HIV-1 subtype B: Traces of a pandemic

Virology

Volumn 495, Issue , 2016, Pages 173-184

  Junqueira, Dennis Maletich ^a,b,c   de Matos Almeida, Sabrina Esteves ^a,b,d  

^a Centro de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico CDCT   (Brazil)

^b FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF RIO GRANDE DO SUL   (Brazil)

^c Centro Universitário Ritter dos Reis   (Brazil)

^d UNIVERSIDADE FEEVALE   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Dissemination; Epidemiology; Genetic variability; HIV 1 subtype B

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT;

AFRICA; ASIAN; AUSTRALIA; BISEXUALITY; BRAZIL; CARIBBEAN; DRUG USE; EUROPE; GENETIC VARIATION; HAITI; HEPATITIS B; HOMOSEXUALITY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS TYPE 1 SUBTYPE B; INCIDENCE; KOREA; MIGRATION; NONHUMAN; PACIFIC ISLANDS; PHYLOGENY; POPULATION DISPERSION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA; THAILAND; TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO; UNITED STATES; VIRUS DETECTION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; ASIA; CLASSIFICATION; GENETICS; GENOTYPE; GLOBAL HEALTH; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; VIROLOGY; VIRUS GENOME;

ASIA; AUSTRALIA; EUROPE; GENETIC VARIATION; GENOME, VIRAL; GENOTYPE; GLOBAL HEALTH; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HUMANS; LATIN AMERICA; PHYLOGENY;

EID: 84969814884     PISSN: 00426822     EISSN: 10960341     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. Abecasis A.B., Vandamme A.-M., Lemey P. Quantifying differences in the tempo of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype evolution. J. Virol. 2009, 83:12917-12924.
2. Abecasis A.B., Wensing A.M.J., Paraskevis D., Vercauteren J., Theys K., DAMC Van de Vijver, et al. HIV-1 subtype distribution and its demographic determinants in newly diagnosed patients in Europe suggest highly compartmentalized epidemics. Retrovirology 2013, 10:7.
3. Adrien A., Cayemittes M., Bergevin Y. AIDS-related knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and practices in Haiti. Bull. Pan Am. Health Organ. 1993, 27:234-243.
4. Aldrich C., Hemelaar J. Global HIV-1 diversity surveillance. Trends Mol. Med. 2012, 18:691-694. (Elsevier Ltd.).
5. Arán-Matero D., Amico P., Arán-Fernandez C., Gobet B., Izazola-Licea J.A., Avila-Figueroa C. Levels of spending and resource allocation to HIV programs and services in Latin America and the Caribbean. PLoS One 2011, 6:e22373.
6. Araujo A.F., Brites C., Monteiro-Cunha J., Santos L.A., Galvao-Castro B., Alcantara L.C.J. Lower prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Brazilian subtype B found in northeastern Brazil with slower progression to AIDS. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2010, 26:1249-1254.
7. de Arazoza H., Joanes J., Lounes R., Legeai C., Clémençon S., Pérez J., et al. The HIV/AIDS epidemic in Cuba: description and tentative explanation of its low HIV prevalence. BMC Infect. Dis. 2007, 7:130.
8. Arruda L., Romano C., Martinez M., Araújo M., Costa F., Oliveira K., et al., 2011. The HIV-1 Subtype B variant (B'-GWGR motif) was introduced by founder effect among the HIV-1-infected subjects in São Paulo city, Brazil. In: 6 IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention.
9. Auerbach D.M., Darrow W.W., Jaffe H.W., Curran J.W. Cluster of cases of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Patients linked by sexual contact. Am. J. Med. 1984, 76:487-492.
10. Bacchetti P., Moss A.R. Incubation period of AIDS in San Francisco. Nature 1989, 338:251-253.
11. Baeten J.M., Chohan B., Lavreys L., Chohan V., McClelland R.S., Certain L., et al. HIV-1 subtype D infection is associated with faster disease progression than subtype A in spite of similar plasma HIV-1 loads. J. Infect. Dis. 2007, 195:1177-1180.
12. Bailes E., Gao F., Bibollet-Ruche F., Courgnaud V., Peeters M., Marx P. a, et al. Hybrid origin of SIV in chimpanzees. Science 2003, 300:1713.
13. Baral S., Sifakis F., Cleghorn F., Beyrer C. Elevated risk for HIV infection among men who have sex with men in low- and middle-income countries 2000-2006: a systematic review. PLoS Med. 2007, 4:e339.
14. Bartholomew C. Transmission of HTLV-I and HIV among homosexual men in Trinidad. J. Am. Med Assoc. 1987, 257:2604.
15. Bastos F.I., Cáceres C., Galvão J., Veras M.A., Castilho E.A. AIDS in Latin America: assessing the current status of the epidemic and the ongoing response. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 37:729-737.
16. Bello G., Eyer-silva W.a, Couto-Fernandez J.C., Guimarães M.L., Chequer-Fernandez S.L., Teixeira S.L.M., et al. Demographic history of HIV-1 subtypes B and F in Brazil. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2007, 7:263-270.
17. Berry N., Davis C., Jenkins A., Wood D., Minor P., Schild G., et al. Phylogeny and the origin of HIV-1. Nature 2001, 410:1047-1048.
18. Beyrer C., Baral S.D., van Griensven F., Goodreau S.M., Chariyalertsak S., Wirtz A.L., et al. Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men. Lancet 2012, 380:367-377. (Elsevier Ltd.).
19. Beyrer C., Sullivan P., Sanchez J., Baral S.D., Collins C., Wirtz A.L., et al. The increase in global HIV epidemics in MSM. AIDS 2013, 27:2665-2678.
20. Bibollet-Ruche F., Bailes E., Gao F., Pourrut X., Barlow K.L., Clewley J.P., et al. New simian immunodeficiency virus infecting De Brazza's monkeys (Cercopithecus neglectus): evidence for a cercopithecus monkey virus clade. J. Virol. 2004, 78:7748-7762.
21. Bobkov A., Kazennova E., Selimova L., Bobkova M., Khanina T., Ladnaya N., et al. A sudden epidemic of HIV type 1 among injecting drug users in the former Soviet Union: identification of subtype A, subtype B, and novel gagA/envB recombinants. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1998, 14:669-676.
22. Brenner B.G., Wainberg M. a. Future of phylogeny in HIV prevention. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2013, 63(Suppl. 2):S248-S254.
23. Brown T.M., Robbins K.E., Sinniah M., Saraswathy T.S., Lee V., Hooi L.S., et al. HIV type 1 subtypes in Malaysia include B, C, and E. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1996, 12:1655-1657.
24. Bruhn C.A.W., Audelin A.M., Helleberg M., Bjorn-Mortensen K., Obel N., Gerstoft J., et al. The origin and emergence of an HIV-1 epidemic: from introduction to endemicity. AIDS 2014, 28:1031-1040.
25. Cabello M., Mendoza Y., Bello G. Spatiotemporal dynamics of dissemination of non-pandemic HIV-1 subtype B clades in the Caribbean Region. PLoS One 2014, 9:e106045.
26. Cabello M., Junqueira D.M., Bello G. Dissemination of nonpandemic Caribbean HIV-1 subtype B clades in Latin America. AIDS 2015, 29:483-492.
27. Camacho R.J., Vandamme A.-M. Antiretroviral resistance in different HIV-1 subtypes: impact on therapy outcomes and resistance testing interpretation. Curr. Opin. HIV Aids. 2007, 2:123-129.
28. Carr J.K., Foley B.T., Leitner T., Salminen M., Korber B., McCutchan F., 1998. Reference sequences representing the principal genetic diversity of HIV-1 in the pandemic. Hum retroviruses AIDS. Theoretical Biology and Biophysics Group, Los Alamos, NM, pp. 10-19.
29. Casado C., Urtasun I., Saragosti S., Chaix M.L., De Rossi A., Cattelan A.M., et al. Different distribution of HIV type 1 genetic variants in European patients with distinct risk practices. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2000, 16:299-304.
30. Casseb J., Montanheiro P., Komninakis S., Brito A., Duarte A.J.S. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Brazilian subtype B variant showed an increasing avidity of the anti-V3 antibodies over time compared to the subtype B US/European strain in São Paulo, Brazil. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2004, 99:69-71.
31. Casseb J., Hong M.A., Gonsalez C., Brígido L.F., Duarte A.J., Michael-Hendry R. Two variants of HIV-1 B serotype are transmitted heterosexually in São Paulo, Brazil. Braz. J. Med Biol. Res. 1998, 31:1243-1246.
32. Casseb J., Komninakis S., Abdalla L., Brigido L., Rodrigues R., Araujo F., et al. HIV disease progression: is the Brazilian variant subtype B' (GWGR motif) less pathogenic than US/European subtype B (GPGR)?. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2002, 6:164-169.
33. Cassol S., Weniger B.G., Babu P.G., Salminen M.O., Zheng X., Htoon M.T., et al. Detection of HIV type 1 env subtypes A, B, C, and E in Asia using dried blood spots: a new surveillance tool for molecular epidemiology. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1996, 12:1435-1441.
34. Centers for Disease Control Opportunistic infections and Kaposi's Sarcoma among Haitians in the United States. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 1982, 353-361.
35. Charneau P., Borman A.M., Quillent C., Guétard D., Chamaret S., Cohen J., et al. Isolation and envelope sequence of a highly divergent HIV-1 isolate: definition of a new HIV-1 group. Virology 1994, 205:247-253.
36. Chen J., Young N.L., Subbarao S., Warachit P., Saguanwongse S., Wongsheree S., et al. HIV type 1 subtypes in Guangxi Province, China, 1996. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1999, 15:81-84.
37. Chen J.H.-K., Wong K.-H., Chan K.C.-W., To S.W.-C., Chen Z., Yam W.-C. Phylodynamics of HIV-1 subtype B among the men-having-sex-with-men (MSM) population in Hong Kong. PLoS One 2011, 6:e25286.
38. Chibo D., Birch C. Increasing diversity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtypes circulating in Australia. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2012, 28:578-583.
39. Chow W.Z., Al-Darraji H., Lee Y.M., Takebe Y., Kamarulzaman A., Tee K.K. Genome sequences of a novel HIV-1 CRF53_01B identified in Malaysia. J. Virol. 2012, 86:11398-11399.
40. The Cambridge History of Africa (Internet) 1984, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. M. Crowder (Ed.).
41. Chow W.Z., Takebe Y., Syafina N.E., Prakasa M.S., Chan K.G., Al-Darraji H.A.A., et al. A newly emerging HIV-1 recombinant lineage (CRF58_01B) disseminating among people who inject drugs in Malaysia. PLoS One 2014, 9:e85250.
42. Cleghorn F.R., Jack N., Murphy J.R., Edwards J., Mahabir B., Paul R., et al. HIV-1 prevalence and risk factors among sexually transmitted disease clinic attenders in Trinidad. AIDS 1995, 9:389-394.
43. Cleghorn F.R., Jack N., Carr J.K., Edwards J., Mahabir B., Sill A., et al. A distinctive clade B HIV type 1 is heterosexually transmitted in Trinidad and Tobago. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97:10532-10537.
44. Coffin J., Haase A., Levy J.A., Montagnier L., Oroszlan S., Teich N., et al. What to call the AIDS virus?. Nature 1986, 321:10.
45. Cohen J. HIV/AIDS: Latin America & Caribbean. HAITI: making headway under hellacious circumstances. Science (80-) 2006, 313:470-473.
46. Collins-Fairclough A.M., Charurat M., Nadai Y., Pando M., Avila M.M., Blattner W.A., et al. Significantly longer envelope V2 loops are characteristic of heterosexually transmitted subtype B HIV-1 in Trinidad. PLoS One 2011, 6:e19995.
47. Compton A.A., Malik H.S., Emerman M. Host gene evolution traces the evolutionary history of ancient primate lentiviruses. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2013, 368:20120496.
48. Covas D.T., Bíscaro T.A., Kashima S., Duarte G., Machado A.A. High frequency of the GWG (Pro Trp) envelope variant of HIV-1 in Southeast Brazil. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 1998, 19:74-79.
49. Cuevas M.T., Ruibal I., Villahermosa M.L., Díaz H., Delgado E., Parga E.V., et al. High HIV-1 genetic diversity in Cuba. AIDS 2002, 16:1643-1653. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12172086.
50. D'arc M., Ayouba A., Esteban A., Learn G.H., Boué V., Liegeois F., et al. Origin of the HIV-1 group O epidemic in western lowland gorillas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 201502022.
51. Daniels R.S., Kang C., Patel D., Xiang Z., Douglas N.W., Zheng N.N., et al. An HIV type 1 subtype B founder effect in Korea: gp160 signature patterns infer circulation of CTL-escape strains at the population level. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2003, 19:631-641.
52. De Boni R., Veloso V.G., Grinsztejn B. Epidemiology of HIV in Latin America and the Caribbean. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS 2014, 9:192-198.
53. De Brito A., Komninakis S.C., De Oliveira R.M., Fonseca L.A., Duarte A.J., Casseb J. Women infected with HIV Type 1 Brazilian variant, subtype B (B -GWGR Motif) have slower progression to AIDS, compared with patients infected with subtype B (B-GPGR Motif). Clin Infect Dis. 2006, 43:0-5.
54. Delatorre E., Bello G. Phylodynamics of the HIV-1 epidemic in Cuba. PLoS One 2013, 8:e72448. Zhang C. (ed.).
55. Delaugerre C., De Oliveira F., Lascoux-Combe C., Plantier J.-C., Simon F. HIV-1 group N: travelling beyond Cameroon. Lancet 2011, 378:1894.
56. Deng X., Liu H., Shao Y., Rayner S., Yang R. The epidemic origin and molecular properties of B': a founder strain of the HIV-1 transmission in Asia. AIDS 2008, 22:1851-1858.
57. Deschamps M.-M. Heterosexual Transmission of HIV in Haiti. Ann. Intern. Med. 1996, 125:324.
58. Diaz R.S., Leal E., Sanabani S., Sucupira MC a, Tanuri A.A.A., Sabino E.C., et al. Selective regimes and evolutionary rates of HIV-1 subtype B V3 variants in the Brazilian epidemic. Virology 2008, 381:184-193. (Elsevier Inc).
59. Faria N.R., Rambaut A., Suchard M.A., Baele G., Bedford T., Ward M.J., et al. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations. Science 2014, 346:56-61.
60. Feng Y., Wei H., Hsi J., Xing H., He X., Liao L., et al. Identification of a novel HIV Type 1 circulating recombinant form (CRF65_cpx) composed of CRF01_AE and subtypes B and C in Western Yunnan, China. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2014, 30:598-602.
61. Figueroa J.P. The HIV epidemic in the Caribbean: meeting the challenges of achieving universal access to prevention, treatment and care. West Indian Med J. 2008, 57:195-203.
62. Franca R.F.O., Castro-Jorge L.A., Neto R.J.P., Jorge D.M.M., Lima D.M., Colares J.K.B., et al. Genotypic characteristics of HIV type 1 based on gp120 hypervariable region 3 of isolates from Southern Brazil. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2011, 27:903-909.
63. Gürtler L.G., Zekeng L., Tsague J.M., van Brunn A., Afane Ze E., Eberle J., et al. HIV-1 subtype O: epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and perspectives of the evolution of HIV. Arch. Virol. Suppl. 1996, 11:195-202.
64. Gao F., Bailes E., Robertson D.L., Chen Y., Rodenburg C.M., Michael S.F., et al. Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 1999, 397:436-441.
65. Georges-Courbot M.C., Lu C.Y., Makuwa M., Telfer P., Onanga R., Dubreuil G., et al. Natural infection of a household pet red-capped mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus torquatus) with a new simian immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 1998, 72:600-608.
66. GHO, 2013. Global Health Observatory Data.
67. Gilbert M.T.P., Rambaut A., Wlasiuk G., Spira T.J., Pitchenik A.E., Worobey M. The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104:18566-18570.
68. Glauser M.P., Infeetieuses M., Hospitatier C. Clinical and epidemiological survey of acquired immune deficiency syndrome in Europe. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1984, 3:55-58.
69. Gottlieb M.S., Schroff R., Schanker H.M., Weisman J.D., Fan P.T., Wolf R.A., et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and mucosal candidiasis in previously healthy homosexual men: evidence of a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 1981, 305:1425-1431.
70. Hahn B.H., Shaw G.M., De Cock K.M., Sharp P.M. AIDS as a zoonosis: scientific and public health implications. Science 2000, 287:607-614.
71. Han X., An M., Zhao B., Duan S., Yang S., Xu J., et al. High prevalence of HIV-1 intersubtype B'/C recombinants among injecting drug users in Dehong, China. PLoS One 2013, 8:e65337.
72. Hawke K.G., Waddell R.G., Gordon D.L., Ratcliff R.M., Ward P.R., Kaldor J.M. HIV non-B subtype distribution: emerging trends and risk factors for imported and local infections newly diagnosed in South Australia. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2013, 29:311-317.
73. Heeney J.L., Dalgleish A.G., Weiss R.A. Origins of HIV and the evolution of resistance to AIDS. Science (80-) 2006, 313:462-466. (AAAS).
74. Hemelaar J. The origin and diversity of the HIV-1 pandemic. Trends Mol. Med. 2012, 18:182-192.
75. Hemelaar J., Gouws E., Ghys P.D., Osmanov S. Global trends in molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 during 2000-2007. AIDS 2011, 25:679-689.
76. Herek G.M., Capitanio J.P., Widaman K.F. HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1991-1999. Am. J. Public Health 2002, 92:371-377.
77. Herrmann A., Happel A.-U., Gramberg T. SAMHD1 in retroviral restriction and innate immune sensing - should we leash the hound?. Curr. HIV Res. 2016, 14:225-234.
78. HIV/AIDS Surveillance in Europe European Center for the Epidemiological Monitoring of AIDS. Q Rep. 1998, 59.
79. Ho D.D.D., Huang Y. The HIV-1 vaccine race. Cell 2002, 110:135-138. (Elsevier).
80. Holmes E.C. When HIV spread afar. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104:18351-18352.
81. Holmes E.C., Zhang L.Q., Robertson P., Cleland A., Harvey E., Simmonds P., et al. The molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Edinburgh. J. Infect. Dis. 1995, 171:45-53.
82. Hu D.J., Buvé A., Baggs J., van der Groen G., Dondero T.J. What role does HIV-1 subtype play in transmission and pathogenesis? An epidemiological perspective. AIDS 1999, 13:873-881.
83. Junqueira D.M., Medeiros RM De, Leite T.C.N.F., Guimarães M.L., Gräf T., Pinto A.R., et al. Detection of the B"-GWGR variant in the southernmost region of Brazil: unveiling the complexity of the human immunodeficiency virus-1 subtype B epidemic. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 2013, 108:735-740.
84. Junqueira D.M., de Medeiros R.M., Matte M.C., Araújo L.A., Chies J.A., Ashton-Prolla P., et al. Reviewing the history of HIV-1: spread of subtype B in the Americas. PLoS One 2011, 6:e27489. (Martin, D.P. (ed.)).
85. Kaleebu P., French N., Mahe C., Yirrell D., Watera C., Lyagoba F., et al. Effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 envelope subtypes A and D on disease progression in a large cohort of HIV-1-positive persons in Uganda. J. Infect. Dis. 2002, 185:1244-1250.
86. Kalish M.L., Baldwin A., Raktham S., Wasi C., Luo C.C., Schochetman G., et al. The evolving molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 envelope subtypes in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand: implications for HIV vaccine trials. AIDS 1995, 9:851-857.
87. Kalish M.L., Robbins K.E., Pieniazek D., Schaefer A., Nzilambi N., Quinn T.C., et al. Recombinant viruses and early global HIV-1 epidemic. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2004, 10:1227-1234.
88. Kalish M.L., Wolfe N.D., Ndongmo C.B., McNicholl J., Robbins K.E., Aidoo M., et al. Central African hunters exposed to simian immunodeficiency virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005, 11:1928-1930.
89. Kanki P.J., Hamel D.J., Sankalé J.L., Hsieh C.C., Thior I., Barin F., et al. Human Immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtypes differ in disease progression. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179(1):68-73.
90. Kato S., Saito R., Hiraishi Y., Kitamura N., Matsumoto T., Hanabusa H., et al. Differential prevalence of HIV type 1 subtype B and CRF01_AE among different sexual transmission groups in Tokyo, Japan, as revealed by subtype-specific PCR. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2003, 19:1057-1063.
91. KCDC, 2007. Korea Center for Disease Control and Prevention - Periodical Report. Seoul.
92. Keele B.F., Van Heuverswyn F., Li Y., Bailes E., Takehisa J., Santiago M.L., et al. Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1. Science (80-) 2006, 313:523-526. (AAAS).
93. Kijak G.H., Tovanabutra S., Sanders-Buell E., Watanaveeradej V., de Souza M.S., Nelson K.E., et al. Distinguishing molecular forms of HIV-1 in Asia with a high-throughput, fluorescent genotyping assay, MHAbce v.2. Virology 2007, 358:178-191.
94. Kim E.Y., Cho Y.S., Maeng S.H., Kang C., Nam J.G., Lee J.S. Characterization of V3 loop sequences from HIV type 1 subtype B in South Korea: predominance of the GPGS motif. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1999, 15:681-686.
95. Kim G.J., Nam J.-G., Shin B.G., Kee M.K., Kim E.-J., Lee J.-S., et al. National survey of prevalent HIV strains: limited genetic variation of Korean HIV-1 clade B within the population of Korean men who have sex with men. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2008, 48:127-132.
96. Kim G.J., Yun M.-R., Koo M.J., Shin B.-G., Lee J.-S., Kim S.S. Estimating the origin and evolution characteristics for Korean HIV type 1 subtype B using bayesian phylogenetic analysis. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2012, 28:880-884.
97. Kim Y.B., Cho Y.K. Monophyletic clade of HIV-1 subtype B in Korea: evolutionary pressure or single introduction?. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2003, 19:619-623.
98. Kim Y.B., Cho Y.K., Lee H.J., Kim C.K., Kim Y.K., Yang J.M. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strains obtained from Korean patients: env gene sequences. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1999, 15:303-307.
99. Kluge S.F., Mack K., Iyer S.S., Pujol F.M., Heigele A., Learn G.H., et al., 2014. NIH Public Access., vol. 16, pp. 639-650.
100. Kondo M., Lemey P., Sano T., Itoda I., Yoshimura Y., Sagara H., et al. Emergence in Japan of an HIV-1 variant associated with transmission among men who have sex with men (MSM) in China: first indication of the International Dissemination of the Chinese MSM lineage. J. Virol. 2013, 87:5351-5361.
101. Kuiken C., Thakallapalli R., Esklid a, de Ronde a, Eskild A., Ronde A De Genetic analysis reveals epidemiologic patterns in the spread of human immunodeficiency virus. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2000, 152:814-822.
102. Kusagawa S., Sato H., Watanabe S., Nohtomi K., Kato K., Shino T., et al. Genetic and serologic characterization of HIV type 1 prevailing in Myanmar (Burma). AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1998, 14:1379-1385.
103. Laverdiere M., Tremblay J. AIDS in Haitian immigrants and in a Caucasian woman closely associated with Haitians. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1983, 129:1209-1212.
104. Leal É., Villanova F.E. Diversity of HIV-1 subtype B: implications to the origin of BF recombinants. PLoS One 2010, 5:e11833.
105. Leal E., Silva W.P., Sucupira M.C., Janini L.M., Diaz R.S. Molecular and structural characterization of HIV-1 subtype B Brazilian isolates with GWGR tetramer at the tip of the V3-loop. Virology 2008, 381:222-229.
106. Leitner T., 1996. Genetic subtypes of HIV-1. In: Myers, G., Foley, B., Mellors, J.W., Korber, B., Jeang, K.T., Wain-Hobson S., (eds.) Human Retroviruses and AIDS. Theor Biol Biophys Los Alamos Natl Lab Los Alamos, pp. III28-40.
107. Lemey P., Rambaut A., Pybus O.G. HIV evolutionary dynamics within and among hosts. AIDS Rev. 2006, 8:125-140.
108. Li X., Ning C., He X., Yang Y., Li F., Xing H., et al. Genome sequences of a novel HIV-1 circulating recombinant form (CRF61_BC) identified among heterosexuals in China. Genome Announc. 2013, 1.
109. Li Y., Tee K.K., Liao H., Hase S., Uenishi R., Li X.-J., et al. Identification of a novel second-generation circulating recombinant form (CRF48_01B) in Malaysia: a descendant of the previously identified CRF33_01B. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2010, 54:129-136.
110. Li Y., Uenishi R., Hase S., Liao H., Li X., Tsuchiura T., et al. Explosive HIV-1 subtype B' epidemics in Asia driven by geographic and risk group founder events. Virology 2010, 402:223-227. (Elsevier Inc.).
111. Li Z., He X., Wang Z., Xing H., Li F., Yang Y., et al. Tracing the origin and history of HIV-1 subtype B' epidemic by near full-length genome analyses. AIDS 2012, 26:877-884.
112. Liebert M.A., Casado C., Urtasun I., Saragosti S., Chaix M., Rossi A.D.E., et al. Different distribution of HIV type 1 genetic variants in European patients with distinct risk practices. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2000, 16:299-304.
113. Lihana R.W., Ssemwanga D., Abimiku A., Ndembi N. Update on HIV-1 diversity in Africa: a decade in review. AIDS Rev. 2012, 14:83-100.
114. Liu Y., Li L., Bao Z., Li H., Zhuang D., Liu S., et al. Identification of a novel HIV type 1 circulating recombinant form (CRF52_01B) in Southeast Asia. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2012, 28:1357-1361.
115. Louwagie J., Delwart E.L., Mullins J.I., McCutchan F.E., Eddy G., Burke D.S. Genetic analysis of HIV-1 isolates from Brazil reveals presence of two distinct genetic subtypes. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1994, 10:561-567.
116. Lukashov V.V., Kuiken C.L., Vlahov D., Coutinho R.a, Goudsmit J. Evidence for HIV type 1 strains of U.S. intravenous drug users as founders of AIDS epidemic among intravenous drug users in Northern Europe. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1996, 12:1179-1183.
117. Malebranche R., Guérin J., Laroche A., Elie R., Spira T., Drotman P., et al. Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome with severe gastrointestinal manifestaions in Haiti. Lancet 1983, 322:873-878.
118. Masur H., Michelis M.A., Greene J.B., Onorato I., Stouwe R.A., Holzman R.S., et al. An outbreak of community-acquired Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: initial manifestation of cellular immune dysfunction. N. Engl. J. Med. 1981, 305:1431-1438.
119. Mendoza Y., Martinez A.A., Mewa J.C., Gonzilez C., Garcia-Morales C., Avila-Rios S., et al. Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) subtype B epidemic in Panama is mainly driven by dissemination of country-specific clades. PLoS One 2014, 9.
120. Mir D., Cabello M., Romero H., Bello G. Phylodynamics of major HIV-1 subtype B pandemic clades circulating in Latin America. AIDS 2015, 29:1863-1869.
121. Morgado M.G., Sabino E.C., Shpaer E.G., Bongertz V., Brigido L., Guimaraes M.D., et al. V3 region polymorphisms in HIV-1 from Brazil: prevalence of subtype B strains divergent from North American/European prototype and detection of subtype F. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1994, 10:569-576.
122. Morgado M.G., Guimarães M.L., Neves Júnior I., dos Santos V.G., Linhares-de-Carvalho M.I., Castello-Branco L.R., et al. Molecular epidemiology of HIV in Brazil: polymorphism of the antigenically distinct HIV-1 B subtype strains. The Hospital Evandro Chagas AIDS Clinical Research Group. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 1998, 93:383-386.
123. Murillo W., Veras N., Prosperi M., de Rivera I.L., Paz-Bailey G., Morales-Miranda S., et al. A single early introduction of HIV-1 subtype B into Central America accounts for most current cases. J. Virol. 2013, 7463-7470.
124. Murphy E.L., Gibbs W.N., Figueroa J.P., Bain B., LaGrenade L., Cranston B., et al. Human immunodeficiency virus and human T-lymphotropic virus type I infection among homosexual men in Kingston, Jamaica. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 1988, 1:143-149.
125. Nabatov A.A., Kravchenko O.N., Lyulchuk M.G., Shcherbinskaya A.M., Lukashov V.V. Simultaneous introduction of HIV type 1 subtype A and B viruses into injecting drug users in southern Ukraine at the beginning of the epidemic in the former Soviet Union. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2002, 18:891-895.
126. Nadai Y., Eyzaguirre L.M., Sill A., Cleghorn F., Nolte C., Charurat M., et al. HIV-1 epidemic in the Caribbean is dominated by subtype B. PLoS One 2009, 4:e4814.
127. National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research The national HIV database. Aust. HIV Surv. Rep. 2002, 1-23.
128. Nau J.-Y., Plantier J.-C., Leoz M., Dickerson J.E., De Oliveira F., Cordonnier F., et al. A new human immunodeficiency virus derived from gorillas. Rev. Med. Suisse 2009, 5:1741. (Nature Publishing Group).
129. Neil S.J.D., Zang T., Bieniasz P.D. Tetherin inhibits retrovirus release and is antagonized by HIV-1 Vpu. Nature 2008, 451:425-430. (Nature Publishing Group).
130. Nelson M., Portsmouth S., Stebbing J., Atkins M., Barr A., Matthews G., et al. An open-label study of tenofovir in HIV-1 and Hepatitis B virus co-infected individuals. AIDS 2003, 17:F7-10.
131. Ng K.T., Ong L.Y., Takebe Y., Kamarulzaman A., Tee K.K. Genome sequence of a novel HIV-1 circulating recombinant form 54_01B from Malaysia. J. Virol. 2012, 86:11405-11406.
132. Ng K.T., Ong L.Y., Lim S.H., Takebe Y., Kamarulzaman A., Tee K.K. Evolutionary history of HIV-1 subtype B and CRF01_AE transmission clusters among men who have sex with men (MSM) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. PLoS One 2013, 8:e67286.
133. Noel G.E. Another case of AIDS in the pre-AIDS era. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1988, 10:668-669.
134. Noel R.J., Chaudhary S., Rodriguez N., Kumar A., Yamamura Y. Phylogenetic relationships between Puerto Rico and continental USA HIV-1 pol sequences: a shared HIV-1 infection. Cell Mol. Biol. 2003, 49:1193-1198.
135. Oguntibeju O.O., Van Schalkwyk F.E., Van Den Heever W.M.J. The HIV Epidemic[U+202F]: factors responsible for the epidemic and the impact of HIV/AIDS. RMJ 2003, 1-13.
136. Osmanov S., Pattou C., Walker N., Schwardländer B., Esparza J. Estimated global distribution and regional spread of HIV-1 genetic subtypes in the year. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2000, 29:184-190.
137. Ou C.Y., Takebe Y., Weniger B.G., Luo C.C., Kalish M.L., Auwanit W., et al. Independent introduction of two major HIV-1 genotypes into distinct high-risk populations in Thailand. Lancet 1993, 341:1171-1174.
138. Pérez L., Thomson M.M., Bleda M.J., Aragonés C., González Z., Pérez J., et al. HIV Type 1 molecular epidemiology in cuba: high genetic diversity, frequent mosaicism, and recent expansion of BG intersubtype recombinant forms. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2006, 22:724-733.
139. Pagán I., Holguín Á. Reconstructing the timing and dispersion routes of HIV-1 subtype B epidemics in The Caribbean and Central America: a phylogenetic story. PLoS One 2013, 8:e69218.
140. Pape J., Johnson W.D. AIDS in Haiti: 1982-1992. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1993, 17(Suppl. 2):S341-S345.
141. Pape J.W., Liautaud B., Thomas F., Mathurin J.R., Amand M.M., Boncy M., et al. Characteristics of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in Haiti. N. Engl. J. Med. 1983, 309:945-950.
142. Pape J.W., Farmer P., Koenig S., Fitzgerald D., Wright P., Johnson W. The epidemiology of AIDS in Haiti refutes the claims of Gilbert et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105:E13.
143. Paraskevis D., Pybus O., Magiorkinis G., Hatzakis A., Wensing A.M.J., Vijver DA Van De, et al. Tracing the HIV-1 subtype B mobility in Europe: a phylogeographic approach. Retrovirology 2009, 6:49.
144. Parkin N.T., Schapiro J.M. Antiretroviral drug resistance in non-subtype B HIV-1, HIV-2 and SIV. Antivir. Ther. 2004, 9:3-12.
145. Pepin J. The Origins of AIDS (Internet) 2011, Cambridge University Press., Cambridge.
146. Perelson A.S., Neumann A.U., Markowitz M., Leonard J.M., Ho D.D. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: virion clearance rate, infected cell life-span, and viral generation time. Science 1996, 271:1582-1586.
147. Perrin L., Kaiser L., Yerly S. Travel and the spread of HIV-1 genetic variants. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2003, 3:22-27.
148. Pinto M.E., Schrago C.G., Miranda a B., Russo C.a M. A molecular study on the evolution of a subtype B variant frequently found in Brazil. Genet. Mol. Res. 2008, 7:1031-1044.
149. Piot P., Taelman H., Bila Minlangu K., Mbendi N., Ndangi K., Kalambayi K., et al. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a heterosexual population in Zaire. Lancet 1984, 324:65-69.
150. Pitchenik A.E. Opportunistic infections and Kaposi's sarcoma among haitians: evidence of a new acquired immunodeficiency state. Ann. Intern. Med. 1983, 98:277.
151. Piyasirisilp S., McCutchan F.E., Carr J.K., Sanders-Buell E., Liu W., Chen J., et al. A recent outbreak of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in southern China was initiated by two highly homogeneous, geographically separated strains, circulating recombinant form AE and a novel BC recombinant. J. Virol. 2000, 74:11286-11295.
152. Potts K.E., Kalish M.L., Lott T., Orloff G., Luo C.C., Bernard M.A., et al. Genetic heterogeneity of the V3 region of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein in Brazil. Brazilian Collaborative AIDS Research Group. AIDS 1993, 7:1191-1197.
153. Preston B.D., Poiesz B.J., Loeb L.A. Fidelity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Science 1988, 242:1168-1171. (AAAS).
154. Prusiner S.B. Historical essay. Discovering the cause of AIDS. Science 2002, 298:1726.
155. Rambaut A., Posada D., Crandall K.A., Holmes E.C. The causes and consequences of HIV evolution. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2004, 5:52-61.
156. Renjifo B., Gilbert P., Chaplin B., Msamanga G., Mwakagile D., Fawzi W., et al. Preferential in-utero transmission of HIV-1 subtype C as compared to HIV-1 subtype A or D. AIDS 2004, 18:1629-1636.
157. Respess R., Parekh B., Phillips S., Granade T.C., Baggs J., Hu D.J. Impact of HIV type 1 subtype variation on viral RNA quantitation. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1999, 15:133-142.
158. Robbins K.E., Lemey P., Pybus O.G., Jaffe H.W., Youngpairoj A.S., Brown T.M., et al. U.S. human immunodeficiency virus type 1 epidemic[U+202F]: date of origin, population history, and characterization of early strains. J. Virol. 2003, 77:6359-6366.
159. Sanchez J., Lama J.R., Peinado J., Paredes A., Lucchetti A., Russell K., et al. High HIV and ulcerative sexually transmitted infection incidence estimates among men who have sex with men in Peru: awaiting for an effective preventive intervention. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2009, 51(Suppl. 1):S47-S51.
160. Santoro-lopes G., Harrison L.E.E.H., Tavares M.D., Xexéo A., Santos A.N.A.C.E.D.O.S., Schechter M., et al. HIV disease progression and V3 serotypes in Brazil: is B different from B-Br?. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2000, 16:953-958.
161. Santos A.F.A., Lengruber R.B., Soares E.A., Jere A., Sprinz E., Martinez A.M.B., et al. Conservation patterns of HIV-1 RT connection and RNase H domains: identification of new mutations in NRTI-treated patients. PLoS One 2008, 3:e1781.
162. Sauter D., Unterweger D., Vogl M., Usmani S.M., Heigele A., Kluge S.F., et al. Human tetherin exerts strong selection pressure on the HIV-1 group N Vpu protein. PLoS Pathog. 2012, 8.
163. Selik R.M., Haverkos H.W., Curran J.W. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) trends in the United States, 1978-1982. Am. J. Med. 1984, 76:493-500.
164. Shimizu N., Takeuchi Y., Naruse T., Inagaki M., Moriyama E., Gojobori T., et al. Six strains of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolated in Japan and their molecular phylogeny. J. Mol. Evol. 1992, 35:329-336.
165. Simon F., Mauclère P., Roques P., Loussert-Ajaka I., Müller-Trutwin M.C., Saragosti S., et al. Identification of a new human immunodeficiency virus type 1 distinct from group M and group O. Nat. Med. 1998, 4:1032-1037.
166. Spira S., Wainberg M.A., Loemba H., Turner D., Brenner B.G. Impact of clade diversity on HIV-1 virulence, antiretroviral drug sensitivity and drug resistance. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2003, 51:229-240.
167. Stengers, J., 2005. In: Editions, R., Lannoo, R. (Eds.), Congo: Mythes et réalités, Brussels., Racine, Belgium.
168. Strebel K., Luban J., Jeang K.-T. Human cellular restriction factors that target HIV-1 replication. BMC Med. 2009, 7:48.
169. Su L., Graf M., Zhang Y., von Briesen H., Xing H., Köstler J., et al. Characterization of a virtually full-length human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genome of a prevalent intersubtype (C/B') recombinant strain in China. J. Virol. 2000, 74:11367-11376.
170. Takebe Y., Motomura K., Tatsumi M., Lwin H.H., Zaw M., Kusagawa S. High prevalence of diverse forms of HIV-1 intersubtype recombinants in Central Myanmar: geographical hot spot of extensive recombination. AIDS 2003, 17:2077-2087.
171. Takebe Y., Naito Y., Raghwani J., Fearnhill E., Sano T., Kusagawa S., et al. Intercontinental dispersal of HIV-1 subtype B associated with transmission among men who have sex with men in Japan. J. Virol. 2014, 88:9864-9876.
172. Taylor B.S., Hammer S.M., Mccutchan F.E. D P. The challenge of HIV-1 subtype diversity. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 359:1965-1966.
173. Tebit D.M., Arts E.J. Tracking a century of global expansion and evolution of HIV to drive understanding and to combat disease. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2011, 11:45-56. (Elsevier Ltd.).
174. Tee K.K., Saw T.L., Pon C.K., Kamarulzaman A., Ng K.P. The evolving molecular epidemiology of HIV type 1 among injecting drug users (IDUs) in Malaysia. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2005, 21:1046-1050.
175. Tee K.K., Li X.-J., Nohtomi K., Ng K.P., Kamarulzaman A., Takebe Y. Identification of a novel circulating recombinant form (CRF33_01B) disseminating widely among various risk populations in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2006, 43:523-529.
176. Thomas P., O'Donnell R., Williams R., Chiasson M.A. HIV infection in heterosexual female intravenous drug users in New York City, 1977-1980. N. Engl. J. Med. 1988, 319:374.
177. Tovanabutra S., Watanaveeradej V., Viputtikul K., De Souza M., Razak M.H., Suriyanon V., et al. A new circulating recombinant form, CRF15_01B, reinforces the linkage between IDU and heterosexual epidemics in Thailand. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2003, 19:561-567.
178. Tovanabutra S., Kijak G.H., Beyrer C., Gammon-Richardson C., Sakkhachornphop S., Vongchak T., et al. Identification of CRF34_01B, a second circulating recombinant form unrelated to and more complex than CRF15_01B, among injecting drug users in northern Thailand. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2007, 23:829-833.
179. UNAIDS, 2011. World AIDS Day Report [Internet]. Available: 〈〉. http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/JC2216_WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en_1.pdf.
180. UNAIDS, 2012. Report on the global AIDS epidemic [Internet]. Available: http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/documents/2012/20121120_UNAIDS_Global_Report_2012.
181. UNAIDS, 2013. Report on the global AIDS epidemic [Internet]. Available: . http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2013/gr2013/UNAIDS_Global_Report_2013_en.pdf.
182. UNAIDS, 2015. Global AIDS Response Progress Reporting. Available: . http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/JC2702_GARPR2015guidelines_en.pdf.
183. Vallari A., Holzmayer V., Harris B., Yamaguchi J., Ngansop C., Makamche F., et al. Confirmation of putative HIV-1 group P in Cameroon. J. Virol. 2010, 85:1403-1407.
184. van Griensven F., de Lind van Wijngaarden J.W., Baral S., Grulich A. The global epidemic of HIV infection among men who have sex with men. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS 2009, 4:300-307.
185. Vidal N., Peeters M., Mulanga-Kabeya C., Nzilambi N., Robertson D., Ilunga W., et al. Unprecedented degree of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) group M genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIV-1 pandemic originated in Central Africa. J. Virol. 2000, 74:10498-10507.
186. Walker B.D., Korber B.T. Immune control of HIV: the obstacles of HLA and viral diversity. Nat. Immunol. 2001, 2:473-475.
187. Wang B., Lau K.A., Ong L.-Y., Shah M., Steain M.C., Foley B., et al. Complex patterns of the HIV-1 epidemic in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: evidence for expansion of circulating recombinant form CRF33_01B and detection of multiple other recombinants. Virology 2007, 367:288-297.
188. Wang W., Xu J., Jiang S., Yang K., Meng Z., Ma Y., et al. The dynamic face of HIV-1 subtypes among men who have sex with men in Beijing, China. Curr. HIV Res. 2011, 9:136-139.
189. Wei H., His J., Feng Y., Xing H., He X., Liao L., et al. Identification of a novel HIV-1 circulating recombinant form (CRF62_BC) in western Yunnan of China. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2014, 30:380-383.
190. Wheeler V.W., Radcliffe K.W. HIV infection in the Caribbean. Int. J. STD Aids. 1994, 5:79-89.
191. Wolfe N.D., Switzer W.M., Carr J.K., Bhullar V.B., Shanmugam V., Tamoufe U., et al. Naturally acquired simian retrovirus infections in central African hunters. Lancet 2004, 363:932-937. (Elsevier).
192. Worobey M., Pitchenik A.E., Gilbert M.T.P., Wlasiuk G., Rambaut A. Reply to Pape et al.: the phylogeography of HIV-1 group M subtype B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105:E16.
193. Worobey M., Gemmel M., Teuwen D.E., Haselkorn T., Kunstman K., Bunce M., et al. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 1960, 455:661-664. (Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved).
194. Worobey M., Santiago M.L., 2004 Contaminated Polio Vaccine Theory Refuted, vol. 428, 2004.
195. Yamaguchi J., Devare S.G., Brennan C.A. Identification of a new HIV-2 subtype based on phylogenetic analysis of full-length genomic sequence. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2000, 16:925-930.
196. Yang R., Xia X., Kusagawa S., Zhang C., Ben K., Takebe Y. On-going generation of multiple forms of HIV-1 intersubtype recombinants in the Yunnan Province of China. AIDS 2002, 16:1401-1407.
197. Ye J., Lu H., Su X., Xin R., Bai L., Xu K., et al. Phylogenetic and temporal dynamics of human immunodeficiency virus type 1B in China: four types of B strains circulate in China. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 2014, 30:920-926.
198. Zhang L., Chen Z., Cao Y., Yu J., Li G., Yu W., et al. Molecular characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and hepatitis C virus in paid blood donors and injection drug users in china. J. Virol. 2004, 78:13591-13599.