Biology of colorectal cancer

ecancermedicalscience

Volumn 9, Issue , 2015, Pages

  Arvelo, Francisco ^a,b   Sojo, Felipe ^a,b   Cotte, Carlos ^b  

^a Instituto Internacional de Estudios Avanzados IDEA   (Venezuela)

^b UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DE VENEZUELA   (Venezuela)

Author keywords

Adenoma; Colorectal cancer; Familial adenomatous polyposis; Hereditary non polyposis colorectal cancer; Metastasis; Microsatellite instability; Proto oncogenes; Tumour suppressor genes

Indexed keywords

ALPHA CATENIN; B RAF KINASE; BETA CATENIN; METALLOPROTEINASE; PROTEIN P53; UVOMORULIN; VASCULOTROPIN;

APOPTOSIS; CANCER GENETICS; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER STEM CELL; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL DIVISION; CELL GROWTH; COLON POLYPOSIS; COLORECTAL CANCER; DNA MODIFICATION; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; FAMILIAL COLON POLYPOSIS; GENE EXPRESSION; GENOMIC INSTABILITY; HEREDITARY NONPOLYPOSIS COLORECTAL CANCER; HEREDITY; HUMAN; MICROSATELLITE INSTABILITY; MUIR TORRE SYNDROME; ONCOGENE N RAS; REVIEW; TUMOR CLASSIFICATION; TUMOR GROWTH; TURCOT SYNDROME; WNT SIGNALING PATHWAY;

EID: 84935026168     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17546605     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3332/ecancer.2015.520     Document Type: Review

References (184)

1. Geneser F (2005) Histología 3era ed Editorial Médica Panamericana
2. Gloeckler Ries LA et al 2003) Cancer survival and incidence from the Surveillance Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program Oncologist 8(6) 541-52 DOI: 10.1634/theoncologist.8-6-541 PMID: 14657533
3. www.cancer.org. 26/03/2014
4. Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) Cáncer Par12 L1 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/es/ 14/02/2014
5. Jemal A, Siegel R, Xu J and Ward E (2010) Cancer statistics 2010 CA Cancer J Clin 60(5) 277-300 DOI: 10.3322/caac.20073 PMID: 20610543
6. Rocco A et al (2003) Is there a link between enviromental factors and a genetic predisposition to cancer? A lesson from a familial cluster of gastric cancer Eur J Cancer 39(11) 1619-1624 DOI: 10.1016/S0959-8049(03)00368-X PMID: 12855270
7. Watson AJ and Collins PD (2011) Colon cancer: a civilization disorder Dig Dis 29(2) 222-8 DOI: 10.1159/000323926 PMID: 21734388
8. Rivera B et al (2011) Clinical and genetic characterization of classical forms of familial adenomatous polyposis: a Spanish population study Ann Oncol 22(4) 903-9 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdq465
9. Rubin DC, Shaker A and Levin MS (2012) Chronic intestinal inflammation: inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated colon cancer Front Immunol 3 1-10 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00107
10. Oxentenko AS and Smyrk TC (2012) Interval colon cancer in a Lynch syndrome patient under annual colonoscopic surveillance: a case for advanced imaging techniques? BMC Gastroenterol 12 50-6 DOI: 10.1186/1471-230X-12-50 PMID: 22624972 PMCID: 3493301
11. Wright JD et al (2004) Synchronus ovarian metastases at the time of laparatomy for colon cancer Gynecol Oncol. 92(3) 851-5 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygyno.2003.12.017 PMID: 14984952
12. Banno K et al (2009) Endometrial cancer as a familial tumor: pathology and molecular carcinogenesis Curr Genomics 10(2) 127-32 DOI: 10.2174/138920209787847069 PMID: 19794885 PMCID: 2699824
13. Jasperson KW et al (2010) Hereditary and familial colon cancer Gastroenterology 138(6) 2044-58 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2010.01.054 PMID: 20420945 PMCID: 3057468
14. Manne U et al (2010) Development and progression of colorectal neoplasia Cancer Biomark 9(1-6) 235-65
15. Kastrinos F and Syngal S (2011) Inherited colorectal cancer syndromes Cancer J 17(6) 405-15 DOI: 10.1097/PPO.0b013e318237e408 PMID: 22157284 PMCID: 3240819
16. Watson AJ and Collins PD (2011) Colon cancer: a civilization disorder Dig Dis 29(2) 222-8 DOI: 10.1159/000323926 PMID: 21734388
17. Lin OS (2012) Colorectal cancer screening in patients at moderately increased risk due to family history World J Gastrointest Oncol 4(6) 125-30 DOI: 10.4251/wjgo.v4.i6.125 PMID: 22737273 PMCID: 3382658
18. de Campos FG et al (2010) Colorectal cancer in familial adenomatous polyposis: Are there clinical predictive factors? Cir Esp 88(6) 390-7 DOI: 10.1016/j.ciresp.2010.05.013 PMID: 21056411
19. Ali N and Chowdhury P (2012) Molecular signaling mechanisms of apoptosis in hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer World J Gastrointest Pathophysio 3(3) 71-9 DOI: 10.4291/wjgp.v3.i3.71
20. Lynch HT, Smyrk T and Lynch JF (1998) Molecular genetics and clinical-pathology features of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal carcinoma (Lynch syndrome): historical journey from pedigree anecdote to molecular genetics confirmation Oncology 55(2) 103-8 DOI: 10.1159/000011843 PMID: 9499183
21. Chung DC and Rustgi AK (2003) The hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome: genetics and clinical implications Ann Intern Med 138(7) 560-70 DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-138-7-200304010-00012 PMID: 12667026
22. Söreide K et al (2006) Microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer Br J Surg 93(4) 395-406 DOI: 10.1002/bjs.5328 PMID: 16555243
23. Oliveira C et al (2004) Distinct patterns of KRAS mutations in colorectal carcinomas according to germline mismatch repair defects and hMLH1 methylation status Hum Mol Genet 13(19) 2303-11 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddh238 PMID: 15294875
24. Mecklin JP (2008) The implications of genetics in colorectal cáncer Ann Oncol 19 (Supplement 5) v87-v90 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdn318
25. Imai K and Yamamoto H (2008) Carcinogenesis and microsatellite instability: the interrelationship between genetics and epigenetics Carcinogenesis 29(4) 673-80 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgm228
26. Pawlik TM, Raut CP and Rodriguez-Bigas MA (2004) Colorectal carcinogenesis: MSI-H versus MSI-L Dis Markers 20(4-5) 199-206 DOI: 10.1155/2004/368680 PMID: 15528785 PMCID: 3839332
27. Kinzler KW and Vogelstein B (1996) Lessons from hereditary colorectal cancer Cell 87(2) 159-70 DOI: 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81333-1 PMID: 8861899
28. Boland CR et al (1998) National Cancer Institute Workshop on Microsatellite Instability for cancer detection and familial predisposition: development of international criteria for the determination of microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer Cancer Res 58(22) 5248-57 PMID: 9823339
29. Jass JR (2004) HNPCC and sporadic MSI-H colorectal cancer: a review of the morphological similarities and differences Fam Cancer 3(2) 93-100 DOI: 10.1023/B:FAME.0000039849.86008.b7 PMID: 15340259
30. NCCN (2010) Clinical practice guidelines in oncology: colorectal cáncer screening
31. Turcot J, Despres JP and St. Pierre F (1959) Malignant tumors of the central nervous system associated with familial polyposis of the colon Dis Colon Rectum 2 465-68 DOI: 10.1007/BF02616938 PMID: 13839882
32. Hamilton SR et al (1995) The molecular basis of Turcot's syndrome N Eng J Med 332(13) 839-47 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199503303321302
33. Itoh H and Ohsato K (1985) Turcot syndrome and its characteristic colonic manifestations Dig Dis Sci 28(6) 399-402
34. Ponti G and Ponz de Leon M (2005) Muir-Torre syndrome Lancet Oncol 6(12) 980-7 DOI: 10.1016/S1470-2045(05)70465-4 PMID: 16321766
35. Mangold E et al (2004) A genotype-phenotype correlation in HNPCC: strong predominance of msh2 mutations in 41 patients with Muir-Torre syndrome J Med Genet 41(7) 567-72 DOI: 10.1136/jmg.2003.012997 PMID: 15235030 PMCID: 1735835
36. Murphy HR et al (2008) Muir-Torre Syndrome: expanding the genotype and phenotype-a further family with a MSH6 mutation Fam Cancer 7(3) 255-7 DOI: 10.1007/s10689-008-9183-y PMID: 18236172
37. Ponti G et al (2005) Attenuated familial adenomatous polyposis and Muir-Torre syndrome linked to compound biallelic constitutional MYH gene mutations Clin Genet 68(5) 442-7 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2005.00519.x PMID: 16207212
38. Merchea A et al (2012) Clinical features and oncologic outcomes in patients with rectal cancer and ulcerative colitis: a single-institution experience Dis Colon Rectum 55(8) 881-5 DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0b013e31825bf779 PMID: 22810474
39. Mattar MC et al (2011) Current management of inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer Gastrointest Cancer Res 4(2) 53-61 PMID: 21673876 PMCID: 3109885
40. Church JM (2004) Clinical significance of small colorectal polyps Dis Colon Rectum 47(4) 481-5 DOI: 10.1007/s10350-003-0078-6 PMID: 14994108
41. Vormbrock K and Mönkemüller K (2012) Difficult colon polypectomy World J Gastrointest Endosc 4(7) 269-80 DOI: 10.4253/wjge.v4.i7.269 PMID: 22816006 PMCID: 3399004
42. Schreiner MA, Weiss DG and Lieberman DA (2010) Proximal and large hyperplastic and nondysplastic serrated polyps detected by colonoscopy are associated with neoplasia Gastroenterology 139(5) 1497-502 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2010.06.074 PMID: 20633561
43. Worthley DL and Leggett BA (2010) Colorectal cancer: molecular features and clinical opportunities Clin Biochem Rev 31(2) 31-8 PMID: 20498827 PMCID: 2874430
44. Fearon ER and Vogelstein B (1990) A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis Cell 61(5) 759-67 DOI: 10.1016/0092-8674-(90)90186-I PMID: 2188735
45. Llor X et al (2005) Differential features of colorectal cancers fulfilling Amsterdam criteria without involvement of the mutator pathway Clin Cancer Res 11(20) 7304-10 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-05-0965 PMID: 16243801
46. Pino MS and Chung DC (2010) The chromosomal instability pathway in colon cancer Gastroenterology 138(6) 2059-72 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.12.065 PMID: 20420946 PMCID: 4243705
47. Lustig B and Behrens J (2003) The Wnt signaling pathway and its role in tumor development J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 129(4) 199-221 PMID: 12707770
48. Laurent-Puig P, Agostini J and Maley K (2010) Colorectal oncogenesis Bull Cancer 97 1311-21 PMID: 21115420
49. Arrington AK et al (2012) Prognostic and predictive roles of KRAS mutation in colorectal cancer Int J Mol Sci 13(10) 12153-68 DOI: 10.3390/ijms131012153 PMID: 23202889 PMCID: 3497263
50. Mehlen P and Fearon ER (2004) Role of the dependence receptor DCC in colorectal cancer pathogenesis J Clin Oncol 22(16) 3420-8 DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2004.02.019 PMID: 15310786
51. Nagothu KK et al (2003) Folic acid mediated attenuation of loss heterozygosity of DCC tumor suppresor gene in the colonic mucosa of patients with colorectal adenomas Cancer Detect Prev 27(4) 297-304 DOI: 10.1016/S0361-090X(03)00100-4 PMID: 12893078
52. Klingelhutz AJ et al (1995) The DDC gene suppresses the malignant phenotype of transformed human epithelial cells Oncogene 10 1581-6 PMID: 7731713
53. Volgeisten B, Lane D and Levine A (2000) Surfing the p53 network Nature 408(6810) 307-10 DOI: 10.1038/35042675
54. Chang F, Syrjanen S and Tervahauta A (1993) Tumorigenesis associated with the p53 tumour suppressor gene Br J Cancer 68(4) 653-61 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1993.404 PMID: 8398688 PMCID: 1968607
55. Naccarati A et al (2012) Mutations and polymorphisms in TP53 gene an overview on the role in colorectal cancer Mutagenesis 27(2) 211-8 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/ger067 PMID: 22294769
56. Al-Tassan N et al (2002) Inherited variants of MYH associated with somatic G:C->T:A mutations in colorectal tumors Nat Genet 30(2) 227-32 DOI: 10.1038/ng828 PMID: 11818965
57. Slattery ML, Lundgreen A and Wolff RK (2012) MAP kinase genes and colon and rectal cancer Carcinogenesis 33(12) 2398-408 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgs305 PMID: 23027623 PMCID: 3510742
58. de Miranda NF et al (2012) Role of the microenvironment in the tumourigenesis of microsatellite unstable and MUTYH-associated polyposis colorectal cancers Mutagenesis 27(2) 247-53 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/ger077 PMID: 22294774
59. Fostira F et al (2010) Mutational spectrum of APC and genotype-phenotype correlations in Greek FAP patients BMC Cancer 10 389-92 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-10-389 PMID: 20649969 PMCID: 2918579
60. Boland CR and Goel A (2010) Microsatellite instability in colorectal Cancer 138(6) 2073-87
61. Loeb LA (1998) Cancer cells exhibit a mutator phenotype Adv Cancer Res 72 25-56 DOI: 10.1016/S0065-230X(08)60699-5
62. Rampino N et al (1997) Somatic frameshift mutations in the BAX gene in colon cancers of the microsatellite mutator phenotype Science 275(5302) 967-9 DOI: 10.1126/science.275.5302.967 PMID: 9020077
63. Schwar S et al (1999) Frameshift mutations at mononucleotide repeats in caspase-5 and other target genes in endometrial and gastrointestinal cancer of the microsatellite mutator phenotype Cancer Res 59(12) 2995-3002
64. Markowitz S et al (1995) Inactivation of the type II TGF-beta receptor in colon cancer cells with microsatellite instability Science 268(5215) 1336-8 DOI: 10.1126/science.7761852 PMID: 7761852
65. Thorstensen L et al (2001) WNT1 inducible signaling pathway protein 3, WISP-3, a novel target gene in colorectal carcinomas with microsatellite instability Gastroenterology 121(6) 1275-80 DOI: 10.1053/gast.2001.29570 PMID: 11729105
66. Li GM (2008) Mechanisms and functions of DNA mismatch repair Cell Res 18(1) 85-98 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2007.115
67. Kondo Y and Issa JP (2004) Epigenetic changes in colorectal cancer Cancer Metastasis Rev 23(1-2) 29-39 DOI: 10.1023/A:1025806911782 PMID: 15000147
68. Dahlin AM et al (2010) The role of the CpG island methylator phenotype in colorectal cancer prognosis depends on microsatellite instability screening status Clin Cancer Res 16(6) 1845-55 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-09-2594 PMID: 20197478
69. Simmer F et al (2012) Comparative genome-wide DNA methylation analysis of colorectal tumor and matched normal tissues Epigenetics 7(12) 1355-67 DOI: 10.4161/epi.22562 PMID: 23079744 PMCID: 3528691
70. Ho AS, Turcan S and Chan TA (2013) Epigenetic therapy: use of agents targeting deacetylation and methylation in cancer management Onco Targets Ther 6 223-32 PMID: 23569385 PMCID: 3615839
71. Mo ML et al (2013) Inhibition of the Wnt palmitoyltransferase porcupine suppresses cell growth and downregulates the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in gastric cancer Oncol Lett 5(5) 1719-23 PMID: 23761839 PMCID: 3678880
72. Manzano A and Pérez-Segura P (2012) Colorectal cáncer chemoprevention: is this the future of colorectal cancer prevention? Scientific World Journal DOI: 10.1100/2012/327341
73. Vaish V et al (2014) Sulindac and Celecoxib regulate cell cycle progression by p53/p21 up regulation to induce apoptosis during initial stages of experimental colorectal cancer Cell Biochem Biophys 68(2) 301-19 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-013-9711-8
74. Lee HJ et al (2009) Identification of tripeptides recognized by the PDZ domain of Dishevelled Bioorg Med Chem 17(4) 1701-8 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2008.12.060 PMID: 19157887 PMCID: 2713185
75. Fujii N et al (2007) An antagonist of dishevelled protein-protein interaction suppresses beta-catenin-dependent tumor cell growth Cancer Res 67(2) 573-9 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-2726 PMID: 17234765
76. Fetahu IS, Höbaus J and Kállay E (2014) Vitamin D and the epigenome Front Physiol 5 164 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00164 PMID: 24808866 PMCID: 4010791
77. Beggs AD et al (2013) Whole-genome methylation analysis of benign and malignant colorectal tumours Pathol 229(5) 697-704 DOI: 10.1002/path.4132
78. Potter JD (1999) Colorectal cancer: molecules and populations J Natl Cancer Inst 91(11) 916-932 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/91.11.916 PMID: 10359544
79. Giles RH, van Es JH and Clevers H (2003) Caught up in a Wnt storm: Wnt signaling in cancer Biochim Biophys Acta 1653(1) 1-24 PMID: 12781368
80. Scholer-Dahirel A, Schlabach MR and Loo A, et al (2011) Maintenance of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) -mutant colorectal cancer is dependent on Wnt/beta-catenin signaling Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(41) 17135-40 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1104182108 PMID: 21949247 PMCID: 3193196
81. Yuan P, Sun MH, and Zhang JS et al APC and K-ras gene mutation in aberrant crypt foci of human colon World J Gastroenterol 7(3) 352-26 PMID: 11819789
82. Huelsken J and Birchmeir W (2001) New aspects of Wnt signaling pathways in higher vertebrates Curr Opin Genet Dev 11(5) 547-53 DOI: 10.1016/S0959-437X(00)00231-8 PMID: 11532397
83. Døsen G et al (2006) Wnt expression and canonical Wnt signaling in human bone marrow B lymphopoiesis BMC Immmunol 7 13 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-7-13
84. de la Puente P et al (2014) Molecularly targeted therapies in multiple myeloma Leuk Res Treatmen DOI: 10.1155/2014/976567
85. Takebe N et al (2011) Targeting cancer stem cells by inhibiting Wnt, Notch, and Hedgehog pathways Nat Rev Clin Oncol 8(2) 97-106 DOI: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2010.196
86. Mikhail S and Zeidan A (2014) Stem cells in gastrointestinal cancers: The road less travelled World J Stem Cells 6(5) 606-13 DOI: 10.4252/wjsc.v6.i5.606 PMID: 25426257 PMCID: 4178260
87. Luo J et al (2007) Wnt signaling and human diseases: what are the therapeutic implications? Lab Invest 87(2) 97-103 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3700509 PMID: 17211410
88. Raskov H et al (2014) Colorectal carcinogenesis-update and perspectives World J Gastroenterol 20(48) 18151-64 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i48.18151
89. Arvelo F and Poupon MF (2001) Aspectos Moleculares y Celulares de la Metástasis Cancerosa Acta Cient Venez 52 304-12
90. Alexiou D et al (2001) Serum levels of E-selectins, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in colorectal cancer patientes: correlations with clinicophatological features, patients survival and tumour surgery Eur J Cancer 37 2392-7 DOI: 10.1016/S0959-8049(01)00318-5 PMID: 11720833
91. Wheelock MJ and Johnson KR (2003) Cadherins as modulators of Cellular phenotype Ann Rev Cell Dev Biol 19 207-35 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.19.011102.111135
92. Restucci B et al (2009) Expression of E-cadherin, beta-catenin and APC protein in canine colorectal tumours Anticancer Res 29(8) 2919-25 PMID: 19661296
93. Jiang WG (1996) E-cadherin and its associated proteins catenins, cancer invasion and metastasis Br J Surg 83(4) 437-46 DOI: 10.1002/bjs.1800830404 PMID: 8665230
94. Driouch K et al (1997) Loss of heterozygoty on chromosome arm 16q in breast cancer metastases Genes Chromosomes Cancer 19(3) 185-91 PMID: 9219000
95. El-Bahrawy MA et al (2002) The expression of E-cadherin and catenins in colorectal tumours from familial adenomatous polyposis patients J Pathol 198(1) 69-76 DOI: 10.1002/path.1168 PMID: 12210065
96. Nigam AK et al (1993) Loss of cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion molecules in colorectal cancer Br J Cancer 68(3) 507-14 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1993.377 PMID: 8353041 PMCID: 1968382
97. Pierce M et al (2003) Overexpression of the Beta-catenin binding domain of cadherin selectivety kills colorectal cancer cells Int J Cancer 107(2) 229-37 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.11372 PMID: 12949799
98. Davies ML et al (2007) Density-dependent location and interations of truncated APC and beta-catenin Oncogene 23(7) 1412-19 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1207266
99. Faux MC et al (2004) Restoration of full-length adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) protein in a colon cancer cell line enhances cell adhesion J Cell Sci 117(Pt 3) 427-39 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.00862
100. Half E, Bercovich D and Rozen P (2009) Familial adenomatous polyposis Orphanet J Rare Dis 4 1-23 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1172-4-22
101. Hartley JE et al (2004) Significance of incidental desmoids identified during surgery for familial adenomatous polyposis Dis Colon Rectum 47(3) 334-8 DOI: 10.1007/s10350-003-0063-0 PMID: 14991495
102. Bonneton C, Larue L and Thiéry JP (1996) The APC gene product and colorectal carcinogenesis C R Acad Sci III 319(10) 861-9 PMID: 8977766
103. Rapozo DC et al (2009) Analysis of mutations in TP53, APC, K-ras, and DCC genes in the non-dysplastic mucosa of patients with inflammatory bowel disease Int J Colorectal Dis 24 1141-8 DOI: 10.1007/s00384-009-0748-5 PMID: 19543899
104. Suter CM et al (2003) CpG island methylation is a common finding in colorectal cancer cell lines Br J Cancer 88(3) 413-9 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600699 PMID: 12569385 PMCID: 2747532
105. Van Rijnsoever M et al (2003) CpG island methylator phenotype is an independent predictor of survival benefit from 5-flurouracil in stage III colorectal cancer Clin Cancer Res 9(8) 2898-903 PMID: 12912934
106. Ishibe N and Freedman AN (2001) Understanding the interaction between environmental exposures and molecular events in colorectal carcinogenesis Cancer Invest 19(5) 524-39 DOI: 10.1081/CNV-100103850 PMID: 11458819
107. Miyaki M (1998) Imprinting and colorectal cancer Nat Med 4(11) 1236-7 DOI: 10.1038/3214 PMID: 9809540
108. Cheng YW et al (2010) Loss of imprinting and marked gene elevation are 2 forms of aberrant IGF2 expression in colorectal cancer Int J Cancer 127(3) 568-77 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.25086
109. Bonasio R, Tu S and Reinberg D (2010) Molecular signals of epigenetic states Science 330 612-6 DOI: 10.1126/science.1191078 PMID: 21030644 PMCID: 3772643
110. Jia Y and Guo M (2013) Epigenetic changes in colorectal cancer Chin J Cancer 32(1) 21-30 DOI: 10.5732/cjc.011.10245 PMCID: 3845587
111. Reik W and Surani MA (1989) Cancer genetics. Genomic imprinting and embryonal tumours Nature 338(6211) 112-3 DOI: 10.1038/338112a0 PMID: 2918934
112. Lujambio A et al (2007) Genetic unmasking of an epigenetically silenced microRNA in human cancer cells Cancer Res 67(4) 1424-9 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-4218 PMID: 17308079
113. Groden J et al (1991) Identification and characterization of the familial adenomatous polyposis coli gene Cell 66(3) 589-600 DOI: 10.1016/0092-8674(81)90021-0 PMID: 1651174
114. Sieber M, Tomlinson PI and Lamlum H (2000) The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumour suppressor-genetics, function and disease Mol Med Today 6(12) 462-9 DOI: 10.1016/S1357-4310(00)01828-1 PMID: 11099951
115. Joslyn G et al (1993) Dimer formation by an N-terminal coiled coil in the APC protein Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90(23) 11109-13 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.90.23.11109 PMID: 8248216 PMCID: 47931
116. Fearnhead NS, Britton MP and Bodmer W (2001) The ABC of APC Hum Mol Genet 10(7) 721-33 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/10.7.721 PMID: 11257105
117. Sieber M, Tomlinson O and Lamlum IH (2000) The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumour suppressor-genetics, function and disease Mol Med Today 6(12) 462-9 DOI: 10.1016/S1357-4310(00)01828-1 PMID: 11099951
118. Su LK, Vogelstein B and Kinzler KW (1993) Association of the APC tumor suppressor protein with catenins Science 262(5140) 1734-7 DOI: 10.1126/science.8259519 PMID: 8259519
119. Fearnhead N, Britton MP and Bodmer W (2001) The ABC of APC Hum Mol Genet 10(7) 721-33 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/10.7.721 PMID: 11257105
120. Potter JD (1999) Colorectal cancer: molecules and populations J Nat Cancer Inst 91(11) 916-32 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/91.11.916 PMID: 10359544
121. Polakis P (1997) The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumor suppressor Biochim Biophys Acta 1332(3) F127-47 PMID: 9196022
122. Aoki K and Taketo MM (2007) Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC): a multi-functional tumor suppressor gene J Cell Sci 120(Pt 19) 3327-35 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.03485 PMID: 17881494
123. Su LK and Burrell M et al (1995) APC binds to the novel protein EB1 Cancer Res 55(14) 2972-7 PMID: 7606712
124. Sieber M, Tomlinson O and Lamlum IH (2000) The adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumour suppressor-genetics, function and disease Mol Med Today 6(12) 462-9 DOI: 10.1016/S1357-4310(00)01828-1 PMID: 11099951
125. Lustig B and Behrens J (2003) The Wnt signaling pathway and its role in tumor development J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 129(4) 199-221 PMID: 12707770
126. Aoki K and Taketo M (2007) Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC): a multi-functional tumor suppressor gene J Cell Sci 120(Pt 19) 3327-35 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.03485 PMID: 17881494
127. Sakai E et al (2014). Methylation epigenotypes and genetic features in colorectal laterally spreading tumors Int J Cancer 135(7) 1586-95 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28814 PMID: 24590867
128. Sinicrope FA et al (2015) Molecular markers identify subtypes of stage III colon cancer associated with patient outcomes Gastroenterology 148(1) 88-99 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2014.09.041
129. Tran B et al (2011) Impact of BRAF mutation and microsatellite instability on the pattern of metastatic spread and prognosis in metastatic colorectal cancer Cancer 117(20) 4623-32 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.26086 PMID: 21456008 PMCID: 4257471
130. Prahallad A et al (2012) Unresponsiveness of colon cancer to BRAF(V600E) inhibition through feedback activation of EGFR Nature 483(7387) 100-3 DOI: 10.1038/nature10868 PMID: 22281684
131. Mao M et al (2012) Resistance to BRAF inhibition in BRAF-mutant colon cancer can be overcome with PI3K inhibition or demethylating agents Clin Cancer Res 19(3) 657-7 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-1446 PMID: 23251002 PMCID: 3563727
132. Lange F et al (2014) Biological and molecular effects of small molecule kinase inhibitors on low-passage human colorectal cancer cell lines Biomed Res Int DOI: 10.1155/2014/568693 PMID: 25309914 PMCID: 4182691
133. Yang H et al (2012) Antitumor activity of BRAF inhibitor vemurafenib in preclinical models of BRAF-mutant colorectal cancer Cancer Res 72(3) 779-89 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-2941
134. Corcoran RB et al (2012) EGFR-mediated re-activation of MAPK signaling contributes to insensitivity of BRAF mutant colorectal cancers to RAF inhibition with vemurafenib Cancer Discov 2(3) 227-35 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.CD-11-0341 PMID: 22448344 PMCID: 3308191
135. Cox AD and Der CJ (2010) Ras history: The saga continues Small GTPases 1(1) 2-27 DOI: 10.4161/sgtp.1.1.12178
136. Ruzzo A et al (2010) Molecular predictors of efficacy to anti-EGFR agents in colorectal cancer patients Curr Cancer Drug Targets 10(1) 68-79 DOI: 10.2174/156800910790980205 PMID: 20088793
137. Tentler JJ et al (2010) Identification of predictive markers of response to the MEK1/2 inhibitor selumetinib (AZD6244) in K-ras-mutated colorectal cancer Mol Cancer Ther 9(12) 3351-62 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-10-0376 PMID: 20923857 PMCID: 3931013
138. Malumbres M and Barbacid M (2003) "RAS oncogenes: the first 30 years" Nat Rev Cancer 3(6) 459-65 DOI: 10.1038/nrc1097 PMID: 12778136
139. Makrodouli E et al (2011) BRAF and RAS oncogenes regulate Rho GTPase pathways to mediate migration and invasion properties in human colon cancer cells: a comparative study Mol Cancer 10 118 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-10-118 PMID: 21943101 PMCID: 3189908
140. Jancik S et al (2010) Clinical relevance of KRAS in human cancers J Biomed Biotechnol 150960 DOI: 10.1155/2010/150960 PMID: 20617134 PMCID: 2896632
141. Neumann J et al (2009) Frequency and type of KRAS mutations in routine diagnostic analysis of metastatic colorectal cancer Pathol Res Pract 205(12) 858-62 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2009.07.010 PMID: 19679400
142. Health Quality Ontario (2010) KRAS testing for anti-EGFR therapy in advanced colorectal cancer: an evidence-based and economic analysis Ont Health Technol Assess Ser 10(25) 1-49
143. Valtorta E et al (2013) KRAS gene amplification in colorectal cancer and impact on response to EGFR-targeted therapy Int J Cancer 133(5) 1259-65 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28106 PMID: 23404247
144. Vale CL et al (2012) Does anti-EGFR therapy improve outcome in advanced colorectal cancer? A systematic review and meta-analysis Cancer Treat Rev 38(6) 618-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2011.11.002
145. Winder T et al (2009) Different types of K-Ras mutations are conversely associated with overall survival in patients with colorectal cancer Oncol Rep 21(5) 1283-7 DOI: 10.3892/or-00000352 PMID: 19360305
146. Roa I et al (2013) Mutación del gen KRAS en el cáncer de colon y recto Chile Rev Med 141 1166-72 DOI: 10.4067/S0034-98872013000900009
147. Vincenti V et al (1996) Assignment of the vascular endothelial growth factor gene to human chromosome 6p21.3 Circulation 93(8) 1493-5 DOI: 10.1161/01.CIR.93.8.1493 PMID: 8608615
148. Houck KA et al (1991) The vascular endothelial growth factor family: identification of a fourth molecular species and characterization of alternative splicing of RNA Mol Endocrinol 5(12) 1806-14 DOI: 10.1210/mend-5-12-1806 PMID: 1791831
149. Ferrara N (1999) Molecular and biological properties of vascular endothelial growth factor J Mol Med 77(7) 527-43 DOI: 10.1007/s001099900019 PMID: 10494799
150. Chang WG et al (2013) Pericytes modulate endothelial sprouting Cardiovasc Res 100(3) 492-500 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvt215 PMID: 24042014 PMCID: 3826704
151. Zdravkovic ND et al (2014) Potential dual immunomodulatory role of VEGF in ulcerative colitis and colorectal carcinoma Int J Med Sci 11(9) 936-47 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.8277 PMID: 25076849 PMCID: 4113587
152. Abajo A et al (2012) Identification of colorectal cancer metastasis markers by an angiogenesis-related cytokine-antibody array World J Gastroenterol 18(7) 637-45 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v18.i7.637 PMID: 22363134 PMCID: 3281220
153. Arvelo F and Cotte C (2009) Hipoxia en la malignidad del cáncer Invest Clin 50(4) 529-46
154. Choi KS et al (2003) Hypoxia-induced angiogenesis during carcinogenesis J Biochem Mol Biol 36(1) 120-7 DOI: 10.5483/BMBRep.2003.36.1.120 PMID: 12542982
155. Mihalache A and Rogoveanu I (2014) Angiogenesis factors involved in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer Curr Health Sci J 40(1) 5-11 PMID: 24791198 PMCID: 4006338
156. Martin P et al (2014) Predicting response to vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitor and chemotherapy in metastatic colorectal cancer BMC Cancer 14 887 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-14-887 PMID: 25428203 PMCID: 4289341
157. García-Flórez LJ et al (2014) Predictive markers of response to neoadjuvant therapy in rectal cancer J Surg Res 194(1) 120-6 pii: S0022-4804(14)00909-3 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2014.10.005 PMID: 25481527
158. Chibaudel B et al (2012) Therapeutic strategy in unresectable metastatic colorectal cancer Ther Adv Med Oncol 4(2) 75-89 DOI: 10.1177/1758834011431592 PMID: 22423266 PMCID: 3296081
159. Giuliani F et al (2010) Maintenance therapy in colon cancer Cancer Treat Rev 36 Suppl 3 S42-5 DOI: 10.1016/S0305-7372(10)70019-0 PMID: 21129609
160. Munshi HG and Stack MS (2006) Reciprocal interactions between adhesion receptor signaling and MMP regulation Cancer Metastasis Rev 25(1) 45-56 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-006-7888-7 PMID: 16680571
161. Nagase H, Visse R and Murphy G (2006) Structure and function of matrix metalloproteinases and TIMPs Cardiovasc Res 69(3) 562-73 DOI: 10.1016/j.cardiores.2005.12.002 PMID: 16405877
162. Sampieri CL et al (2013) Matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in gastric cancer as molecular markers J Cancer Res Ther 9(3) 356-63 DOI: 10.4103/0973-1482.119302 PMID: 24125966
163. Zucker S and Vacirca J (2004) Role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in colorectal cancer Cancer Metastasis Rev 23(1-2) 101-117 DOI: 10.1023/A:1025867130437 PMID: 15000152
164. Surlin V, Ioana M and Pleşea IE (2011) Genetic patterns of metalloproteinases and their tissular inhibitors-clinicopathologic and prognostic significance in colorectal cancer Rom J Morphol Embryol 52(1 Suppl) 231-6 PMID: 21424059
165. Hayashidani S et al (2003) Targeted deletion of MMP-2 attenuates early LV rupture and late remodeling after experimental myocardial infarction Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 285(3) H1229-35 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00207.2003 PMID: 12775562
166. Sunami E et al (2000) MMP-1 is a prognostic marker for hematogenous metastasis of colorectal cancer Oncologist 5 108-14 DOI: 10.1634/theoncologist.5-2-108 PMID: 10794801
167. Leeman MF, McKay JA and Murray GI (2002) Matrix metalloproteinase 13 activity is associated with poor prognosis in colorectal cancer J Clin Pathol 55(10) 758-62 DOI: 10.1136/jcp.55.10.758 PMID: 12354802 PMCID: 1769766
168. Takahashi M et al (2002) Identification of membrane-typematrix metalloproteinase-1 as a target of the beta-catenin/Tcf4 complex in human colorectal cancers Oncogene 21(38) 5861-7 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1205755 PMID: 12185585
169. Wu B, Crampton SP and Hughes CC (2007) Wnt signaling induces matrix metalloproteinase expression and regulates T cell transmigration Immunity 26(2) 227-39 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.12.007 PMID: 17306568 PMCID: 1855210
170. Morán A et al (2002) Stromelysin-1 promoter mutations impair gelatinase B activation in high microsatellite instability sporadic colorectal tumors Cancer Res 62(13) 3855-60 PMID: 12097300
171. Ougolkov AV et al (2002) Oncogenic beta-catenin and MMP-7 (matrilysin) cosegregate in late-stage clinical colon cancer Gastroenterology 122(1) 60-71 DOI: 10.1053/gast.2002.30306 PMID: 11781281
172. Brabletz T et al (1999) beta-catenin regulates the expression of the matrix metalloproteinase-7 in human colorectal cancer Am J Pathol 155(4) 1033-8 DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65204-2 PMID: 10514384 PMCID: 1867011
173. Arvelo F, Cotte C and Sojo F (2014) Células Madres y Cáncer Invest Clin 55(4) 371-97
174. Arvelo F (2002) Mitocondria and apoptosis Acta Cient Venez 53 297-306
175. Russell C et al (2013) Colorectal cancer biomarkers and the potential role of cancer stem cells J Cancer 4(3) 241-50 DOI: 10.7150/jca.5832
176. Crews LA and Jamieson CH (2012) Chronic myeloid leukemia stem cell biology Curr Hematol Malig Rep 7(2) 125-132 DOI: 10.1007/s11899-012-0121-6 PMID: 22467334 PMCID: 3342507
177. Dalerba P et al (2007) Phenotypic characterization of human colorectal cancer stem cells Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104 10158-63 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0703478104 PMID: 17548814 PMCID: 1891215
178. Schneider M et al (2012) Characterization of colon cancer cells: a functional approach characterizing CD133 as a potential stem cell marker BMC Cancer 12 96 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-12-96 PMID: 22433494 PMCID: 3368744
179. Ginestier C et al (2009) Aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 is a marker for normal and malignant human colonic stem cells (SC) and tracks SC overpopulation during colon tumorigenesis Cancer Res 69(8) 3382-9 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-4418 PMID: 19336570 PMCID: 2789401
180. Vermaulen L et al (2010) Wnt activity defines colon cáncer stem cells and is regulated by the microenvironment Nat Cell Biol 12(5) 468-76 DOI: 10.1038/ncb2048
181. Wang Y et al (2010) The Wnt7 beta-catenin pathway is required for the development of leukemia stem cells in AML Science 327(5973) 1650-3 DOI: 10.1126/science.1186624 PMID: 20339075 PMCID: 3084586
182. Tang C, Ang BT and Pervaiz S (2007) Cancer stem cell: target for anti-cancer therapy FASEB J 21(14) 3777-85 DOI: 10.1096/fj.07-8560rev PMID: 17625071
183. Korkaya H and Wicha M (2007) Selective targeting of cancer stem cells: a new concept in cancer therapeutics BioDrugs 21 299-310 DOI: 10.2165/00063030-200721050-00002 PMID: 17896836
184. Saif M and Chu E (2010) Biology of colorectal cáncer Cancer J 16(3) 196-201 DOI: 10.1097/PPO.0b013e3181e076af PMID: 20526096