Finding The “Self” in Self-Regulation: The Identity-Value Model

Psychological Inquiry

Volumn 28, Issue 2-3, 2017, Pages 77-98

  Berkman, Elliot T ^a   Livingston, Jordan L ^a   Kahn, Lauren E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

Author keywords

goals; identity; motivation; self concept; self control; Self regulation

Indexed keywords

EID: 85028413827     PISSN: 1047840X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/1047840X.2017.1323463     Document Type: Article

References (225)

1. Ahn, S. J., & Bailenson, J., (2014). Self-endorsed advertisements:When the self persuades the self. The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 22(2), 135–136. doi:10.2753/MTP1069-6679220203
2. Alberts, H. J. E. M., Martijn, C., & de Vries, N. K., (2010). Fighting self-control failure:Overcoming ego depletion by increasing self-awareness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(1), 58–62. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.08.004
3. Alfano, M., (2013). Character as moral fiction. New York, NY:Cambridge University Press.
4. Alfano, M., (2015). How one becomes what one is called:On the relation between traits and trait-terms in Nietzsche. Journal of Nietzsche Studies, 46(2), 261–269.
5. Alfano, M., (2016). Friendship and the structure of trust. In J., Webber & A., Masala (Eds.), From personality to virtue:Essays on the philosophy of character (pp. 186–206). New York, NY:Oxford University Press.
6. Ames, D. L., Jenkins, A. C., Banaji, M. R., & Mitchell, J. P., (2008). Taking another person's perspective increases self-referential neural processing. Psychological Science, 19(7), 642–644. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02135.x
7. Amodio, D. M., & Frith, C. D., (2006). Meeting of minds:The medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(4), 268–277. doi:10.1038/nrn1884
8. Aristotle. (2000). Rhetoric. In J., Barnes & W., Rhys Roberts (Eds.), The complete works of Aristotle (Vol. 2, pp. 2152–2269). Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.
9. Aronson, J., Blanton, H., & Cooper, J., (1995). From dissonance to disidentification:Selectivity in the self-affirmation process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(6), 986–996. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.986
10. Baker, S. L., & Kirsch, I., (1991). Cognitive mediators of pain perception and tolerance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(3), 504–510.
11. Baumeister, R. F., (1993). Self-esteem:The puzzle of low self-regard. New York, NY:Plenum Press.
12. Baumeister, R. F., & Heatherton, T. F., (1996). Self-regulation failure:An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7(1), 1–15.
13. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R., (1995). The need to belong:Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
14. Belk, R. W., (1989). Extended self and extending paradigmatic perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(1), 129–132. doi:10.2307/2489310
15. Bem, D. J., (1972). Self-perception theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 6(1), 1–62.
16. Berglas, S., & Jones, E. E., (1978). Drug choice as a self-handicapping strategy in response to noncontingent success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(4), 405–417.
17. Berkman, E. T., Hutcherson, C. A., Livingston, J. L., Kahn, L. E., & Inzlicht, M., (in press). Self-control as value-based choice. Current Directions in Psychological Science.
18. Berkman, E. T., Kahn, L. E., & Livingston, J. L., (2016). Valuation as a mechanism of self-control and ego depletion. In E. R., Hirt (Ed.), Self-regulation and ego control (pp. 255–279). New York, NY:Elsevier.
19. Bickel, W. K., Kowal, B. P., & Gatchalian, K. M., (2006). Understanding addiction as a pathology of temporal horizon. The Behavior Analyst Today, 7(1), 32–47.
20. Bickel, W. K., Yi, R., Landes, R. D., Hill, P. F., & Baxter, C., (2011). Remember the future:Working memory training decreases delay discounting among stimulant addicts. Biological Psychiatry, 69(3), 260–265. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.017
21. Bigelow, G. E., & Silverman, K., (1999). Theoretical and empirical foundations of contingency management treatments for drug abuse. In S. T., Higgins & K., Silverman (Eds.), Motivating behavior change among illicit-drug abusers:Research on contingency management interventions (pp. 15–31). Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.
22. Bogaert, S., Boone, C., & Declerck, C., (2008). Social value orientation and cooperation in social dilemmas:A review and conceptual model. The British Journal of Social Psychology / The British Psychological Society, 47(3), 453–480. doi:10.1348/014466607X244970
23. Boksem, M. A. S., Meijman, T. F., & Lorist, M. M., (2006). Mental fatigue, motivation and action monitoring. Biological Psychology, 72(2), 123–132. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.08.007
24. Bonnici, H. M., Chadwick, M. J., Lutti, A., Hassabis, D., Weiskopf, N., & Maguire, E. A., (2012). Detecting representations of recent and remote autobiographical memories in vmPFC and hippocampus. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(47), 16982–16991. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2475-12.2012
25. Boucher, H. C., & Kofos, M. N., (2012). The idea of money counteracts ego depletion effects. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 804–810. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.003
26. Brewer, M. B., (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation:A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 307–324.
27. Bryan, C. J., Adams, G. S., & Monin, B., (2013). When cheating would make you a cheater:Implicating the self prevents unethical behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 142(4), 1001–1005. doi:10.1037/a0030655.supp
28. Bryan, C. J., Walton, G. M., Rogers, T., & Dweck, C. S., (2011). Motivating voter turnout by invoking the self. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(31), 12653–12656. doi:10.1073/pnas.1103343108
29. Burger, J. M., & Caldwell, D. F., (2003). The effects of monetary incentives and labeling on the foot-in-the-door effect:Evidence for a self-perception process. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 25(3), 235–241. doi:10.1207/S15324834BASP2503_06
30. Cabanac, M., (1986). Money versus pain:Experimental study of a conflict in humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 46(1), 37–44.
31. Camerer, C. F., & Loewenstein, G., (2004). Behavioral economics:Past, present, future. In C. F., Camerer, G., Loewenstein, & M., Rabin (Eds.), Advances in behavioral economics (Vol. 1, pp. 3–51). Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press.
32. Carter, E. C., & McCullough, M. E., (2014). Publication bias and the limited strength model of self-control:Has the evidence for ego depletion been overestimated? Frontiers in Psychology, 5(1), 1–11. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00823/abstract
33. Carver, C., & Scheier, M., (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York, NY:Cambridge University Press.
34. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F., (2011). Self-regulation of action and affect. In K. D., Vohs & R. F., Baumeister (Eds.) Handbook of self-regulation (2nd ed., pp. 3–21). New York, NY:Guilford Press.
35. Chib, V. S., Rangel, A., Shimojo, S., & O'Doherty, J. P., (2009). Evidence for a common representation of decision values for dissimilar goods in human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(39), 12315–12320. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2575-09.2009
36. Clarkson, J. J., Hirt, E. R., Jia, L., & Alexander, M. B., (2010). When perception is more than reality:The effects of perceived versus actual resource depletion on self-regulatory behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(1), 29–46. doi:10.1037/a0017539
37. Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K., (2014). The psychology of change:Self-affirmation and social psychological intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 333–371. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115137
38. Cole, D. A., Maxwell, S. E., Martin, J. M., Peeke, L. G., Seroczynski, A. D., Maschman, T., (2001). The development of multiple domains of child and adolescent self-concept:A cohort sequential longitudinal design. Child Development, 72(6), 1723–1746. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00375
39. Cooper, N., Bassett, D. S., & Falk, E. B., (2017). Coherent activity between brain regions that code for value is linked to the malleability of human behavior. Scientific Reports, 7, 43250. doi:10.1038/srep43250
40. Crocker, J., & Major, B., (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem:The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608–630.
41. Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T., (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108(3), 593–623. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.108.3.593
42. Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M., & Gerhardstein, R., (2002). Consuming images:How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1615–1628. doi:10.1177/014616702237644
43. De Dreu, C. K. W., & van Knippenberg, D., (2005). The possessive self as a barrier to conflict resolution:Effects of mere ownership, process accountability, and self-concept clarity on competitive cognitions and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(3), 345–357. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.345
44. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M., (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY:Plenum.
45. Derrick, J. L., (2013). Energized by television:Familiar fictional worlds restore self-control. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(3), 299–307. doi:10.1177/1948550612454889
46. Diener, E., & Diener, C., (1996). Most people are happy. Psychological Science, 7(3), 181–185. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00354.x
47. Dillard, A. J., McCaul, K. D., & Magnan, R. E., (2005). Why is such a smart person like you smoking? Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 10(3), 165–183.
48. Dodgson, P. G., & Wood, J. V., (1998). Self-esteem and the cognitive accessibility of strengths and weaknesses after failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 178–197. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.178
49. Duckworth, A., & Gross, J. J., (2014). Self-control and grit:Related but separable determinants of success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 319–325. doi:10.1177/0963721414541462
50. Duval, S., & Wicklund, R. A., (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. Oxford, UK:Academic Press.
51. Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B., (2002). Self and social identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 161–186.
52. Epstein, S., (1973). The self-concept revisited:Or a theory of a theory. The American Psychologist, 28(5), 404–416.
53. Epton, T., Harris, P. R., Kane, R., van Koningsbruggen, G. M., & Sheeran, P., (2015). The impact of self-affirmation on health-behavior change:A meta-analysis. Health Psychology, 34(3), 187–196. doi:10.1037/hea0000116
54. Falk, E. B., O'Donnell, M. B., Cascio, C. N., Tinney, F., Kang, Y., Lieberman, M. D., et al. (2015). Self-affirmation alters the brain's response to health messages and subsequent behavior change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112(7), 201500247–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.1500247112
55. Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A., (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research:Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297–327. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225
56. Festinger, L., (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL:Row Peterson.
57. Fishbach, A., Eyal, T., & Finkelstein, S. R., (2010). How positive and negative feedback motivate goal pursuit. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(8), 517–530.
58. Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. N., (2009). Virtual self-modeling:The effects of vicarious reinforcement and identification on exercise behaviors. Media Psychology, 12(1), 1–25. doi:10.1080/15213260802669474
59. Friese, M., Messner, C., & Schaffner, Y., (2012). Mindfulness meditation counteracts self-control depletion. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(2), 1016–1022. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.01.008
60. Friese, M., & Wänke, M., (2014). Personal prayer buffers self-control depletion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 51(C), 56–59. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.11.006
61. Fujita, K. K., (2011). On conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(4), 352–366. doi:10.1177/1088868311411165
62. Fujita, K., & Carnevale, J. J., (2012). Transcending temptation through abstraction:The role of construal level in self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(4), 248–252. doi:10.1177/0963721412449169
63. Fujita, K., Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Levin-Sagi, M., (2006). Construal levels and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(3), 351–367. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.351
64. Gallagher, M., McMahan, R. W., & Schoenbaum, G., (1999). Orbitofrontal cortex and representation of incentive value in associative learning. The Journal of Neuroscience, 19(15), 6610–6614.
65. Gardner, T. W., Dishion, T. J., & Connell, A. M., (2008). Adolescent self-regulation as resilience:Resistance to antisocial behavior within the deviant peer context. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(2), 273–284. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9176-6
66. Georgescu-Roegen, N., (1968). Utility. In International encyclopedia of social sciences (Vol. 16, pp. 236–267). New York, NY:Macmillan.
67. Glimcher, P. W., & Rustichini, A., (2004). Neuroeconomics:The consilience of brain and decision. Science, 306(5695), 447–452. doi:10.1126/science.1102566
68. Greenwald, A. G., (1980). The totalitarian ego:Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35(7), 603–618.
69. Greenwald, A. G., & Pratkanis, A. R., (1984). The self. In R. S., Wyer & T. K., Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (pp. 129–178). Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
70. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S., (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109(1), 3–25. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.109.1.3
71. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L., (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition:The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
72. Hagger, M. S., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., (2013). The sweet taste of success:The presence of glucose in the oral cavity moderates the depletion of self-control resources. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(1), 28–42. doi:10.1177/0146167212459912
73. Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control:A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 495–525. doi:10.1037/a0019486
74. Hall, C. C., Zhao, J., & Shafir, E., (2014). Self-affirmation among the poor:Cognitive and behavioral implications. Psychological Science, 25(2), 619–625. doi:10.1177/0956797613510949
75. Hare, T. A., Camerer, C. F., Knoepfle, D. T., O'Doherty, J. P., & Rangel, A., (2010). Value computations in ventral medial prefrontal cortex during charitable decision making incorporate input from regions involved in social cognition. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(2), 583–590. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4089-09.2010
76. Hare, T. A., Camerer, C. F., & Rangel, A., (2009). Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science, 324(5927), 646–648. doi:10.1126/science.1168450
77. Hare, T. A., Malmaud, J., & Rangel, A., (2011a). Focusing attention on the health aspects of foods changes value signals in vmPFC and improves dietary choice. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(30), 11077–11087. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6383-10.2011
78. Hare, T. A., Schultz, W., Camerer, C. F., O'Doherty, J. P., & Rangel, A., (2011b). Transformation of stimulus value signals into motor commands during simple choice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(44), 18120–18125. doi:10.1073/pnas.1109322108
79. Harris, P. R., & Epton, T., (2009). The impact of self-affirmation on health cognition, health behaviour and other health-related responses:A narrative review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(6), 962–978. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00233.x
80. Hayashi, T., Ko, J. H., Strafella, A. P., & Dagher, A., (2013). Dorsolateral prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex interactions during self-control of cigarette craving. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(11), 4422–4427. doi:10.1073/pnas.1212185110
81. Heckman, B. W., Ditre, J. W., & Brandon, T. H., (2012). The restorative effects of smoking upon self-control resources:A negative reinforcement pathway. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(1), 244–249. doi:10.1037/a0023032
82. Heider, F., (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York, NY:Wiley.
83. Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S., (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106(4), 766–794.
84. Hershfield, H. E., (2011). Future self-continuity:How conceptions of the future self transform intertemporal choice. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1235(1), 30–43. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06201.x
85. Hershfield, H. E., Goldstein, D. G., Sharpe, W. F., Fox, J., Yeykelis, L., Carstensen, L. L., & Bailenson, J. N., (2011). Increasing saving behavior through age-progressed renderings of the future self. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(SPL), S23–S37. doi:10.1509/jmkr.48.SPL.S23
86. Higgins, E. T., (1987). Self-discrepancy:A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319–340.
87. Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Strack, F., (2009). Impulse and self-control from a dual-systems perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(2), 162–176.
88. Hogg, M. A., Terry, D. J., & White, K. M., (1995). A tale of two theories:A critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58(4), 255–269.
89. Hutcherson, C. A., Bushong, B., & Rangel, A., (2015). A neurocomputational model of altruistic choice and its implications. Neuron, 87(2), 451–462. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.031
90. Hutcherson, C. A., Plassmann, H., Gross, J. J., & Rangel, A., (2012). Cognitive regulation during decision making shifts behavioral control between ventromedial and dorsolateral prefrontal value systems. TheJournal of Neuroscience, 32(39), 13543–13554. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6387-11.2012
91. Inzlicht, M., & Berkman, E. T., (2015). Six questions for the resource model of control (and some answers). Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9, 511–524.
92. Inzlicht, M., & Schmeichel, B. J., (2012). What is ego depletion? Toward a mechanistic revision of the resource model of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 450–463. doi:10.1177/1745691612454134
93. Inzlicht, M., Schmeichel, B. J., & Macrae, C. N., (2014). Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(3), 127–133. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009
94. Izuma, K., Saito, D. N., & Sadato, N., (2008). Processing of social and monetary rewards in the human striatum. Neuron, 58(2), 284–294. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.03.020
95. James, W., (1890). Principles of psychology. New York, NY:Dover Publications.
96. Job, V., Dweck, C. S., & Walton, G. M., (2010). Ego depletion—Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1686–1693. doi:10.1177/0956797610384745
97. Kable, J. W., & Glimcher, P. W., (2007). The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nature Neuroscience, 10(12), 1625–1633. doi:10.1038/nn2007
98. Kahneman, D., (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice:Mapping bounded rationality. The American Psychologist, 58(9), 697–720. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697
99. Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. H., (1991). Anomalies:The endowment effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1), 193–206. doi:10.2307/1942711
100. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A., (1979). Prospect theory:An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–292.
101. Kelley, W. M., Macrae, C. N., Wyland, C. L., Caglar, S., Inati, S., & Heatherton, T. F., (2002). Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(5), 785–794.
102. Kihlstrom, J. F., & Cantor, N., (1984). Mental representations of the self. In L., Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 1–47). New York, NY:Elsevier.
103. Kim, K., & Johnson, M. K., (2015). Activity in ventromedial prefrontal cortex during self-related processing:Positive subjective value or personal significance? Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(4), 494–500. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu078
104. Kim, K., & Johnson, M. K., (2014). Extended self:Spontaneous activation of medial prefrontal cortex by objects that are “mine.” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(7), 1006–1012. doi:10.1093/scan/nst082
105. Klein, W. M. P., & Harris, P. R., (2009). Self-affirmation enhances attentional bias toward threatening components of a persuasive message. Psychological Science, 20(12), 1463–1467. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02467.x
106. Kober, H., Kross, E. F., Mischel, W., Hart, C. L., & Ochsner, K. N., (2010). Regulation of craving by cognitive strategies in cigarette smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 106(1), 52–55. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.07.017
107. Koestner, R., Otis, N., Powers, T. A., Pelletier, L., & Gagnon, H., (2008). Autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and goal progress. Journal of Personality, 76(5), 1201–1230. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00519.x
108. Krajbich, I., Armel, C., & Rangel, A., (2010). Visual fixations and the computation and comparison of value in simple choice. Nature Neuroscience, 13(10), 1292–1298. doi:10.1038/nn.2635
109. Krebs, P., Prochaska, J. O., & Rossi, J. S., (2010). A meta-analysis of computer-tailored interventions for health behavior change. Preventive Medicine, 51(3-4), 214–221. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2010.06.004
110. Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. E., (2010). Identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood:A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 33(5), 683–698. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.11.002
111. Kruglanski, A. W., Bélanger, J. J., Chen, X., Köpetz, C., Pierro, A., & Mannetti, L., (2012). The energetics of motivated cognition:A force-field analysis. Psychological Review, 119(1), 1–20. doi:10.1037/a0025488
112. Kunda, Z., (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498.
113. Laibson, D., (1997). Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 443–477.
114. Lebreton, M., Jorge, S., Michel, V., Thirion, B., & Pessiglione, M., (2009). An automatic valuation system in the human brain:Evidence from functional neuroimaging. Neuron, 64(3), 431–439. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.09.040
115. Legault, L., Al-Khindi, T., & Inzlicht, M., (2012). Preserving integrity in the face of performance threat:Self-affirmation enhances neurophysiological responsiveness to errors. Psychological Science, 23(12), 1455–1460. doi:10.1177/0956797612448483
116. Legault, L., & Inzlicht, M., (2013). Self-determination, self-regulation, and the brain:Autonomy improves performance by enhancing neuroaffective responsiveness to self-regulation failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(1), 123–138. doi:10.1037/a0030426
117. Levy, D. J., & Glimcher, P. W., (2011). Comparing apples and oranges:Using reward-specific and reward-general subjective value representation in the brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(41), 14693–14707. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2218-11.2011
118. Liberman, A., & Chaiken, S., (1992). Defensive processing of personally relevant health messages. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(6), 669–679. doi:10.1177/0146167292186002
119. Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D., (1992). Anomalies in intertemporal choice. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(2), 573–597.
120. Louie, K., & Glimcher, P. W., (2010). Separating value from choice:Delay discounting activity in the lateral intraparietal area. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(16), 5498–5507. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5742-09.2010
121. Lustria, M. L. A., Noar, S. M., Cortese, J., Van Stee, S. K., Glueckauf, R. L., & Lee, J., (2013). A meta-analysis of web-delivered tailored health behavior change interventions. Journal of Health Communication, 18(9), 1039–1069. doi:10.1080/10810730.2013.768727
122. Magen, E., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J., (2008). The hidden-zero effect:Representing a single choice as an extended sequence reduces impulsive choice. Psychological Science, 19(7), 648–649. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02137.x
123. Magen, E., & Gross, J. J., (2007). Harnessing the need for immediate gratification:Cognitive reconstrual modulates the reward value of temptations. Emotion, 7(2), 415–428. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.415
124. Magen, E., Kim, B., Dweck, C. S., Gross, J. J., & McClure, S. M., (2014). Behavioral and neural correlates of increased self-control in the absence of increased willpower. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(27), 9786–9791. doi:10.1073/pnas.1408991111
125. Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J., (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 341(6149), 976–980. doi:10.1126/science.1238041
126. Markus, H., (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(2), 63–78.
127. Markus, H., (1983). Self-knowledge:An expanded view. Journal of Personality, 51(3), 543–565. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1983.tb00344.x
128. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S., (2010). Cultures and selves:A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 420–430. doi:10.1177/1745691610375557
129. Markus, H., & Kunda, Z., (1986). Stability and malleability of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(4), 858–866. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.4.858
130. Maunsell, J. H. R., (2004). Neuronal representations of cognitive state:Reward or attention? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(6), 261–265. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.04.003
131. McAdams, D. P., (2013). The psychological self as actor, agent, and author. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 272–295. doi:10.1177/1745691612464657
132. McQueen, A., & Klein, W. M. P., (2006). Experimental manipulations of self-affirmation:A systematic review. Self and Identity, 5(4), 289–354. doi:10.1080/15298860600805325
133. Mead, G. H., (1925). The genesis of the self and social control. International Journal of Ethics, 35(3), 251–277.
134. Mermelstein, R., Cohen, S., Lichtenstein, E., Baer, J. S., & Kamarck, T., (1986). Social support and smoking cessation and maintenance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(4), 447–453.
135. Metcalfe, J., & Mischel, W., (1999). A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification:Dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review, 106(1), 3–19.
136. Miller, R. L., Brickman, P., & Bolen, D., (1975). Attribution versus persuasion as a means for modifying behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(3), 430–441. doi:10.1037/h0076539
137. Mitchell, J., (2009). Social psychology as a natural kind. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(6), 246–251. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.03.008
138. Mitchell, J. P., Macrae, C. N., & Banaji, M. R., (2006). Dissociable medial prefrontal contributions to judgments of similar and dissimilar others. Neuron, 50(4), 655–663. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.03.040
139. Molden, D. C., Hui, C. M., Scholer, A. A., Meier, B. P., Noreen, E. E., D'Agostino, P. R., & Martin, V., (2012). Motivational versus metabolic effects of carbohydrates on self-control. Psychological Science, 20(3), 1137–1144. doi:10.1177/0956797612439069
140. Moller, A. C., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M., (2006). Choice and ego-depletion:The moderating role of autonomy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(8), 1024–1036. doi:10.1177/0146167206288008
141. Montague, P. R., King-Casas, B., & Cohen, J. D., (2006). Imaging valuation models in human choice. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 29, 417–448. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.112903
142. Muraven, M., Gagné, M., & Rosman, H., (2008). Helpful self-control:Autonomy support, vitality, and depletion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(3), 573–585. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.10.008
143. Muraven, M., & Slessareva, E., (2003). Mechanisms of self-control failure:Motivation and limited resources. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(7), 894–906. doi:10.1177/0146167203029007008
144. Newman, G. E., Bloom, P., & Knobe, J., (2014). Value judgments and the true self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(2), 203–216. doi:10.1177/0146167213508791
145. Nietzsche, F. W., (1996). Human, all too human:A book for free spirits. (J., Hollingdale, Trans.). Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1878)
146. Niiya, Y., Brook, A. T., & Crocker, J., (2010). Contingent self-worth and self-handicapping:Do incremental theorists protect self-esteem? Self and Identity, 9(3), 276–297. doi:10.1080/15298860903054233
147. Noar, S. M., Benac, C. N., & Harris, M. S., (2007). Does tailoring matter? Meta-analytic review of tailored print health behavior change interventions. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 673–693. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.673
148. Northoff, G., & Hayes, D. J., (2011). Is our self nothing but reward? Biological Psychiatry, 69(11), 1019–1025. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.12.014
149. Nosek, B. A., & Smyth, F. L., (2007). A multitrait-multimethod validation of the implicit association test. Experimental Psychology, 54(1), 14–29. doi:10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.14
150. Ntoumanis, N., Healy, L. C., Sedikides, C., Duda, J., Stewart, B., Smith, A., & Bond, J., (2014). When the going gets tough:The “why” of goal striving matters. Journal of Personality, 82(3), 225–236. doi:10.1111/jopy.12047
151. Ochsner, K. N., Knierim, K., Ludlow, D. H., Hanelin, J., Ramachandran, T., Glover, G., & Mackey, S. C., (2004). Reflecting upon feelings:An fMRI study of neural systems supporting the attribution of emotion to self and other. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(10), 1746–1772.
152. O'Doherty, J. P., (2007). Lights, camembert, action! The role of human orbitofrontal cortex in encoding stimuli, rewards, and choices. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121(1), 254–272. doi:10.1196/annals.1401.036
153. Ogedegbe, G. O., Boutin-Foster, C., Wells, M. T., Allegrante, J. P., Isen, A. M., Jobe, J. B., & Charlson, M. E., (2012). A randomized controlled trial of positive-affect intervention and medication adherence in hypertensive African Americans. Archives of Internal Medicine, 172(4), 322–326. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.1307
154. Oyserman, D., (2007). Social identity and self-regulation. In A., Kruglanski & T., Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., pp. 432–453). New York, NY:Guilford Press.
155. Oyserman, D., (2009). Identity-based motivation:Implications for action-readiness, procedural-readiness, and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(3), 250–260. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2009.05.008
156. Oyserman, D., Fryberg, S. A., & Yoder, N., (2007). Identity-based motivation and health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 1011–1027. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1011
157. Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. S., (2008). Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 311–342. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.311
158. Padoa-Schioppa, C., & Assad, J. A., (2006). Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. Nature, 441(7090), 223–226. doi:10.1038/nature04676
159. Pelham, B. W., (1995). Self-investment and self-esteem:Evidence for a Jamesian model of self-worth. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1141–1150.
160. Pelham, B. W., & Swann, W. B., (1989). From self-conceptions to self-worth:On the sources and structure of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(4), 672–680.
161. Pfeifer, J. H., Kahn, L. E., Merchant, J. S., Peake, S. J., K., Veroude, & Masten, C. L., et al. (2013). Longitudinal change in the neural bases of adolescent social self-evaluations:Effects of age and pubertal development. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(17), 7415–7419. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4074-12.2013
162. Pfeifer, J. H., Lieberman, M. D., & Dapretto, M., (2007). “I know you are but what am I?!”:Neural bases of self- and social knowledge retrieval in children and adults. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(8), 1323–1337.
163. Pfeifer, J. H., Masten, C. L., Borofsky, L. A., Dapretto, M., Fuligni, A. J., & Lieberman, M. D., (2009). Neural correlates of direct and reflected self-appraisals in adolescents and adults:When social perspective-taking informs self-perception. Child Development, 80(4), 1016–1038. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01314.x
164. Phan, K. L., Wager, T., Taylor, S. F., & Liberzon, I., (2002). Functional neuroanatomy of emotion:A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. NeuroImage, 16(2), 331–348. doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1087
165. Philiastides, M. G., Biele, G., & Heekeren, H. R., (2010). A mechanistic account of value computation in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(20), 9430–9435. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001732107
166. Plassmann, H., O'Doherty, J. P., & Rangel, A., (2010). Appetitive and aversive goal values are encoded in the medial orbitofrontal cortex at the time of decision making. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(32), 10799–10808.
167. Prendergast, M., Podus, D., Finney, J., Greenwell, L., & Roll, J., (2006). Contingency management for treatment of substance use disorders:A meta-analysis. Addiction, 101(11), 1546–1560. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01581.x
168. Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C., (1992). In search of how people change:Applications to addictive behaviors. The American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102–1114.
169. Radu, P. T., Yi, R., Bickel, W. K., Gross, J. J., & McClure, S. M., (2011). A mechanism for reducing delay discounting by altering temporal attention. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 96(3), 363–385. doi:10.1901/jeab.2011.96-363
170. Rangel, A., Camerer, C., & Montague, P. R., (2008). A framework for studying the neurobiology of value-based decision making. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(7), 545–556. doi:10.1038/nrn2357
171. Rangel, A., & Hare, T., (2010). Neural computations associated with goal-directed choice. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 20(2), 262–270. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2010.03.001
172. Rieskamp, J., Busemeyer, J. R., & Mellers, B. A., (2006). Extending the bounds of rationality:Evidence and theories of preferential choice. Journal of Economic Literature, 44(3), 631–661.
173. Rimer, B. K., & Kreuter, M. W., (2006). Advancing tailored health communication:A persuasion and message effects perspective. Journal of Communication, 56(s1), S184–S201. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00289.x
174. Roberts, J. E., Gotlib, I. H., & Kassel, J. D., (1996). Adult attachment security and symptoms of depression:The mediating roles of dysfunctional attitudes and low self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 310–320. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.310
175. Rosenberg, M., (1979). Conceiving the self. New York, NY:Basic Books.
176. Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L., (1986). Parallel distributed processing. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
177. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L., (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
178. Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B., (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 1–28. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0901_1
179. Schmeichel, B. J., & Demaree, H. A., (2010). Working memory capacity and spontaneous emotion regulation:High capacity predicts self-enhancement in response to negative feedback. Emotion, 10(5), 739–744. doi:10.1037/a0019355
180. Schmeichel, B. J., & Vohs, K., (2009). Self-affirmation and self-control:Affirming core values counteracts ego depletion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 770–782. doi:10.1037/a0014635
181. Schmeichel, B. J., Volokhov, R. N., & Demaree, H. A., (2008). Working memory capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6), 1526–1540. doi:10.1037/a0013345
182. Schoenbaum, M., (1997). Do smokers understand the mortality effects of smoking? Evidence from the Health and Retirement Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 87(5), 755–759.
183. Schwartz, J., Mochon, D., Wyper, L., Maroba, J., Patel, D., & Ariely, D., (2014). Healthier by precommitment. Psychological Science, 25(2), 538–546. doi:10.1177/0956797613510950
184. Shah, A. K., Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E., (2012). Some consequences of having too little. Science, 338(6107), 682–685. doi:10.1126/science.1222426
185. Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J., (1998). Not all personal goals are personal:Comparing autonomous and controlled reasons for goals as predictors of effort and attainment. Personality and Social Psychology, 24(5), 546–557.
186. Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J., (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being:The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 482–497.
187. Sheldon, K. M., & Houser-Marko, L., (2001). Self-concordance, goal attainment, and the pursuit of happiness:Can there be an upward spiral? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 152–165.
188. Sherman, D. K., (2013). Self-affirmation:Understanding the effects. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(11), 834–845. doi:10.1111/spc3.12072
189. Sherman, D. K., & Cohen, G. L., (2002). Accepting threatening information:Self-affirmation and the reduction of defensive biases. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(4), 119–123.
190. Sherman, D. A. K., Nelson, L. D., & Steele, C. M., (2000). Do messages about health risks threaten the self? Increasing the acceptance of threatening health messages via self-affirmation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(9), 1046–1058.
191. Shih, M., Pittinsky, T. L., & Ambady, N., (1999). Stereotype susceptibility:Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 10(1), 80–83.
192. Showers, C. J., & Zeigler-Hill, V., (2007). Compartmentalization and integration:The evaluative organization of contextualized selves. Journal of Personality, 75(6), 1181–1204. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00472.x
193. Smetana, J. G., Campione-Barr, N., & Metzger, A., (2006). Adolescent development in interpersonal and societal contexts. Annual Review of Psychology, 57(1), 255–284. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190124
194. Snyder, M. L., Kleck, R. E., Strenta, A., & Mentzer, S. J., (1979). Avoidance of the handicapped:An attributional ambiguity analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(12), 2297–2306.
195. Steele, C. M., (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation:Sustaining the integrity of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21(1), 261–302.
196. Steele, C. M., (1997). A threat in the air:How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. The American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629.
197. Steele, C. M., & Liu, T. J., (1983). Dissonance processes as self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(1), 5–19. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.1.5
198. Sullivan, N., Hutcherson, C., Harris, A., & Rangel, A., (2015). Dietary self-control is related to the speed with which attributes of healthfulness and tastiness are processed. Psychological Science, 26(2), 122–134. doi:10.1177/0956797614559543
199. Swann, W. B., (1992). Seeking “truth,” finding despair:Some unhappy consequences of a negative self-concept. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(1), 15–18. doi:10.2307/20182117
200. Swann, W. B., Jr., & Bosson, J. K., (2010). Self and identity. In S. T., Fiske, D. T., Gilbert, & G., Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 589–628). Hoboken, NJ:Wiley.
201. Swann, W. B., Jr., Pelham, B. W., & Krull, D. S., (1989). Agreeable fancy or disagreeable truth? Reconciling self-enhancement and self-verification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5), 782.
202. Swann, W. B., Wenzlaff, R. M., & Tafarodi, R. W., (1992). Depression and the search for negative evaluations:More evidence of the role of self-verification strivings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(2), 314–317.
203. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J., (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W., Austin & S., Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA:Brooks/Cole.
204. Tamir, D. I., & Mitchell, J. P., (2012). Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(21), 8038–8043. doi:10.1073/pnas.1202129109
205. Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L., (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72(2), 271–324.
206. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D., (1988). Illusion and well-being:A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193–210.
207. Tesser, A., (2001). On the plasticity of self-defense. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(2), 66–69. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00117
208. Tesser, A., & Cornell, D. P., (1991). On the confluence of self processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27(6), 501–526.
209. Tice, D. M., Baumeister, R., Shmueli, D., & Muraven, M., (2007). Restoring the self:Positive affect helps improve self-regulation following ego depletion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 379–384. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.007
210. Tom, S. M., Fox, C. R., Trepel, C., & Poldrack, R. A., (2007). The neural basis of loss aversion in decision-making under risk. Science, 315(5811), 515–518. doi:10.1126/science.1134239
211. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N., (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110(3), 403–421.
212. Tsai, J. L., (2007). Ideal affect:Cultural causes and behavioral consequences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(3), 242–259. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00043.x
213. Turner, J. C., (1991). Social influence. London, UK:Open University Press.
214. Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & McGarty, C., (1994). Self and collective:Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 454–463.
215. Urdan, T., & Midgley, C., (2001). Academic self-handicapping:What we know, what more there is to learn. Educational Psychology Review, 13(2), 115–138.
216. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M., (1987). What do people thing they're doing? Action identification and human behavior. Psychological Review, 94(1), 3–15.
217. van Koningsbruggen, G. M., & Das, E., (2009). Don't derogate this message! Self-affirmation promotes online type 2 diabetes risk test taking. Psychology and Health, 24(6), 635–649. doi:10.1080/08870440802340156
218. Van Lange, P. A. M., (1999). The pursuit of joint outcomes and equality in outcomes:An integrative model of social value orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(2), 337–349. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.337
219. Van Overwalle, F., (2009). Social cognition and the brain:A meta-analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 30(3), 829–858. doi:10.1002/hbm.20547
220. Wallis, J. D., (2007). Orbitofrontal cortex and its contribution to decision-making. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30(1), 31–56. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.30.051606.094334
221. Wicklund, R. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M., (1982). Symbolic self-completion. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
222. Wunderlich, K., Rangel, A., & O'Doherty, J. P., (2010). Economic choices can be made using only stimulus values. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(34), 15005–15010. doi:10.1073/pnas.1002258107
223. Yarkoni, T., Poldrack, R. A., Nichols, T. E., Van Essen, D. C., & Wager, T. D., (2011). Large-scale automated synthesis of human functional neuroimaging data. Nature Methods, 8(8), 665–670. doi:10.1038/nmeth.1635
224. Zaki, J., Lopez, G., & Mitchell, J. P., (2014). Activity in ventromedial prefrontal cortex co-varies with revealed social preferences:Evidence for person-invariant value. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(4), 464–469. doi:10.1093/scan/nst005
225. Zaki, J., Schirmer, J., & Mitchell, J. P., (2011). Social influence modulates the neural computation of value. Psychological Science, 22(7), 894–900. doi:10.1177/0956797611411057