The energetics of motivated cognition: A force-field analysis

Psychological Review

Volumn 119, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-20

  Kruglanski, Arie W ^a   Bélanger, Jocelyn J ^a   Chen, Xiaoyan ^a   Köpetz, Catalina ^a   Pierro, Antonio ^b   Mannetti, Lucia ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

^b SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

Author keywords

Cognitive energetics theory; Driving force; Motivated cognition; Restraining force

Indexed keywords

APTITUDE; ARTICLE; ATTITUDE; COGNITION; DECISION MAKING; DRIVE; HUMAN; LITERATURE; MOTIVATION; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; THINKING;

APTITUDE; ATTITUDE; CHOICE BEHAVIOR; COGNITION; DECISION MAKING; DRIVE; GOALS; HUMANS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; MOTIVATION; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; REVIEW LITERATURE AS TOPIC; THINKING;

EID: 84859772658     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0025488     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Ahlering, R. F., & Parker, L. D. (1989). Need for cognition as a moderator of the primacy effect. Journal of Research in Personality, 23, 313-317. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(89)90004-4
2. Alter, A. L., Oppenheimer, D. M., Epley, N., & Eyre, R. N. (2007). Overcoming intuition: Metacognitive difficulty activates analytic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 136, 569-576.
3. Amodio, D. M., Devine, P. G., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2008). Individual differences in the regulation of intergroup bias: The role of conflict monitoring and neural signals for control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 60-74. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.60
4. Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64, 359-372.
5. Atkinson, J. W., & Birch, D. (1970). The dynamics of action. New York, NY: Wiley.
6. Backs, R. W., & Selijos, K. A. (1994). Metabolic and cardiorespiratory measures of mental effort: The effects of level of difficulty in a working memory task. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 16, 57-68. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(94)90042-6
7. Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417-423. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2
8. Baddeley, A. D. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 829-839. doi:10.1038/nrn1201
9. Baddeley, A. D. (2007). Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
10. Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 351-355. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x
11. Beatty, J. (1982). Task-evoked papillary responses, processing load and the structure of processing resources. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 276-292. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.91.2.276
12. Beer, J. S., Shimamura, A. P., & Knight, R. T. (2004). Frontal contributions to executive control of cognitive and social behavior. In M. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences III (pp. 1091-1104). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
13. Bélanger, J. J., Orehek, E., Chen, X., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2011). Bending "reality" to desire: The role of biasing difficulty and cognitive resources. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park.
14. Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. doi:10.1037/11164-000
15. Bijleveld, E., Custers, R., & Aarts, H. (2009). The unconscious eye opener: Pupil dilation reveals strategic recruitment of resources upon presentation of subliminal reward cues. Psychological Science, 20, 1313-1315. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02443.x
16. Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 109-131. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.40.020189.000545
17. Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (in press). Persuasion: Insights from the self-validation hypothesis. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 41, pp. 69-118). New York, NY: Academic Press.
18. Broadbent, D. (1971). Decision and stress: London, England: Academic. Cacioppo
19. Cacioppo J.T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116-131. doi:10.1037/00223514.42.1.116
20. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Feinstein. J. A., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1996). Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 197-253. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.197
21. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Morris, K. J. (1983). Effects of need for cognition and message evaluation, recall, and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 805-818. doi:10.1037/00223514.45.4.805
22. Cacioppo, J.T., Petty, R. E., & Morris, K. J. (1985). Semantic, evaluative, and self-referent professing: Memory, cognitive effort, and somatovisceral activity. Psychophysiology, 22, 371-384. doi:10.1111/j.14698986.1985.tb01618.x
23. Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 752-766. doi:10.1037/00223514.39.5.752
24. Chun, W. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2006). The role of task demands and processing resources in the use of base-rate and individuating information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 205-217. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.205
25. Chun, W. Y., Kruglanski, A. W., Sleeth-Keppler, D. & Friedman, R. (in press). Multifinality in implicit choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
26. Coleman, P. T., Hacking, A., Stover, M., Fisher-Yoshida, B., & Nowak, A. (2008). Reconstructing ripeness I: A study of constructive engagement in protracted social conflicts. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 26, 3-42. doi:10.1002/crq.222
27. Contrada, R. J., Wright, R. A., & Glass, D. C. (1984). Task difficulty, Type A behavior pattern, and cardiovascular response. Psychophysiology, 21, 638-646. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1984.tb00250.x
28. D'Agostino, P. R., & Fincher-Kiefer, R. (1992). Need for cognition and correspondence bias. Social Cognition, 10, 151-163. doi:10.1521/soco.1992.10.2.151
29. Danziger, S., Levav, J., & Avnaim-Pesso, L. (2011). Extraneous factors in legal decisions. Manuscript submitted for publication.
30. Deutsch, M. (1968). Field theory in social psychology. In G. Lindsey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 412-487). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
31. DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., Mead, N. L., & Vohs, K. D. (2011). How leaders self-regulate their task performance: Evidence that power promotes diligence, depletion, and disdain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 47-65. doi:10.1037/a0020932
32. DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., Schurtz, D. R., & Gailliot, M. T. (2010). Acting on limited resources: Self-regulatory depletion and personality. In R. Hoyle (Ed.), Handbook of Personality and Self-Regulation (pp. 243-262). Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781444318111.ch11
33. Dudley, M. G., & Harris, M. J. (2003). To think or not to think: The moderating role of need for cognition in expectancy-consistent impression formation. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1657-1667. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00388-4
34. Dunning, D. (1999). A new look: Motivated social cognition and the schematic representation of social concepts. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 1-11. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1001_1
35. Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J., & Holzberg, A. (1989). Ambiguity and self-evaluation: The role of idiosyncratic trait definitions in self-serving assessments of ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1082-1090. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1082
36. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Random House.
37. Erb, H.-P., Kruglanski, A. W., Chun, W. Y., Pierro, A., Mannetti, L., & Spiegel, S. (2003). Searching for commonalities in human judgment: The parametric unimodel and its dual mode alternatives. European Review of Social Psychology, 14, 1-47. doi:10.1080/10463280340000009
38. Evans, J. St. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255-278. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629
39. Fairclough, S. H., & Houston, K. (2004). A metabolic measure of mental effort. Biological Psychology, 66, 177-190. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2003.10.001
40. Fibiger, W., & Singer, G. (1989). Biochemical assessment and differentiation of mental and physical effort. Work & Stress, 3, 237-247. doi: 10.1080/02678378908251559
41. Fishbach, A., & Ferguson, M. F. (2007). The goal construct in social psychology. In A. W. Kruglanski & T. E. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 490-515). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
42. Fishbach, A., Friedman, R. S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). Leading us not unto temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 296-309. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.296
43. Fiske, S. T. (1992). Thinking is for doing: Portraits of social cognition from Daguerreotype to laserphoto. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 877-889. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.877
44. Fiske, S. T. (2004). Social beings: Core motives in social psychology. New York, NY: Wiley.
45. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
46. Force (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster's online dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/force
47. Gendolla, G., Wright, R. A., & Richter, M. (in press). Effort intensity: some insights from the cardiovascular system. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of motivation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
48. Hassin, R. R., Aarts, H., Eitam, B., & Custers, R. (2005). Goals at work: Automatic goal pursuit and working memory. Manuscript in preparation.
49. Hess, E. H. (1965). Attitude and pupil size. Scientific American, 212, 4, 46-54. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0465-46
50. Hess, E. H., & Polt, J. M. (1964, March 13). Pupil size in relation to mental activity during simple problem-solving. Science, 143, 1190-1192. doi: 10.1126/science.143.3611.1190
51. Higgins, E. T. (in press). Beyond pleasure and pain: Motivations working together: New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
52. Hockey, G. R. J. (1996). Energetical control processes in the regulation of human performance. In W. Battmann and S. Dutke (Eds.), Processes of the molar regulation of behavior (pp. 271-287). Lengerich, Germany, Pabst Science.
53. Hsee, C. K. (1996). Elastic justification: How unjustifiable factors influence judgments. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 66, 122-129. doi:10.1006/obhd.1996.0043
54. Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York, NY: Appleton Century Crofts.
55. Job, V., Dweck, C. S., & Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion-Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect selfregulation. Psychological Science, 21, 1686-1693. doi:10.1177/0956797610384745
56. Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
57. Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58, 697-720. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697
58. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1973). On the psychology of prediction. Psychological Review, 80, 237-251. doi:10.1037/h0034747
59. Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., Murtha, T. C., Dugdale, B., & Nelson, L. (1994). Goal setting, conditions of practice, and task performance: A resource allocation perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 826-835. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.6.826
60. Keren, G., & Schul, Y. (2009). Two is not always better than one: A critical evaluation of two-system theories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 533-550. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01164.x
61. Köpetz, C., Faber, T., Fishbach, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2011). Multifinality constraints effect: How goal multiplicity narrows the means set to a focal end. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 810-826. doi:10.1037/a0022980
62. Kruglanski, A. W. (1989a). Lay epistemics and human knowledge: Cognitive and motivational bases. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
63. Kruglanski, A. W. (1989b). The psychology of being "right": On the problem of accuracy in social perception and cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 395-409. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.3.395
64. Kruglanski, A. W. (1996). Motivated social cognition: Principles of the interface. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 493-520). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
65. Kruglanski, A. W. (2004). The quest for the gist: On challenges of going abstract in social-personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 156-163. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0802_9
66. Kruglanski, A. W., Erb, H., Pierro, A., Mannetti, L., & Chun, W. Y. (2006). On parametric continuities in the world of binary either ors. Psychological Inquiry, 17, 153-165. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1703_1
67. Kruglanski, A. W., & Gigerenzer, G. (2011). Intuitive and deliberate judgments are based on common principles. Psychological Review, 118, 97-109. doi:10.1037/a0020762
68. Kruglanski, A. W., & Orehek, E. (2007). Partitioning the domain of social inference: Dual mode and systems models and their alternatives. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 291-316. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085629
69. Kruglanski, A. W., Pierro, A., Mannetti, L., Erb, H.-P., & Chun, W. Y. (2007). On the parameters of human judgment. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 39, pp. 255-303). New York, NY: Academic Press.
70. Kruglanski, A. W., Raviv, A., Bar-Tal, D., Raviv, A., Sharvit, K., Ellis, S.,... Mannetti, L. (2005). Says who?: Epistemic authority effects in social judgment. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 346-392
71. Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002). A theory of goal systems. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 331-376). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
72. Kruglanski, A. W., & Thompson, E. P. (1999a). Persuasion by a single route: A view from the unimodel. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 83-109. doi:10.1207/S15327965PL100201
73. Kruglanski, A. W., & Thompson, E. P. (1999b). The illusory second mode or, the cue is the message. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 182-193. doi: 10.1207/S15327965PL100217
74. Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: "Seizing" and "freezing." Psychological Review, 103, 263-283. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.263
75. Kruglanski, A. W., Webster, D. M., & Klem, A. (1993). Motivated resistance and openness to persuasion in the presence or absence of prior information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 861-876. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.861
76. Kübler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. London, England: Tavistock.
77. Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychology Bulletin, 108, 480-498. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480
78. Kunda, Z. (1999). Social cognition: Making sense of people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
79. Kunda, Z., & Sanitioso, R. (1989). Motivated changes in the self-concept. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 272-285. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(89)90023-1
80. Kunda, Z., & Sinclair, L. (1999). Motivated reasoning with stereotypes: Activation, application, and inhibition. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 12-22. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1001_2
81. Kruglanski, A. W., Pierro, A., & Sheveland, A. (2011). How many roads lead to Rome? Equifinality set-size and commitment to goals and means. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 344-352.
82. Lacey, J. I. (1967). Somatic response patterning and stress: Some revisions of activation theory. In M. H. Appley, M. H. & R. Trumbull (Eds.), Psychological stress: Issues in research (pp. 14-37). New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
83. Latané, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 343-356. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.343
84. Levav, J., Heitmann, M., Herrmann, A., & Iyengar, S., S. (2010). Order in product customization decisions: Evidence from field experiments. Journal of Political Economy, 118, 274-299. doi:10.1086/652463
85. Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topical psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. doi:10.1037/10019-000
86. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.
87. Martin, P. Y., & Benton, D. (1999). The influence of a glucose drink on a demanding working memory task. Physiology & Behaviour, 67, 69-74. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(99)00040-2
88. Moray, N. (1967). Where is attention limited? A survey and a model. Acta Psychologica, 27, 84-92. doi:10.1016/0001-6918(67)90048-0
89. Muraven, M., & Slessareva, E. (2003). Mechanism of self-control failure: Motivation and limited resources. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 894-906. doi:10.1177/0146167203029007008
90. Obrist, P. A. (1976). The cardiovascular-behavioral interaction as it appears today. Psychophysiology, 13, 95-107. doi:10.1111/j.14698986.1976.tb00081.x
91. Obrist, P. A. (1981). Cardiovascular psychophysiology: A perspective. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
92. Obrist, P. A., Gaebelein, C. J., Teller, E. S., Langer, A. W., Grignolo, A., Light, K. C., & McCubbin, J. A. (1978). The relationship among heart rate, carotid dP/dt, and blood pressure in humans as a function of type of stress. Psychophysiology, 15, 102-115. doi:10.1111/j.14698986.1978.tb01344.x
93. Papies, E. K., & Aarts, H. (2010). Nonconscious self-regulation or the automatic pilot of human behavior. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed, pp. 125-142). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
94. Perlini, A. H., & Hansen, S. D. (2001). Moderating effects of need for cognition on attractiveness stereotyping. Social Behavior and Personality, 29, 313-321. doi:10.2224/sbp.2001.29.4.313
95. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123-205). New York, NY: Academic Press.
96. Pierro, A., De Grada, E., Mannetti, L., Livi, S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2004). Bisogno di chiusura cognitive e risposta a violazioni normative di carattere quotidiano [Need for closure and response to normative violations of everyday nature]. Giornale Italiano di Psicologia, 31, 129-140.
97. Pierro, A., Mannetti, L., Erb, H. P., Spiegel, S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2005). Informational length and order of presentation as determinants of persuasion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 458-469. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.09.003
98. Popper, K. R. (1972). Objective knowledge. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
99. Schmeichel, B. J., & Baumeister, R. (2004). Self-regulatory strength. In R. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 84-98). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
100. Schmeichel, B. J., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Intellectual performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning and other information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 33-46. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.1.33
101. Schwarz, N., Strack, F., Hilton, D. J., & Naderer, G. (1991). Base rates, representativeness, and the logic of conversation: The contextual relevance of "irrelevant" information. Social Cognition, 9, 67-84. doi: 10.1521/soco.1991.9.1.67
102. Shah, J. Y., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1261-1280. doi:10.1037/00223514.83.6.1261
103. Shah, J. Y., Hall, D., & Leander, N. P. (2009). Moments of motivation: Margins of opportunity in managing the efficacy, need, and terms of striving. In G. Moskowitz & H. Grant (Eds.), The psychology of goals (pp. 234-254). New York, NY: Guilford.
104. Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Priming against your will: How accessible alternatives affect goal pursuit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 368-383. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00005-7
105. Smith, S. M., & Levin, I. P. (1996). Need for cognition and choice framing effects. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 9, 283-290. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(199612)9:4<283::AID-BDM241>3.0.CO;2-7
106. Steinhauer, S. R., Siegle, G. J., Condray, R., & Pless, M. (2004). Sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of pupillary dilation during sustained processing. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 52, 77-86. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2003.12.005
107. Stroebe, M. (2011). Coping with bereavement. In S. Folkman (Ed.), Oxford handbook of stress, health, and coping (pp. 148-172). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
108. Stroebe, M. S., Hansson, R. O., Stroebe, W., & Schut, H. (Eds.). (2001). Handbook of bereavement research: Consequences, coping, and care. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10436-000
109. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974, September 27). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131. doi: 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
110. Ullsperger, P., Metz, A., & Gille, H. (1988). The P300 component of the event-related brain potential and mental effort. Ergonomics, 31, 1127-1137. doi:10.1080/00140138808966752
111. Van Roon, A. M., Mulder, L. J. M., Veldman, J. B. P., & Mulder, G. (1995). Beat-to-beat blood-pressure measurements applied in studies on mental workload. Homeostasis, 36, 3316-3324.
112. Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Twenge, J. M., Nelson, N. M., & Tice, D. M. (2008). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited-resource account of decision making, selfregulation, and active initiative. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 883-898. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.883
113. Wegener, D. T., & Claypool, H. M. (1999). The elaboration continuum by any other name does not smell as sweet. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 176-181. doi:10.1207/S15327965PL100216
114. Wiers, R. W., Eberl, C., Rinck, M., Becker, E. S., & Lindenmeyer, J. (in press). Re-training automatic action tendencies changes alcoholic patients' approach bias for alcohol and improves treatment outcome. Psychological Science.
115. Wilkinson, R. T. (1962). Muscle tension during mental work under sleep deprivation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 565-571. doi: 10.1037/h0043570
116. Wright, P., & Kahneman, D. (1971). Evidence for alternative strategies of sentence retention. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 23, 197-213. doi:10.1080/14640747108400240
117. Wright, R. A. (2008). Refining the prediction of effort: Brehm's distinction between potential motivation and motivation intensity. Social and Personality Psychology Compass: Motivation and Emotion, 2, 682-701. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00093.x
118. Wright, R. A., & Brehm, J. W. (1989). Energization and goal attractiveness. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 169-210). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
119. Wright, R. A., Brehm, J. W., & Bushman, B. J. (1989). Cardiovascular responses to threat: Effects of the difficulty and availability of a cognitive avoidant task. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10, 161-171. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1002_6
120. Wright, R. A., Contrada, R. J., & Patane, M. J. (1986). Task difficulty, cardiovascular response, and the magnitude of goal valence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 837-843. doi:10.1037/00223514.51.4.837
121. Zanna, M. P., & Aziza, C. (1976). On the interaction of repression-sensitization and attention in resolving cognitive dissonance. Journal of Personality, 44, 577-593. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1976.tb00139.x
122. Zijlstra, F. R. H. (1996). Effort as energy regulation. In W. Battmann & S. Dutke (Eds.), Processes of the molar regulation of behavior (pp. 219-235). Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science Publishers.
123. Zukier, H., & Pepitone, A. (1984). Social roles and strategies in prediction: Some determinants of the use of base-rate information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 349-360. doi:10.1037/00223514.47.2.349