Photolithography beyond the diffraction limit

Nanolithography and Patterning Techniques in Microelectronics

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 238-266

  Leggett, G J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY;

DIFFRACTION LIMITS;

DIFFRACTION;

EID: 84902637017     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1533/9781845690908.238     Document Type: Chapter

References (87)

1. Aizenberg J., Rogers J.A., Paul K.E., Whitesides G.M. Imaging the irradiance distribution in the optical near field. Appl. Phys. Lett 1997, 71:3773-3775.
2. Ash E.A., Nicholls G. Super-resolution aperture scanning microscope. Nature 1972, 237:510-512.
3. Bachelot R., H'dhili F., Barchiesi D., Lerondel G., Fikri R., Royer P. Apertureless near-field optical microscopy: a study of the local tip field enhancement using photosensitive azobenzene-containing films. J. Appl. Phys 2003, 94:2060-2072.
4. Betzig E., Chichester R.J. Single molecules observed by near-field scanning optical microscopy. Science 1993, 262:1422-1425.
5. Betzig E., Trautman J.K. Near-field optics: microscopy, spectroscopy and surface modification beyond the diffraction limit. Science 1992, 257:189-195.
6. Betzig E., Finn P.L., Weinder J.S. Combined shear force and near-field scanning optical microscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett 1992, 60:2484-2486.
7. Betzig E., Trautman J.K., Wolfe R., Gyorgy E.M., Finn P.L., Kryder M.H., Chang C.H. Near-field magneto-optics and high density data storage. Appl. Phys. Lett 1992, 61:142-144.
8. Blawas A.S., Reichert W.M. Protein patterning. Biomaterials 1998, 19:595-609.
9. Bouhelier A., Renger J., Beversluis M.R., Novotny L. Plasmon-coupled tip-enhanced near-field optical microscopy. J. Microsc 2003, 210:220-224.
10. Bouhelier A., Beversluis M., Hartschuh A., Novotny L. Near-field second-harmonic generation induced by local field enhancement. Phys. Rev. Lett 2003, 90:013903.
11. Brewer N.J., Rawsterne R.E., Kothari S., Leggett G.J. Oxidation of self-assembled monolayers by UV light with a wavelength of 254 nm. J. Am. Chem. Soc 2001, 123:4089-4090.
12. Bullen D., Chung S-W., Wang X., Zou J., Mirkin C.A., Liu C. Parallel dippen nanolithography with arrays of individually addressable cantilevers. Appl. Phys. Lett 2004, 84:789-791.
13. Cooper E., Leggett G.J. Static SIMS Studies of Self-assembled Monolayers: the Influence of Adsorbate Chain Length and Terminal Functional Group on Rates of Photo- Oxidation of Alkylthiols on Gold. Langmuir 1998, 14:4795-4801.
14. Cooper E., Leggett G.J. Influence of Tail-group Hydrogen Bonding on the Stabilities of Self-assembled Monolayers of Alkylthiols on Gold. Langmuir 1999, 15:1024-1032.
15. Cooper E., Wiggs R., Hutt D.A., Parker L., Leggett G.J., Parker T.L. Rates of attachment of fibroblasts to self-assembled monolayers formed by the adsorption of alkylthiols onto gold surfaces. J. Mater. Chem 1997, 7:435-441.
16. Credo G.M., Lowman G.M., Dearo J.A., Carson P.J., Winn D.L., Buratto S.K. Probing nanoscale photo-oxidation in organic films using spatial hole burning scanning optical microscopy. J. Chem. Phys 2000, 112:7864-7872.
17. Dearo J.A., Gupta R., Heeger A.J., Buratto S.K. Nanoscale oxidative patterning and manipulation of conjugated polymer thin films. Synth. Met 1999, 102:865-868.
18. Delemarche E., Sundarababu G., Biebuych H., Michel B. Immobilization of antibodies on a photoactive self-assembled monolayer on gold. Langmuir 1997-2006, 12.
19. De Serio M., Bader A.N., Heule M., Zenobi R., Deckert V. A near-field optical method for probing liquid-liquid interfaces. Chem. Phys. Lett 2003, 380:47-53.
20. Diziain S., Adam P.M., Bijeon J.L., Lamy De La Chapelle M., Royer P. Development of an apertureless near-field optical microscope for fluorescence imaging and spectroscopy. Synth. Met 2003, 139:557-560.
21. Dunn R.C. Near-field scanning optical microscopy. Chem. Rev 1999, 99:2891-2927.
22. Dunn R.C., Holton G.R., Mets L., Xie X.S. Near-field fluorescence imaging and fluorescence lifetime measurement of light-harvesting complexes in intact photosynthetic membranes. J. Phys. Chem 1994, 98:3094-3098.
23. Ferris M.M., Rowlen K.L. Direct evidence of ozone as the active oxidant in 'photooxidation' of alkanethiols on SERS-active silver. Appl. Spectrosc 2000, 54:664-668.
24. Fodor S.P.A., Read J.L., Pirrung M.C., Stryer L., Liu A.T., Solas D. Light-directed, spatially addressable parallel chemical synthesis. Science 1991, 251:767-773.
25. Frey H.G., Keilmann F., Kriele A., Guckenberger R. Enhancing the resolution of scanning near-field optical microscopy by a metal tip grown on an aperture probe. Appl. Phys. Lett 2002, 81:5030-5032.
26. Fujihara M., Monobe H., Muramatsu H. and Ataka T., "Near-field optical microscopic recording on Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films and chemically modified surfaces", Ultramicrosc. 57, 176-179.
27. Harootunian A., Betzig E., Isaacson M.S., Lewis A. Super-resolution fluorescence near-field scanning optical microscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett 1986, 49:674-676.
28. Hartschuh A., SÁNchez E.J., Xie X.S., Novotny L. High-resolution near-field Raman microscopy of single-walled carbon nanotubes. Phys. Rev. Lett 2003, 90:095503.
29. Hartschuh A., Pedrosa H.N., Novotny L., Krauss T.D. Simultaneous fluorescence and Raman scattering from single carbon nanotubes. Science 2003, 301:1354-1356.
30. H'dhili F., Bachelot R., Lerondel G., Barchiesi D., Royer P. Near-field optics: direct observation of the field enhancement below an apertureless probe using a photosensitive polymer. Appl. Phys. Lett 2001, 79:4019-4021.
31. Hecht B., Sick B., Wild U.P., Deckert V., Zenobi R., Martin O.F., Pohl D.W. Scanning near-field optical microscopy with aperture probes: fundamentals and applications. J. Chem. Phys 2000, 112:7761-7773.
32. Hoffman P., Dutoit B., SalthÉ R-P. Comparison of mechanically drawn and protection layer chemically etched optical fiber tips. Ultramicrosc 1995, 61:165-170.
33. Hosaka N., Saiki T. Near-field fluorescence imaging of single molecules with a resolution in the range of 10 nm. J Microsc 2001, 202:362-364.
34. Hosaka S., Kikukawa A., Koyanagi H., Shintani T., Miyamoto M., Nakamura K., Etoh K. SPM-based data storage for ultrahigh density recording. Nanotechnol 1997, 8:A58-A62.
35. Huang J., Hemminger J.C. Photooxidation of thiols in self-assembled monolayers on gold. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1993, 115:2243-3343.
36. Humphris A.D.L., Hobbs J.K., Miles M.J. Ultrahigh-speed scanning near-field optical microscopy capable of over 100 frames per second. Appl. Phys. Lett 2003, 83:6-8.
37. Hutt D.A., Leggett G.J. Dependence of Rates of Photo-oxidation of Self-assembled Monolayers on Adsorbate Alkyl Chain Length. J. Phys. Chem 1996, 100:6657-6662.
38. Hutt D.A., Cooper E. and Leggett G.J., "Structure and Mechanism of Photo-oxidation of Self-assembled Monolayers of Alkylthiols on Silver studied by XPS and Static SIMS", J. Phys. Chem. B 102, 174-184.
39. Imura R., Shintani T., Nakamura K., Hosaka S. Nanoscale modification of phase change materials with near-field light. Microelectron Eng 1996, 30:387-390.
40. Jiang S., Ichihashi J., Monobe H., Fujihara M., Ohtsu M. Highly localised photochemical processes in LB films of photochromic material by using a photon scanning tunnelling microscope. Optics. Comm 1994, 106:173-177.
41. Krausch G., Mlynek J. Surface modification in the optical near field. Microelectron Eng 1995, 32:219-228.
42. Krausch G., Wegscheider S., Kirsch A., Bielefeldt H., Meiners J.C., Mlynek J. Near field microscopy and lithography with uncoated fibre tips: a comparison. Optics Comm 1995, 119:283-288.
43. Lewis M., Tarlov M.J., Carron K. Study of the photooxidation process of self-assembled alkanethiol monolayers. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1995, 117:9574-9575.
44. Li Y., Huang J., Mciver R.T., Hemminger J.C. Characterization of thiol self-assembled films by laser desorption Fourier transform mass spectrometry. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1992, 114:2428-2432.
45. Mcneill J.D., Barbara P.F. NSOM investigation of carrier generation, recombination and drift in a conjugated polymer. J. Phys. Chem. B 2002, 106:4632-4639.
46. Mcneill J.D., O'connor D.B., Barbara P.F. Imaging organic device function with near-field scanning optical microscopy. J. Chem. Phys 2000, 112:7811-7821.
47. Mcneill J.D., O'connor D.B., Adams D.M., Barbara P.F., KÄMmer S.B. Field-induced photoluminescence modulation of MEH-PPV under near-field optical excitation. J. Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105:76-82.
48. Moyer P.J., KÄMmer S.B. High-resolution imaging using near-field scanning optical microscopy and shear force feedback in water. Appl. Phys. Lett 1996, 68:3380-3382.
49. Norrod K.L., Rowlen K.L. Ozone-induced oxidation of self-assembled decanethiol: contributing mechanism for 'photooxidation. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1998, 120:2656-2657.
50. Novotny L., Pohl D.W., Hecht B. Light confinement in scanning near-field optical microscopy. Ultramicrosc 1995, 61:1-9.
51. Patel N., Davies M.C., Hartshorne M., Heaton R.J., Roberts C.J., Tendler S.J.B., Williams P.M. Immobilization of protein molecules onto homogeneous and mixed carboxylate-terminated self-assembled monolayers. Langmuir 1997, 13:6485-6490.
52. Poirier G.E., Herne T.M., Miller C.C., Tarlov M.J. Molecular-scale characterization of the reaction of ozone with decanethiol monolayers on Au(111). J. Am. Chem. Soc 1999, 121:9703-9711.
53. Qin D., Black A.J., Whitesides G.M. Photolithography with transparent reflective photomasks. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 1998, 16:98-103.
54. Riehn R., Charas A., Morgado J., Cacialli F. Near-field optical lithography of a conjugated polymer. Appl. Phys. Lett 2003, 82:526-528.
55. Rogers J.A., Paul K.E., Jackman R.J., Whitesides G.M. Generating ∼90 nanometer features using near-field contact-mode photolithography with an elastomeric phase mask. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 1998, 16:59-68.
56. Rucker M., Vanoppen P., De Schryver F.C., Ter Horst J.J., Hotta J., Masahura H. Fluorescence mapping and photobleaching of dye-labelled latex particles dispersed in poly(vinyl alcohol) matrices with a near-field optical microscope. Macromol 1995, 28:7530-7535.
57. SÁNchez E.J., Novotny L., Xie X.S. Near-field fluorescence microscopy based on two-photon excitation with metal tips. Phys. Rev. Lett 1999, 82:4014-4017.
58. Sigal G.B., Mrksich M., Whitesides G.M. Effect of surface wettability on the adsorption of proteins and detergents. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1998, 120:3464-3473.
59. Soh Y.D., Zenobi R. Improved probes for scanning near-field optical microscopy. Adv. Mater 2000, 12:1139-1142.
60. Smolyaninov I., Mazzoni D.L., Davis C.C. Near-field direct-write ultraviolet photolithography and shear-force microscopy studies of the lithographic process. Appl. Phys. Lett 1995, 67:3859-3861.
61. Stockle R., Fokas C., Deckert V., Zenobi R., Sick B., Hecht B., Wild U.P. High-quality near-field optical probes by tube etching. Appl. Phys. Lett 1999, 75:160-162.
62. Stockle R., Setz P., Deckert V., Lippert T., Wokaun A., Zenobi R. Nanoscale atmospheric pressure laser ablation-mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem 2001, 73:1399-1402.
63. Sun S., Leggett G.J. Generation of Nanostructures by Scanning Near-field Photolithogrophy of Self-Assembled Monolayers and Wet Chemical Etching. Nano. Lett 2002, 2:1223-1227.
64. Sun S. and Leggett G.J., (2002b), unpublished work, University of Sheffield.
65. Sun S., Leggett G.J. Matching the resolution of Electron Beam Lithography using Scanning Near-field Photolithography. Nano Lett 2004, 4:1381-1384.
66. Sun S. and Leggett G.J., (2004b), unpublished work, University of Sheffield.
67. Sun S., Chong K.S.L., Leggett G.J. Nanoscale molecular patterns fabricated using scanning near-field optical lithography. J. Am. Chem. Soc 2002, 124:2414-2415.
68. Synge E.H. A suggested method for extending microscopic resolution into the ultra-microscopic region. Phil. Mag 1928, 6:356-362.
69. Synge E.H. A microscopic method. Phil. Mag 1931, 11:65-80.
70. Synge E.H. An application of piezo-electricity to microscopy. Phil. Mag 1932, 13:297-300.
71. Tarlov M.J., Newman J.G. Static secondary ion mass spectrometry of self-assembled alkanethiol monolayers on gold. Langmuir 1992, 8:1398-1405.
72. Tarlov M.J., Burgess D.R.F., Gillen G. UV photopatterning of alkanethiolate monolayers self-assembled on gold and silver. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1993, 115:5305-5306.
73. Toledo-Crow R., Yang P.C., Chen Y., Vaez-Iravani M. Near-field differential scanning optical microscope with atomic force regulation. Appl. Phys. Lett 1992, 60:2957-2959.
74. Webster S., Batchelder D.N., Smith D.A. Submicron resolution measurement of stress in silicon by near-field Raman spectroscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett 1998, 72:1478-1480.
75. Webster S., Smith D.A., Batchelder D.N. Raman microscopy using a scanning near-field optical probe. Vib. Spectrosc 1998, 18:51-59.
76. Wolf M.O., Fox M.A. Photochemistry and surface properties of self-assembled monolayers of cis- and trans-4-cyano-4'-(10-thiodecoxy)stillbene on polycrystalline gold. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1995, 117:1845-1846.
77. Wollman E.W., Kang D., Frisbie C.D., Lorkovic I.M., Wrighton M.S. Photosensitive self-assembled monolayers on gold: photochemistry of surface-confined aryl azide and cyclopentadienylmanganese tricarbonyl. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1994, 116:4395-4404.
78. Wu M-H., Park C., Whitesides G.M. Generation of submicrometer structures by photolithography using arrays of spherical microlenses. J. Coll. Interface. Sci 2003, 265:304-309.
79. Wurtz G., Bachelot R., H'dhili F., Royer P., Triger C., Ecoffet C., Lougnot D-J. Photopolymerisation induced by optical field enhancement in the vicinity of a conducting tip under laser illumination. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys 2000, 39:L98-L100.
80. Yang Z., Frey W., Oliver T., Chilkoti A. Light-activated affinity micropatterning of proteins on self-assembled monolayers on gold. Langmuir 2000, 16:1751-1758.
81. Yin X., Fang N., Zhang X., Martini I.B., Schwartz B.J. Near-field two-photon nanolithography using an apertureless optical probe. Appl. Phys. Lett 2002, 81:3663-3665.
82. Xia Y., Zhao X-M., Kim E., Whitesides G.M. A selective etching solution for use with patterned self-assembled monolayers of alkanethiolates on gold. Chem. Mater 1995, 7:2332-2337.
83. Zeisel D., Nettesheim S., Dutoit B., Zenobi R. Pulsed laser-induced desorption and optical imaging on a nanometer scale with scanning near-field microscopy using chemically etched fiber tips. Appl. Phys. Lett 1996, 68:2491-2493.
84. Zeisel D., Deckert V., Zenobi R., Vo-Dinh T. Near-field surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy of dye molecules adsorbed on silver island films. Chem. Phys. Lett 1998, 283:381-385.
85. Zhang Y., Terrill R.H., Tanzer T.A., Bohn P.W. Ozonolysis is the primary cause of UV photooxidation of alkanethiolate monolayers at low irradiance. J. Am. Chem. Soc 1998, 120:2654-2655.
86. Zhou H., Midha G., Donaldson L., Weaver J.M.R. Scanning near-field optical spectroscopy and imaging using nanofabricated probes. Appl. Phys. Lett 1999, 75:1824-1826.
87. Zhou H., Midha A., Bruchhaus L., Mills G., Donaldson L., Weaver J.M.R. Novel scanning near-field optical microscopy/atomic force microscope probes by combined micromachining and electron-beam lithography. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 1999, 17:1954-1958.