo, M.M. 2002. Localized synaptic potentiation by BDNF requires local protein synthesis in the developing axon. Neuron 36: 675-688.
183. Zheng, J., Lamoureux, P., Santiago, V., Dennerll, T., Buxbaum, R.E., and Heidemann, S.R. 1991. Tensile regulation of axonal elongation and initiation. J. Neurosci. 11: 1117-1125.
184. Zheng, J.Q., Kelly, T.K., Chang, B., Ryazantsev, S., Rajasekaran, A.K., Martin, K.C., and Twiss, J.L. 2001. A functional role for intra-axonal protein synthesis during axonal regeneration from adult sensory neurons. J. Neurosci, 21: 9291-9303.