AIDS in Latin America: Assessing the current status of the epidemic and the ongoing response

International Journal of Epidemiology

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 729-737

  Bastos, Francisco I ^a,e   Cáceres, Carlos ^b   Galvão, Jane ^c   Veras, Maria Amélia ^d   Castilho, Euclides Ayres ^c  

^a INSTITUTO OSWALDO CRUZ   (Brazil)

^b UNIVERSIDAD PERUANA CAYETANO HEREDIA   (Peru)

^c International Planned Parenthood Federation Western Hemisphere Region ^*  (United States)

^d FACULDADE DE CIÊNCIAS MÉDICAS DA SANTA CASA DE SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^e UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Access to treatment; AIDS; Gender inequality; Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART); HIV; Injecting drug users (IDU); Latin America; Men who have sex with men (MSM); Social inequality; Vulnerable populations

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT;

ACCESSIBILITY; ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; DATABASE; DISEASE INCIDENCE; DISEASE PREVALENCE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DISEASE SPREAD; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; EPIDEMIOLOGY; HEALTH SERVICES; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; LOW INCOME POPULATION; PUBLIC HEALTH;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ARTICLE; BRAZIL; DRUG COST; DRUG EXPOSURE; EPIDEMIC; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HETEROSEXUALITY; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS PREVALENCE; INCIDENCE; INCOME; INDIGENOUS PEOPLE; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RATE; INFORMATION RETRIEVAL; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ABUSE; MEDLINE; MEXICO; MIGRATION; MORTALITY; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PERINATAL INFECTION; PERU; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RURAL AREA; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SEXUAL TRANSMISSION; SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA; UNITED NATIONS; URBAN AREA; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; VULNERABLE POPULATION;

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ADULT; ANTI-HIV AGENTS; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; FEMALE; HOMOSEXUALITY, MALE; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; LATIN AMERICA; MALE; PREVALENCE; PROSTITUTION; RISK FACTORS; URBAN POPULATION; YOUNG ADULT;

BRAZIL; LATIN AMERICA; MEXICO [NORTH AMERICA]; NORTH AMERICA; PERU; SOUTH AMERICA; SOUTHERN CONE;

SYRINGA;

EID: 48349104040     PISSN: 03005771     EISSN: 14643685     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyn127     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf.2007 AIDS epidemic update (Accessed May 16, 2008).
2. Petersen M, Travassos C, Bastos FI, Hacker MA, Beck E, Noronha J. Brazil. In: Beck EJ, Nicholas M, Whiteside AW, Zuniga JM (eds). The HIV Pandemic: Local and Global Implications. London: Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 429-46.
3. Bastos FI, Nunn A, Hacker MA, Malta M, Szwarcwald CL. AIDS in Brazil: the challenge and the response. In: Celentano DD, Beyrer C (eds). Public Health Aspects of HIV/AIDS in Developing Countries: Epidemiology, Prevention and Care. New York: Springer International, 2008 (in press).
4. Hamilton J, Falistocco C, Cahn P, Zala C. Argentina. In: Beck EJ, Nicholas M, Whiteside AW, Zuniga JM (eds). The HIV Pandemic: Local and Global Implications. London: Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 416-28.
5. Izazola Licea JA, Avila Figueroa C, Gómez Fraga S. Mexico. In: Beck EJ, Nicholas M, Whiteside AW, Zuniga JM (eds). The HIV Pandemic: Local and Global Implications. London: Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 564-76.
6. Salas Martinez J, Salom Echeverria I. Costa Rica. In: Beck EJ, Nicholas M, Whiteside AW, Zuniga JM (eds). The HIV Pandemic: Local and Global Implications. London: Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 447-59.
7. Hacker MA, Malta M, Enriquez M, Bastos FI. Human immunodeficiency virus, AIDS, and drug consumption in South America and the Caribbean: epidemiological evidence and initiatives to curb the epidemic. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2005;18:303-13.
8. Ciceres CF. HIV among gay and other men who have sex with men in Latin America and the Caribbean: A hidden epidemic? AIDS 2002;16 (Suppl 3): S23-33.
9. Calleja JM, Walker N, Cuchi P, Lazzari S, Ghys PD, Zacarias F. Status of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and methods to monitor it in the Latin America and Caribbean region. AIDS 2002;16 (Suppl 3):S3-12.
10. ISI-Web of Science. Available at: http://www.isiwebofknowledge.com/ (Accessed February 28, 2008).
11. Bastos FI, Hacker MA. Brazilian psychosocial. and operational research vis-à-vis the UNGASS targets. Rev Saude Publica 2006;40 (Suppl):42-51.
12. Bastos FI, Hacker MA. Brazilian biomedical and epidemiological research vis-à-vis the UNGASS targets. Rev Saude Publica 2006;40 (Suppl):31-41.
13. Consejo Nacional de Prevención y Control del SIDA (CONOSIDA). El SIDA en México: Casos de SIDA y PVVIH. Mexico, 2006 (Mimeo).
14. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Latin America. AIDS epidemic update. Regional Summary, 2008 (Mimeo).
15. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). HIV and AIDS in the Americas. Final Report, 2008.
16. Patterson TL, Semple SJ, Fraga M et al. Comparison of sexual and drug use behaviors between female sex workers in Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Subst Use Misuse 2006;41:1535-49.
17. Centro Nacional para la Prevención y el Control del VIH/SIDA (CENSIDA). Situación del VIH/SIDA en México a mediados del 2006: Integración de los recientes estudios. México, 2006 (Mimeo).
18. United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Health Profile: Mexico HIV/AIDS. Washington, DC, 2005 (Mimeo).
19. Bucardo J, Brouwer KC, Magis-Rodríguez C et al. Historical trends in the production and consumption of illicit drugs in Mexico: implications for the prevention of blood borne infections. Drug Alcohol Depend 2005;79:281-93.
20. Maxwell JC, Cravioto P, Galván F, Ramírez MC, Wallisch LS, Spence RT. Drug use and risk of HIV/AIDS on the Mexico-USA border: A comparison of treatment admissions in both countries. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006;82 (Suppl 1):S85-93.
21. Magis-Rodríguez C, Brouwer KC, Morales S et al. HIV prevalence and correlates of receptive needle sharing among injection drug users in the Mexican-U.S. border city of Tijuana. J Psychoactive Drugs 2005;37:333-39.
22. Frost SD, Brouwer KC, Firestone Cruz MA et al. Respondent-driven sampling of injection drug users in two U.S.-Mexico border cities: recruitment dynamics and impact on estimates of HIV and syphilis prevalence. J Urban Health 2006;83 (6 Suppl):i83-97.
23. Stansbury JP, Sierra M. Risks, stigma and Honduran Garífuna conceptions of HIV/AIDS. Soc Sci Med 2004;59:457-71.
24. Soto RJ, Ghee AE, Nunez CA et al. Estudio Multicentrico Study Team. Sentinel surveillance of sexually transmitted infections/HIV and risk behaviors in vulnerable populations in 5 Central. American countries. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46:101-11.
25. Morales-Miranda A. Estudio Centroamericano de Vigilancia de Comportamiento Sexual y Prevalencia de VIH/ITS en Población Vulnerable: Garífunas. ECVC-Plus. Honduras. Departamento de ITS/VIH/Sida, Secretaria de Salud de Honduras. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Oficina Regional del Programa Global de SIDA para Centroamérica y Panamá, 2007 (Mimeo).
26. Unpublished data from 'Programa Nacional de ITS-VIH-SIDA de El Salvador, 2004-2006' (kindly provided by Dr Paloma Cuchi, UNAIDS).
27. United Nations General Assembly Twenty-sixth Special Session (UNGASS) 2008. Informe Nacional sobre los progresos realizados en la aplicación del UNGASS. Periodo de cobertura: Enero de 2006 - diciembre de 2007. Republica de Honduras. January 31, 2008 (Mimeo).
28. United Nations General Assembly Twenty-sixth Special Session (UNGASS) 2008. Informe Nacional sobre los progresos realizados en la aplicación del UNGASS. Periodo de cobertura: Enero de 2006 - diciembre de 2007. Guatemala. January 31, 2008 (Mimeo).
29. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). HIV and AIDS in the Americas. 2007 Report. The evolving epidemic, response, and challenges ahead, 2007 (Mimeo).
30. Bolivia. Ministerio de Salud y Deportes. Informe de Monitoreo y evaluación de la implementación del compromiso UNGASS sobre el VIH/SIDA en Bolivia. La Paz, Bolivia: Ministerio de Salud y Deportes, 2006.
31. Bolivia. Programa Nacional de ITS/SIDA de Bolivia. Supuestos para la estimación de la prevalencía del VIH en Bolivia. La Paz, Bolivia: Programa Nacional de ITS/SIDA, 2003 (Mimeo).
32. Lambert ML, Torrico F, Billot C, Mazina D, Marleen B, Van der Stuyft P. Street youths are the only high-risk group for HIV in a low-prevalence South American country. Sex Transm Dis 2005;32:240-42.
33. Bolívia. Programa Nacional de ITS/SIDA de Bolivia. Vigilancia centinela del VIH. Programa Nacional de ITS/SIDA. La Paz, Bolivia: Programa Nacional de ITS/SIDA, 2006 (Mimeo).
34. Colombia. Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS). Infección por VIH y sida en Colombia: Estado del Arte. Bogotá, Colombia. Instituto Nacional de Salud (INS), 2005 (Mimeo).
35. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). Country Report: Colombia. Washington, DC: PAHO, 2005.
36. Montano SM, Sanchez JL, Laguna-Torres A et al. Prevalences, genotypes, and risk factors for HIV transmission in South America. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2005;40:57-64.
37. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Infección por VIH/SIDA en Colombia: Eestado del arte 2000-2005. Bogotá HWColombia): UNAIDS, 2006. Available at: URL: http://www.onusida.org.co (Accessed April 29, 2008).
38. Mejía Motta IE. La Inyección de Drogas en Boyotá: Una Realidad Oculta. Bogotá: Presidencia de la República de la Colombia, 2003.
39. Guevara A, Suárez P, Albuja C, Soria E, Montoya O. Seroprevalencia de infección por VIH en grupos de riesgo en Ecuador. Rev Med Vozandes 2002;14:7-10.
40. Cáceres CF, Mendoza W, Konda K, Lescano A. Nuevas Evidencias para las Políticas y Programas de Salud en VIH/SIDA e Infecciones de Transmisión Sexual en el Perú - Información disponible hasta febrero 2007. Lima: PAHO/UPCH, 2007.
41. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). Country Report: Peru. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 2006.
42. Campos PE, Chiappe M, Cárcamo C et al. STI prevalence among female sex workers from 24 Peruvian cities. Proceedings of the 15th Biennial Conference of the ISSTDR International Society of Sexually Transmitted Diseases Research, Lima. July 2003.
43. Lama J, Sanchez J, Galvan R et al. Trends in HIV, sexually transmitted infections and risk behaviors among men who have sex with men in Lima, Peru. Proceedings of XV International AIDS Conference, Bangkok, Thailand. Abstract no. WePeC6167, July 11-16, 2004.
44. Caceres CF, Marin BV, Hudes ES, Reingold AL, Rosasco AM. Young people and the structure of sexual risks in Lima. AIDS 1997;11 (Suppl 1):S67-77.
45. Salazar X, Cáceres C, Rosasco A et al. Vulnerability and sexual risks: Vagos and vaguitas in a low income town in Peru. Cult Health Sex;7:375-87.
46. Cáceres CF, Konda KA, Salazar X et al. The NIMH HIV/STD Collaborative Intervention Trial. New populations at high risk of HIV/ STIs in low-income, Urban Coastal Peru. AIDS Behav 2008;12 544-51.
47. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). Country Report: Venezuela Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 2003.
48. Republica Bolivariana de Venezuela. Ministerio de Salud, Programa Nacional de SIDA e ITS. Declaración de compromiso en la lucha contra el VIH/SIDA, UNGASS 2001: Informe del gobierno de la Republica Bolivariana de Venezuela, 2003-2005. Caracas, Venezuela: Ministerio de Salud Pública y Asistencia Social, 2005.
49. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica (IBGE). Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) e Censos Demográficos 1991 e 2000. Available at://ftp.ibge.gov.br/ Estimativas_Projecoes_Populacao/Revisao_2004_Projecoes_1980_2050/ Estimativas_1980_2020/(Accessed April 30, 2008).
50. Brasil. Ministério da Saúde. Boletim Epidemiológico Aids e DST. Ano IV, no 1. 2007. Available at: www.aids.gov.br (Accessed April 30, 2008).
51. Szwarcwald C, Souza PRB Jr. Estimativa da prevalência de HIV na população brasileira de 15 a 49 anos, 2004. Brasil. Ministério da Saúde. Programa Nacional de DST/AIDS. Boletim Epidemiológico AIDS e DST. Ano III, no 01. Available at: www.aids.gov.br/ (Accessed May 2008).
52. Barreto CC, Sabino EC, Gonçalez TT et al. Prevalence, incidence, and residual risk of human immunodeficiency virus among community and replacement first-time blood donnors in São Paulo, Brazil. Transfusion 2005; 45:1709-14.
53. Tess BH, Rodrigues LC, Newell ML, Dunn DT, Lago TDG. Breastfeeding, generic obstetric and other risk factors associated with mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. AIDS 1998;12 513-20.
54. Vasconcelos ALR, Hamann EM. Why does Brazil still report high rates of vertical HIV transmission? An evaluation of health care quality to HIV-pregnant women and their children. Rev Bras Saude Mater Infant 2005;5:483-92.
55. Brasil. Ministério da Saúde. Monitoraids: Selected Indicator: Coverage of prophylatic treatment during delivering among HIV-infected women. Updated January 2008. Available at: www.aids.gov.br/monitoraids (Accessed May 2, 2008).
56. Fonseca MG, Bastos FI, Derrico M, Andrade C, Travassos C, Szwarcwald CL. AIDS and level of education in Brazil: Temporal evolution from 1986 to 1996. Cad Saude Publica 2000;16 (Suppl 1):77-87.
57. Fonseca MG, Travassos C, Bastos FI, Silva, NV, Szwarcwald CL. Social distribution of AIDS in Brazil, according to labor market participation, occupation and socioeconomic status of cases from 1987 to 1998. Cad Saude Publica 2003;19:1351-63.
58. Lowndes CM, Bastos FI, Giffin KM, Vaz dos Reis AC, d'Orsi E, Alary M. Differential trends in mortality from AIDS in men and women in Brazil (1984-1995). AIDS 2000;14:1269-73.
59. Marins JR, Jamal LF, Chen SY et al. Dramatic improvement in survival of Brazilian AIDS patients. AIDS 2003;17:1675-82.
60. Hacker MA, Kaida A, Hogg RS, Bastos FI. The first ten years: achievements and challenges of the Brazilian program of universal access to HIV/AIDS comprehensive management and care, 1996-2006. Cad Saude Publica 2007;23 (Suppl):S345-59.
61. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). HIV and AIDS in the Americas. 2007 Report, UNAIDS, 2008.
62. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/ argentina_2008_country_progress_report_sp_es.pdf (Accessed May 16, 2008).
63. Argentina. Ministerio de Salud y Ambiente de la Nación. Programa Nacional de Lucha contra RH, SIDA y ETS. Boletin sobre VIH/SIDA en la Argentina. Ano X, numero 24, Diciembre 2005. Available at: http://www.msal.gov.ar/htm/site/sida/site/datos-epid-boletines.asp (Accessed May 16, 2008).
64. Sosa-Estáni S, Rossi D, Wiessenbacher M. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in injection drug users in Argentina: High seroprevalence of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37 (Suppl 5):S338-42.
65. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/ chile_2008_country_progress_report_sp_es.pdf (Accessed May 14, 2008).
66. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/ paraguay_2008_country_progress_report_sp_es.pdf (Accessed May 14, 2008).
67. Chinaglia M, Tun W, Mello M, Insfran M, Diaz J. Assessment of risk factors for HIV infection in female sex workers and men who have sex with men in Ciudad del Este, Paraguay. 2008 Horizons Final Report. Washington, DC: Population Council.
68. Míguez HA, Pecci MC, Carrizosa A. Epidemiología de abuso del alcohol y las drogas en Paraguay. Acta Psiq Psicol Am Latina 1992;38:19-29.
69. United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/ Uruguay.2008_country_progress_report_sp_es.pdf (Accessed May 14, 2008).
70. Osimani ML. The challenge of implementation of preventive programs in a developing country: Experiences, situations, and perspectives in Uruguay. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37 (Suppl 5):S422-26.
71. Peyraube R, Garateguy S, Dell'Acqua C. Harm-reduction related to illegal drug use during pregnancy. Paper presented at the XV International Conference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm, April 20-24, 2004. Melbourne, Australia. IHRA, UK, 2004, p. 210.
72. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). 1998. NGO perspectives on access to HIV-related drugs in 13 Latin American and Caribbean countries. Available at: http://data.unaids.org/Publications/ IRC-pub01/jc100-ngo-perspectives_en.pdf (Accessed April 25, 2008).
73. The World Bank. Confronting AIDS: Public Priorities in a Global Epidemic. Washington, DC: World Bank, 1997.
74. Nemes MI, Carvalho HB, Souza MF. Antiretroviral therapy adherence in Brazil. AIDS 2004;18 (Suppl 3): S15-20.
75. Souza-Jr PRB, Szwarcwald CL, Castilho EA. Delay in introducing antiretroviral therapy in patients infected by HIV in Brazil, 2003-2006. Clinics 2007;62:579-84.
76. Galvao J. Access to antiretroviral drugs in Brazil. Lancet 2002; 360:1862-65.
77. Nunn AS, Fonseca EM, Bastos FI, Gruskin S, Salomon JA. Evolution of antiretroviral drug costs in Brazil in the Context Of Free Access to AIDS treatment. PLoS Med 2007;4.
78. WHO. UNAIDS. UNICEF. Towards universal access: Scaling up priority HIV/AIDS interventions in the health sector, Progress report, 2007. Available at: http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/ universal_access_progress_report_en.pdf (Accessed April 25, 2008).
79. Attawell K, Mundy J. Provision of antiretroviral therapy in resource-limited settings: A review of experience up to August 20G3. Available at: http://www.who.int/3by5/publications/documents/en/ ARTpaper_DFID_WHO.pdf (Accessed April 25, 2008).
80. Farmer P. Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights and the New War on the Poor. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2003.
81. Chequer P, Cuchí P, Mazin R, Calleja JMG. Access to antiretroviral treatment in Latin American countries and the Caribbean. AIDS 2002;6 (Suppl. 13):S50-57.
82. Brazil. National STD and AIDS Program. Brazilian Response 2005/2007 Country Progress Report. Available at: http://www.aids.gov.br/data/documents/storedDocuments/%7BB8EF5DAF-23AE- 4891-AD36-1903553A3174%7D/%7BD7B11040-5E8B-4327-AFB9-7780DD92EBCB%7D/ ungass%202008%20ingles%2005.pdf (Accessed April 25, 2008).
83. United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). Children and AIDS: Second Stocktaking report. Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/ childrenandaidssecondstocktakingreport_en.pdf (Accessed April 7, 2008).
84. Ford N, Wilson D, Chaves GC, Lotrowska M, Kijtiwatchakul K. Sustaining access to antiretroviral therapy in the less developed world: Lessons from Brazil and Thailand. AIDS 2007;21 (Suppl 4):S21-29.
85. Grangeiro A, Teixeira L, Bastos FI, Teixeira P. Sustainability of Brazilian policy for access to antiretroviral drugs. Rev Saude Publica 2006;40 (Suppl):1-9.
86. Greco D, Simão M. Brazilian policy of universal access to AIDS treatment: Sustainability challenges and perspectives. AIDS 2007;21 (Suppl 4):S37-45.