Genetic alterations of human brain tumors as molecular prognostic factors

Neuropathology

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 95-108

  Shiraishi, Tetsuya ^a   Tabuchi, Kazuo ^a  

^a SAGA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Brain tumor; Genotype; Prognostic factor

Indexed keywords

LOMUSTINE; PROCARBAZINE; PROTEIN MDM2; PROTEIN P14; PROTEIN P16; PROTEIN P53; VINCRISTINE;

ADULT; ASTROCYTOMA; BRAIN TUMOR; CANCER GRADING; CARCINOGENESIS; CHROMOSOME 19P; CHROMOSOME 1P; CHROMOSOME LOSS; CONFERENCE PAPER; GENETIC ANALYSIS; HUMAN; HUMAN TISSUE; OLIGODENDROGLIOMA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

BRAIN NEOPLASMS; DNA, NEOPLASM; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, NEOPLASTIC; HUMANS; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; PROGNOSIS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TUMOR MARKERS, BIOLOGICAL;

EID: 0037356777     PISSN: 09196544     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1789.2003.00477.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (165)

1. Louis DN, Holland EC, Cairncross JG. Glioma classification: A molecular reappraisal. Am J Pathol 2001; 159: 779-786.
2. Cavenee WK, Furnari FB, Nagane M et al. Astrocytic Tumors. Lyon: IARC Press, 2000.
3. Ohgaki H, Reifenberger G, Nomura K, Kleihues P. Gliomas. In: Wittekind C (ed.) Prognostic Factors in Cancer, 2nd edn. New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001; 725-743.
4. Kim TS, Halliday AL, Hedley-Whyte ET, Convery K. Correlates of survival and the Daumas-Duport grading system for astrocytomas. J Neurosurg 1991; 74: 27-37.
5. Barker II FG, Davis RL, Chang SM, Prados MD. Necrosis as a prognostic factor in glioblastoma multiforme. Cancer 1996; 77: 1161-1166.
6. Burger PC, Green SB. Patient age, histologic features, and length of survival in patients with glioblastoma multiforme. Cancer 1987; 59: 1617-1625.
7. Salmon I, Dewitte O, Pasteels JL et al. Prognostic scoring in adult astrocytic tumors using patient age, histopathological grade, and DNA histogram type. J Neurosurg 1994; 80: 877-883.
8. Ammirati M, Vick N, Liao YL, Ciric I, Mikhael M. Effect of the extent of surgical resection on survival and quality of life in patients with supratentorial glioblastomas and anaplastic astrocytomas. Neurosurgery 1987; 21: 201-206.
9. Sneed PK, Prados MD, McDermott MW et al. Large effect of age on the survival of patients with glioblastoma treated with radiotherapy and brachytherapy boost. Neurosurgery 1995; 36: 898-903; discussion 903-894.
10. Leibel SA, Scott CB, Loeffler JS. Contemporary approaches to the treatment of malignant gliomas with radiation therapy. Semin Oncol 1994; 21: 198-219.
11. Nomura K, Yamaguchi N, Watanabe S. The Statistical Analysis of Prognostic Factors for Brain Tumors. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 1996.
12. Gerdes J, Lemke H, Baisch H, Wacker HH, Schwab U, Stein H. Cell cycle analysis of a cell proliferation-associated human nuclear antigen defined by the monoclonal antibody Ki-67. J Immunol 1984; 133: 1710-1715.
13. Torp SH, Helseth E, Dalen A, Unsgaard G. Relationships between Ki-67 labelling index, amplification of the epidermal growth factor receptor gene, and prognosis in human glioblastomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1992; 117: 182-186.
14. Pigott TJ, Lowe JS, Palmer J. Statistical modelling in analysis of prognosis in glioblastoma multiforme: A study of clinical variables and Ki-67 index. Br J Neurosurg 1991; 5: 61-66.
15. Taya Y. RB and p53: Mechanism of carcinogenesis caused by deregulation of the cell cycle. In: Nakayama K (ed.) Cell Cycle: From Basis to Topics. Tokyo: Yodosha, 2001; 89-97.
16. Vousden KH. Activation of the p53 tumor suppressor protein. Biochim Biophys Acta 2002; 1602: 47-59.
17. Watanabe K, Sato K, Biernat W et al. Incidence and timing of p53 mutations during astrocytoma progression in patients with multiple biopsies. Clin Cancer Res 1997; 3: 523-530.
18. Jin YT, Kayser S, Kemp BL et al. The prognostic significance of the biomarkers p21WAF1/CIP1, p53, and bcl-2 in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer 1998; 82: 2159-2165.
19. Popov Z, Hoznek A, Colombel M et al. The prognostic value of p53 nuclear overexpression and MIB-1 as a proliferative marker in transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. Cancer 1997; 80: 1472-1481.
20. Louis DN. The p53 gene and protein in human brain tumors. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1994; 53: 11-21.
21. Rasheed BK, McLendon RE, Herndon JE et al. Alterations of the TP53 gene in human gliomas. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 1324-1330.
22. Leenstra S, Oskam NT, Bijleveld EH, Bosch DA, Troost D, Hulsebos TJ. Genetic sub-types of human malignant astrocytoma correlate with survival. Int J Cancer 1998; 79: 159-165.
23. Tabuchi K, Fukuyama K. Genetic alterations of gliomas. No Shinkei 1997; 49: 205-213.
24. Freedman DA, Wu L, Levine AJ. Functions of the MDM2 oncoprotein. Cell Mol Life Sci 1999; 55: 96-107.
25. Reifenberger G, Liu L, Ichimura K, Schmidt EE, Collins VP. Amplification and overexpression of the MDM2 gene in a subset of human malignant gliomas without p53 mutations. Cancer Res 1993; 53: 2736-2739.
26. Biernat W, Kleihues P, Yonekawa Y, Ohgaki H. Amplification and overexpression of MDM2 in primary (de novo) glioblastomas. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997; 56: 180-185.
27. Korkolopoulou P, Christodoulou P, Kouzelis K et al. MDM2 and p53 expression in gliomas: A multivariate survival analysis including proliferation markers and epidermal growth factor receptor. Br J Cancer 1997; 75: 1269-1278.
28. Newcomb EW, Cohen H, Lee SR et al. Survival of patients with glioblastoma multiforme is not influenced by altered expression of p16, p53, EGFR, MDM2 or Bcl-2 genes [see comment]. Brain Pathol 1998; 8: 655-667.
29. Olson JJ, Barnett D, Yang J, Assietti R, Cotsonis G, James CD. Gene amplification as a prognostic factor in primary brain tumors. Clin Cancer Res 1998; 4: 215-222.
30. Schiebe M, Ohneseit P, Hoffmann W, Meyermann R, Rodemann HP, Bamberg M. Analysis of mdm2 and p53 gene alterations in glioblastomas and its correlation with clinical factors. J Neurooncol 2000; 49: 197-203.
31. Ichimura K, Schmidt EE, Goike HM, Collins VP. Human glioblastomas with no alterations of the CDKN2A (p16INK4A, MTS1) and CDK4 genes have frequent mutations of the retinoblastoma gene. Oncogene 1996; 13: 1065-1072.
32. Nakamura M, Watanabe T, Klangby U et al. p14ARF deletion and methylation in genetic pathways to glioblastomas. Brain Pathol 2001; 11: 159-168.
33. el-Deiry WS, Tokino T, Velculescu VE et al. WAF1, a potential mediator of p53 tumor suppression. Cell 1993; 75: 817-825.
34. Kraus JA, Wenghoefer M, Glesman N et al. TP53 gene mutations, nuclear p53 accumulation, expression of Waf/p21,Bcl-2, and CD95 (APO-1/Fas) proteins are not prognostic factors in de novo glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurooncol 2001; 52: 263-272.
35. Serrano M, Hannon GJ, Beach D. A new regulatory motif in cell-cycle control causing specific inhibition of cyclin D/CDK4. Nature 1993; 366: 704-707.
36. Jen J, Harper JW, Bigner SH et al. Deletion of p16 and p15 genes in brain tumors. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 6353-6358.
37. Schmidt EE, Ichimura K, Messerle KR, Goike HM, Collins VP. Infrequent methylation of CDKN2A (MTS1/p16) and rare mutation of both CDKN2A and CDKN2B (MTS2/p15) in primary astrocytic tumours. Br J Cancer 1997; 75: 2-8.
38. Schmidt EE, Ichimura K, Reifenberger G, Collins VP. CDKN2 (p16/MTS1) gene deletion or CDK4 amplification occurs in the majority of glioblastomas. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 6321-6324.
39. Ueki K, Ono Y, Henson JW, Efird JT, von Deimling A, Louis DN. CDKN2/p16 or RB alterations occur in the majority of glioblastomas and are inversely correlated. Cancer Res 1996; 56: 150-153.
40. Fueyo J, Gomez-Manzano C, Bruner JM et al. Hypermethylation of the CpG island of p16/CDKN2 correlates with gene inactivation in gliomas. Oncogene 1996; 13: 1615-1619.
41. Costello JF, Berger MS, Huang HS, Cavenee WK. Silencing of p16/CDKN2 expression in human gliomas by methylation and chromatin condensation. Cancer Res 1996; 56: 2405-2410.
42. Hayashi Y, Ueki K, Waha A, Wiestler OD, Louis DN, von Deimling A. Association of EGFR gene amplification and CDKN2 (p16/MTS1) gene deletion in glioblastoma multiforme. Brain Pathol 1997; 7: 871-875.
43. Ono Y, Tamiya T, Ichikawa T et al. Malignant astrocytomas with homozygous CDKN2/p16 gene deletions have higher Ki-67 proliferation indices. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1996; 55: 1026-1031.
44. Kirla R, Salminen E, Huhtala S et al. Prognostic value of the expression of tumor suppressor genes p53, p21, p16 and prb, and Ki-67 labelling in high grade astrocytomas treated with radiotherapy. J Neurooncol 2000; 46: 71-80.
45. Miettinen H, Kononen J, Sallinen P et al. CDKN2/p16 predicts survival in oligodendrogliomas: Comparison with astrocytomas. J Neurooncol 1999; 41: 205-211.
46. Alleyne Jr CH, He J, Yang J et al. Analysis of cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors in malignant astrocytomas. Int J Oncol 1999; 14: 1111-1116.
47. Kraus JA, Glesmann N, Beck M et al. Molecular analysis of the PTEN, TP53 and CDKN2A tumor suppressor genes in long-term survivors of glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurooncol 2000; 48: 89-94.
48. Puduvalli VK, Kyritsis AP, Hess KR et al. Patterns of expression of Rb and p16 in astrocytic gliomas, and correlation with survival. Int J Oncol 2000; 17: 963-969.
49. Beijersbergen RL, Bernards R. Cell cycle regulation by the retinoblastoma family of growth inhibitory proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta 1996; 1287: 103-120.
50. Henson JW, Schnitker BL, Correa KM et al. The retinoblastoma gene is involved in malignant progression of astrocytomas. Ann Neurol 1994; 36: 714-721.
51. James CD, Carlbom E, Dumanski JP et al. Clonal genomic alterations in glioma malignancy stages. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 5546-5551.
52. Korkolopoulou P, Kouzelis K, Christodoulou P, Papanikolaou A, Thomas-Tsagli E. Expression of retinoblastoma gene product and p21 (WAF1/Cip 1) protein in gliomas: correlations with proliferation markers, p53 expression and survival. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1998; 95: 617-624.
53. Korshunov A, Golanov A, Sycheva R. Immunohistochemical markers for prognosis of anaplastic astrocytomas. J Neurooncol 2002; 58: 203-215.
54. Allan K, Jordan RC, Ang LC, Taylor M, Young B. Overexpression of cyclin A and cyclin B1 proteins in astrocytomas. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2000; 124: 216-220.
55. Chakrabarty A, Bridges LR. Immunohistochemical analysis of cyclin A in astrocytic tumours. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1998; 24: 239-245.
56. Tamiya T, Mizumatsu S, Ono Y et al. High cyclin E/low p27Kip1 expression is associated with poor prognosis in astrocytomas. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2001; 101: 334-340.
57. Soos TJ, Kiyokawa H, Yan JS et al. Formation of p27-CDK complexes during the human mitotic cell cycle. Cell Growth Differ 1996; 7: 135-146.
58. Pagano M, Tam SW, Theodoras AM et al. Role of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in regulating abundance of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27. Science 1995; 269: 682-685.
59. Mizumatsu S, Tamiya T, Ono Y et al. Expression of cell cycle regulator p27Kip1 is correlated with survival of patients with astrocytoma. Clin Cancer Res 1999; 5: 551-557.
60. Velu TJ, Beguinot L, Vass WC et al. Epidermalgrowth-factor-dependent transformation by a human EGF receptor proto-oncogene. Science 1987; 238: 1408-1410.
61. Schober R, Bilzer T, Waha A et al. The epidermal growth factor receptor in glioblastoma: genomic amplification, protein expression, and patient survival data in a therapeutic trial. Clin Neuropathol 1995; 14: 169-174.
62. Wong AJ, Bigner SH, Bigner DD, Kinzler KW, Hamilton SR, Vogelstein B. Increased expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor gene in malignant gliomas is invariably associated with gene amplification. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 6899-6903.
63. von Deimling A, Louis DN, von Ammon K et al. Association of epidermal growth factor receptor gene amplification with loss of chromosome 10 in human glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurosurg 1992; 77: 295-301.
64. Wong AJ, Ruppert JM, Bigner SH et al. Structural alterations of the epidermal growth factor receptor gene in human gliomas. Proc NatlAcad Sci USA 1992; 89: 2965-2969.
65. Humphrey PA, Wong AJ, Vogelstein B et al. Antisynthetic peptide antibody reacting at the fusion junction of deletion-mutant epidermal growth factor receptors in human glioblastoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 4207-4211.
66. Sugawa N, Ekstrand AJ, James CD, Collins VP. Identical splicing of aberrant epidermal growth factor receptor transcripts from amplified rearranged genes in human glioblastomas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 8602-8606.
67. Jaros E, Perry RH, Adam L et al. Prognostic implications of p53 protein, epidermal growth factor receptor, and Ki-67 labelling in brain tumours. Br J Cancer 1992; 66: 373-385.
68. Zhu A, Shaeffer J, Leslie S, Kolm P, El-Mahdi AM. Epidermal growth factor receptor: An independent predictor of survival in astrocytic tumors given definitive irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1996; 34: 809-815.
69. Etienne MC, Formento JL, Lebrun-Frenay C et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor and labeling index are independent prognostic factors in glial tumor outcome. Clin Cancer Res 1998; 4: 2383-2390.
70. Barker II FG, Simmons ML, Chang SM et al. EGFR overexpression and radiation response in glioblastoma multiforme. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2001; 51: 410-418.
71. Rainov NG, Dobberstein KU, Bahn H et al. Prognostic factors in malignant glioma: Influence of the over-expression of oncogene and tumor-suppressor gene products on survival. J Neurooncol 1997; 35: 13-28.
72. Waha A, Baumann A, Wolf HK et al. Lack of prognostic relevance of alterations in the epidermal growth factor receptor-transforming growth factor-alpha pathway in human astrocytic gliomas. J Neurosurg 1996; 85: 634-641.
73. Schmidt MC, Antweiler S, Urban N et al. Impact of genotype and morphology on the prognosis of glioblastoma. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2002; 61: 321-328.
74. Simmons ML, Lamborn KR, Takahashi M et al. Analysis of complex relationships between age, p53, epidermal growth factor receptor, and survival in glioblastoma patients. Cancer Res 2001; 61: 1122-1128.
75. Li J, Yen C, Liaw D et al. PTEN, a putative protein tyrosine phosphatase gene mutated in human brain, breast, and prostate cancer. Science 1997; 275: 1943-1947.
76. Liaw D, Marsh DJ, Li J et al. Germline mutations of the PTEN gene in Cowden disease, an inherited breast and thyroid cancer syndrome. Nat Genet 1997; 16: 64-67.
77. Marsh DJ, Coulon V, Lunetta KL et al. Mutation spectrum and genotype-phenotype analyses in Cowden disease and Bannayan-Zonana syndrome, two hamartoma syndromes with germline PTEN mutation. Hum Mol Genet 1998; 7: 507-515.
78. Steck PA, Pershouse MA, Jasser SA et al. Identification of a candidate tumour suppressor gene, MMAC1, at chromosome 10q23.3 that is mutated in multiple advanced cancers. Nat Genet 1997; 15: 356-362.
79. Myers MP, Stolarov JP, Eng C et al. P-TEN, the tumor suppressor from human chromosome 10q23, is a dual-specificity phosphatase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 9052-9057.
80. Mayo LD, Dixon JE, Durden DL, Tonks NK, Donner DB. PTEN protects p53 from Mdm2 and sensitizes cancer cells to chemotherapy. J Biol Chem 2002; 277: 5484-5489.
81. Bostrom J, Cobbers JM, Wolter M et al. Mutation of the PTEN (MMAC1) tumor suppressor gene in a subset of glioblastomas but not in meningiomas with loss of chromosome arm 10q. Cancer Res 1998; 58: 29-33.
82. Duerr EM, Rollbrocker B, Hayashi Y et al. PTEN mutations in gliomas and glioneuronal tumors. Oncogene 1998; 16: 2259-2264.
83. Rasheed BK, McLendon RE, Friedman HS et al. Chromosome 10 deletion mapping in human gliomas: A common deletion region in 10q25. Oncogene 1995; 10: 2243-2246.
84. Wang SI, Puc J, Li J et al. Somatic mutations of PTEN in glioblastoma multiforme. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 4183-4186.
85. Rasheed BK, Stenzel TT, McLendon RE et al. PTEN gene mutations are seen in high-grade but not in low-grade gliomas. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 4187-4190.
86. Zhou XP, Li YJ, Hoang-Xuan K et al. Mutational analysis of the PTEN gene in gliomas: Molecular and pathological correlations. Int J Cancer 1999; 84: 150-154.
87. Lin H, Bondy ML, Langford LA et al. Allelic deletion analyses of MMAC/PTEN and DMBT1 loci in gliomas: Relationship to prognostic significance. Clin Cancer Res 1998; 4: 2447-2454.
88. Tada K, Shiraishi S, Kamiryo T et al. Analysis of loss of heterozygosity on chromosome 10 in patients with malignant astrocytic tumors: Correlation with patient age and survival. J Neurosurg 2001; 95: 651-659.
89. Smith JS, Tachibana I, Passe SM et al. PTEN mutation, EGFR amplification, and outcome in patients with anaplastic astrocytoma and glioblastoma multiforme. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 1246-1256.
90. Sano T, Lin H, Chen X et al. Differential expression of MMAC/PTEN in glioblastoma multiforme: Relationship to localization and prognosis. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 1820-1824.
91. Fults D, Pedone C. Immunocytochemical mapping of the phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN/ MMAC1) tumor suppressor protein in human gliomas. Neurooncology 2000; 2: 71-79.
92. Folkman J, Klagsbrun M. Angiogenic factors. Science 1987; 235: 442-447.
93. Plate KH, Breier G, Weich HA, Risau W. Vascular endothelial growth factor is a potential tumour angiogenesis factor in human gliomas in vivo. Nature 1992; 359: 845-848.
94. Yao Y, Kubota T, Sato K, Kitai R, Takeuchi H, Arishima H. Prognostic value of vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptors Flt-1 and Flk-1 in astrocytic tumours. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2001; 143: 159-166.
95. Rolhion C, Penault-Llorca F, Kemeny JL et al. O (6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase gene (MGMT) expression in human glioblastomas in relation to patient characteristics and p53 accumulation. Int J Cancer 1999; 84: 416-420.
96. Qian XC, Brent TP. Methylation hot spots in the 5́ flanking region denote silencing of the O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase gene. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 3672-3677.
97. Watts GS, Pieper RO, Costello JF, Peng YM, Dalton WS, Futscher BW. Methylation of discrete regions of the O6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) CpG island is associated with heterochromatinization of the MGMT transcription start site and silencing of the gene. Mol Cell Biol 1997; 17: 5612-5619.
98. Nakamura M, Watanabe T, Yonekawa Y, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H. Promoter methylation of the DNA repair gene MGMT in astrocytomas is frequently associated with G:C→A:T mutations of the TP53 tumor suppressor gene. Carcinogenesis 2001; 22: 1715-1719.
99. Jaeckle KA, Eyre HJ, Townsend JJ et al. Correlation of tumor O6 methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase levels with survival of malignant astrocytoma patients treated with bis-chloroethylnitrosourea: A Southwest Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 1998; 16: 3310-3315.
100. Pairet M, Engelhardt G. Distinct isoforms (COX-1 and COX-2) of cyclooxygenase: Possible physiological and therapeutic implications. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 1996; 10: 1-17.
101. Subbaramaiah K, Altorki N, Chung WJ, Mestre JR, Sampat A, Dannenberg AJ. Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 gene expression by p53. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 10911-10915.
102. Tsujii M, DuBois RN. Alterations in cellular adhesion and apoptosis in epithelial cells overexpressing prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2. Cell 1995; 83: 493-501.
103. Shono T, Tofilon PJ, Bruner JM, Owolabi O, Lang FF. Cyclooxygenase-2 expression in human gliomas: Prognostic significance and molecular correlations. Cancer Res 2001; 61: 4375-4381.
104. Rempel SA, Rosenblum ML, Mikkelsen T et al. Cathepsin B expression and localization in glioma progression and invasion. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 6027-6031.
105. Mikkelsen T, Yan PS, Ho KL, Sameni M, Sloane BF, Rosenblum ML. Immunolocalization of cathepsin B in human glioma: Implications for tumor invasion and angiogenesis. J Neurosurg 1995; 83: 285-290.
106. Strojnik T, Kos J, Zidanik B, Golouh R, Lah T. Cathepsin B immunohistochemical staining in tumor and endothelial cells is a new prognostic factor for survival in patients with brain tumors. Clin Cancer Res 1999; 5: 559-567.
107. Shafqat S, Hedley-Whyte ET, Henson JW. Age-dependent rate of anaplastic transformation in low-grade astrocytoma. Neurology 1999; 52: 867-869.
108. Peraud A, Ansari H, Bise K, Reulen HJ. Clinical outcome of supratentorial astrocytoma WHO grade II. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1998; 140: 1213-1222.
109. Reifenberger J, Ring GU, Gies U et al. Analysis of p53 mutation and epidermal growth factor receptor amplification in recurrent gliomas with malignant progression. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1996; 55: 822-831.
110. Hilton DA, Penney M, Evans B, Sanders H, Love S. Evaluation of molecular markers in low-grade diffuse astrocytomas: Loss of p16 and retinoblastoma protein expression is associated with short survival. Am J Surg Pathol 2002; 26: 472-478.
111. Harada H, Nakagawa K, Iwata S et al. Restoration of wild-type p16 down-regulates vascular endothelial growth factor expression and inhibits angiogenesis in human gliomas. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 3783-3789.
112. Abdulrauf SI, Edvardsen K, Ho KL, Yang XY, Rock JP, Rosenblum ML. Vascular endothelial growth factor expression and vascular density as prognostic markers of survival in patients with low-grade astrocytoma. J Neurosurg 1998; 88: 513-520.
113. Reis RM, Hara A, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H. Genetic evidence of the neoplastic nature of gemistocytes in astrocytomas. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2001; 102: 422-425.
114. Krouwer HG, Davis RL, Silver P, Prados M. Gemistocytic astrocytomas: A reappraisal. J Neurosurg 1991; 74: 399-406.
115. Watanabe K, Tachibana O, Yonekawa Y, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H. Role of gemistocytes in astrocytoma progression. Lab Invest 1997; 76: 277-284.
116. Reifenberger G, Kros JM, Burger PC, Louis DN, Collins VP. Oligodendroglioma and anaplastic oligodendroglioma. In: Cavenee WK (ed.) Tumours of the Nervous System: Pathology and Genetics. Lyon: IARC Press, 2000; 56-64.
117. Cairncross JG, Ueki K, Zlatescu MC et al. Specific genetic predictors of chemotherapeutic response and survival in patients with anaplastic oligodendrogliomas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 1473-1479.
118. Ino Y, Betensky RA, Zlatescu MC et al. Molecular subtypes of anaplastic oligodendroglioma: Implications for patient management at diagnosis. Clin Cancer Res 2001; 7: 839-845.
119. Bigner SH, Rasheed BK, Wiltshire R, McLendon RE. Morphologic and molecular genetic aspects of oligodendroglial neoplasms. Neurooncology 1999; 1: 52-60.
120. Ludwig CL, Smith MT, Godfrey AD, Armbrustmacher VW. A clinicopathological study of 323 patients with oligodendrogliomas. Ann Neurol 1986; 19: 15-21.
121. Mork SJ, Halvorsen TB, Lindegaard KF, Eide GE. Oligodendroglioma: Histologic evaluation and prognosis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1986; 45: 65-78.
122. Miettinen HE, Jarvinen TA, Kellner U et al. High topoisomerase IIalpha expression associates with high proliferation rate and poor prognosis in oligodendrogliomas. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2000; 26: 504-512.
123. Kros JM, Godschalk JJ, Krishnadath KK, Van Eden CG. Expression of p53 in oligodendrogliomas. J Pathol 1993; 171: 285-290.
124. Cavalla P, Piva R, Bortolotto S et al. p27/kip1 expression in oligodendrogliomas and its possible prognostic role. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1999; 98: 629-634.
125. Rosso SM, van Dekken H, Krishnadath KK, Alers JC, Kros JM. Detection of chromosomal changes by interphase cytogenetics in biopsies of recurrent astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997; 56: 1125-1131.
126. Wiestler OD, Schiffer D, Coons SW, Prayson RA, Rosenblum MK. Ependymoma. In: Cavenee WK (ed.) Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Nervous System. Lyon: IARC Press, 2000; 72-76.
127. Figarella-Branger D, Civatte M, Bouvier-Labit C et al. Prognostic factors in intracranial ependymomas in children. J Neurosurg 2000; 93: 605-613.
128. Prayson RA. Cyclin D1 and MIB-1 immunohistochemistry in ependymomas: A study of 41 cases. Am J Clin Pathol 1998; 110: 629-634.
129. Ritter AM, Hess KR, McLendon RE, Langford LA. Ependymomas: MIB-1 proliferation index and survival. J Neurooncol 1998; 40: 51-57.
130. Verstegen MJ, Leenstra DT, Ijlst-Keizers H, Bosch DA. Proliferation- and apoptosis-related proteins in intracranial ependymomas: An immunohistochemical analysis. J Neurooncol 2002; 56: 21-28.
131. Hamilton RL, Pollack IF. The molecular biology of ependymomas. Brain Pathol 1997; 7: 807-822.
132. Bijlsma EK, Voesten AM, Bijleveld EH et al. Molecular analysis of genetic changes in ependymomas. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 1995; 13: 272-277.
133. Fink KL, Rushing EJ, Schold Jr SC, Nisen PD. Infrequency of p53 gene mutations in ependymomas. J Neurooncol 1996; 27: 111-115.
134. Rushing EJ, Brown DF, Hladik CL, Risser RC, Mickey BE, White III CL. Correlation of bcl-2, p53, and MIB-1 expression with ependymoma grade and subtype. Mod Pathol 1998; 11: 464-470.
135. Korshunov A, Golanov A, Timirgaz V. Immunohistochemical markers for prognosis of ependymal neoplasms. J Neurooncol 2002; 58: 255-270.
136. Pollack IF, Finkelstein SD, Burnham J et al. Age and TP53 mutation frequency in childhood malignant gliomas: Results in a multi-institutional cohort. Cancer Res 2001; 61: 7404-7407.
137. Bredel M, Pollack IF, Hamilton RL, James CD. Epidermal growth factor receptor expression and gene amplification in high-grade non-brainstem gliomas of childhood. Clin Cancer Res 1999; 5: 1786-1792.
138. Sung T, Miller DC, Hayes RL, Alonso M, Yee H, Newcomb EW. Preferential inactivation of the p53 tumor suppressor pathway and lack of EGFR amplification distinguish de novo high grade pediatric astrocytomas from de novo adult astrocytomas. Brain Pathol 2000; 10: 249-259.
139. Watanabe K, Tachibana O, Sata K, Yonekawa Y, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H. Overexpression of the EGF receptor and p53 mutations are mutually exclusive in the evolution of primary and secondary glioblastomas. Brain Pathol 1996; 6: 217-223; discussion 223-214.
140. Ichimura K, Bolin MB, Goike HM, Schmidt EE, Moshref A, Collins VP. Deregulation of the p14ARF/MDM2/p53 pathway is a prerequisite for human astrocytic gliomas with G1-S transition control gene abnormalities. Cancer Res 2000; 60: 417-424.
141. Pollack IF, Hamilton RL, Finkelstein SD et al. The relationship between TP53 mutations and overexpression of p53 and prognosis in malignant gliomas of childhood. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 304-309.
142. Raffel C, Frederick L, O'Fallon JR et al. Analysis of oncogene and tumor suppressor gene alterations in pediatric malignant astrocytomas reveals reduced survival for patients with PTEN mutations. Clin Cancer Res 1999; 5: 4085-4090.
143. Garton GR, Schomberg PJ, Scheithauer BW et al. Medulloblastoma: Prognostic factors and outcome of treatment: Review of the Mayo Clinic experience. Mayo Clin Proc 1990; 65: 1077-1086.
144. Zeltzer PM, Boyett JM, Finlay JL et al. Metastasis stage, adjuvant treatment, and residual tumor are prognostic factors for medulloblastoma in children: Conclusions from the Children's Cancer Group 921 randomized phase III study. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 832-845.
145. Jaros E, Lunec J, Perry RH, Kelly PJ, Pearson AD. p53 protein overexpression identifies a group of central primitive neuroectodermal tumours with poor prognosis. Br J Cancer 1993; 68: 801-807.
146. Janss AJ, Yachnis AT, Silber JH et al. Glial differentiation predicts poor clinical outcome in primitive neuroectodermal brain tumors. Ann Neurol 1996; 39: 481-489.
147. Gilbertson RJ, Perry RH, Kelly PJ, Pearson AD, Lunec J. Prognostic significance of HER2 and HER4 coexpression in childhood medulloblastoma. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 3272-3280.
148. Grotzer MA, Geoerger B, Janss AJ, Zhao H, Rorke LB, Phillips PC. Prognostic significance of Ki-67 (MIB-1) proliferation index in childhood primitive neuroectodermal tumors of the central nervous system. Med Pediatr Oncol 2001; 36: 268-273.
149. Grotzer MA, Janss AJ, Fung K et al. TrkC expression predicts good clinical outcome in primitive neuroectodermal brain tumors. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18: 1027-1035.
150. Kim JY, Sutton ME, Lu DJ et al. Activation of neurotrophin-3 receptor TrkC induces apoptosis in medulloblastomas. Cancer Res 1999; 59: 711-719.
151. Grotzer MA, Hogarty MD, Janss AJ et al. MYC messenger RNA expression predicts survival outcome in childhood primitive neuroectodermal tumor/medulloblastoma. Clin Cancer Res 2001; 7: 2425-2433.
152. Ho DM, Hsu CY, Ting LT, Chiang H. Histopathology and MIB-1 labeling index predicted recurrence of meningiomas: A proposal of diagnostic criteria for patients with atypical meningioma. Cancer 2002; 94: 1538-1547.
153. Kim CH, Cheong JH, Bak KH, Kim JM, Oh SJ. Expression of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen and clinicopathological features in intracranial meningiomas. J Clin Neurosci 2001; 8 (Suppl. 1): 44-48.
154. Hsu DW, Efird JT, Hedley-Whyte ET. Progesterone and estrogen receptors in meningiomas: Prognostic considerations. J Neurosurg 1997; 86: 113-120.
155. Zang KD. Cytological and cytogenetical studies on human meningioma. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 1982; 6: 249-274.
156. Arnoldus EP, Wolters LB, Voormolen JH et al. Interphase cytogenetics: A new tool for the study of genetic changes in brain tumors. J Neurosurg 1992; 76: 997-1003.
157. Bruner JM, Langford LA, Fuller GN. Neuropathology, cell biology, and newer diagnostic methods. Curr Opin Oncol 1993; 5: 441-449.
158. Maillo A, Diaz P, Sayagues JM et al. Gains of chromosome 22 by fluorescence in situ hybridization in the context of an hyperdiploid karyotype are associated with aggressive clinical features in meningioma patients. Cancer 2001; 92: 377-385.
159. Gutmann DH, Giordano MJ, Fishback AS, Guha A. Loss of merlin expression in sporadic meningiomas, ependymomas and schwannomas. Neurology 1997; 49: 267-270.
160. Perry A, Cai DX, Scheithauer BW et al. Merlin, DAL-1, and progesterone receptor expression in clinicopathologic subsets of meningioma: A correlative immunohistochemical study of 175 cases. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2000; 59: 872-879.
161. Kalamarides M, Niwa-Kawakita M, Leblois H et al. Nf2 gene inactivation in arachnoidal cells is rate-limiting for meningioma development in the mouse. Genes Dev 2002; 16: 1060-1065.
162. Hayakawa T, Takakura K, Abe H et al. Primary central nervous system lymphoma in Japan: A retrospective, co-operative study by CNS-Lymphoma Study Group in Japan. J Neurooncol 1994; 19: 197-215.
163. Baur AS, Shaw P, Burri N, Delacretaz F, Bosman FT, Chaubert P. Frequent methylation silencing of p15 (INK4b) (MTS2) and p16 (INK4a) (MTS1) in B-cell and T-cell lymphomas. Blood 1999; 94: 1773-1781.
164. Nakamura M, Sakaki T, Hashimoto H et al. Frequent alterations of the p14 (ARF) and p16 (INK4a) genes in primary central nervous system lymphomas. Cancer Res 2001; 61: 6335-6339.
165. Hayashi Y, Iwato M, Arakawa Y et al. Homozygous deletion of INK4a/ARF genes and overexpression of bcl-2 in relation with poor prognosis in immunocompetent patients with primary central nervous system lymphoma of the diffuse large B-cell type. J Neurooncol 2001; 55: 51-58.