Connectionist neuropsychology: Uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

Volumn 369, Issue 1634, 2014, Pages

  Woollams, Anna M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Connectionist neuropsychology; Phonological dyslexia; Primary systems; Pure alexia; Reading; Surface dyslexia

Indexed keywords

LESION; NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDER; NEUROLOGY; SOCIAL THEORY; VISUAL ANALYSIS;

ALEXIA; ALEXIA WITHOUT AGRAPHIA; CLASSIFICATION; CONNECTIONIST NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHONOLOGICAL DYSLEXIA; PRIMARY SYSTEMS; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; READING; REVIEW; SEMANTICS; SURFACE DYSLEXIA;

CONNECTIONIST NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; PHONOLOGICAL DYSLEXIA; PRIMARY SYSTEMS; PURE ALEXIA; READING; SURFACE DYSLEXIA;

DYSLEXIA, ACQUIRED; HUMANS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; READING; SEMANTICS;

EID: 84889827795     PISSN: 09628436     EISSN: 14712970     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2012.0398     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Price CJ. 2012 A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading. NeuroImage 62, 816-847. (doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062)
2. Coltheart M. 2001 Assumptions and methods in cognitive neuropsychology. In Handbook of cognitive neuropsychology (ed. B Rapp). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
3. Harm MW, Seidenberg MS. 2004 Computing the meanings of words in reading: cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychol. Rev. 111, 662-720. (doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.3.662)
4. Coltheart M, Tree JJ, Saunders SJ. 2010 Computational modeling of reading in semantic dementia: comment on Woollams, Lambon Ralph, Plaut, and Patterson (2007). Psychol. Rev. 117, 256-271. (doi:10.1037/a0015948)
5. Woollams AM, Lambon Ralph MA, Plaut DC, Patterson K. 2010 SD-squared revisited: reply to Coltheart, Tree, and Saunders (2010). Psychol. Rev. 117, 273-281. (doi:10.1037/a0017641)
6. Rastle K, Coltheart M. 2006 Is there serial processing in the reading system; and are there local representations? In From inkmarks to ideas: current issues in lexical processing (ed. S Andrews), pp. 3-24. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
7. Chang YN, Furber S, Welbourne S. 2012 'Serial' effects in parallel models of reading. Cog. Psychol. 64, 267-291. (doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.01.002)
8. Graves WW, Desai R, Humphries C, Seidenberg MS, Binder JR. 2010 Neural systems for reading aloud: a multiparametric approach. Cereb. Cortex 20, 1799-1815. (doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp245)
9. Jobard G, Crivello F, Tzourio-Mazoyer N. 2003 Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. NeuroImage 20, 693-712. (doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00343-4)
10. Taylor JSH, Rastle K, Davis MH. 2012 Can cognitive models explain brain activation during word and pseudoword reading? A meta-analysis of 36 neuroimaging studies. Psychol. Bull. 139, 766-791. (doi:10.1037/a0030266)
11. Roberts DJ, Woollams AM, Kim E, Beeson PM, Rapcsak SZ, Lambon Ralph MA. 2012 Efficient visual object and word recognition relies on high spatial frequency coding in the left posterior fusiform gyrus: evidence from a case-series of patients with ventral occipito-temporal cortex damage. Cereb. Cortex. 23, 2568-2580. (doi:10.1093/cercor/ bhs224)
12. Woollams AM, Ralph MAL, Plaut DC, Patterson K. 2007 SD-squared: on the association between semantic dementia and surface dyslexia. Psychol. Rev. 114, 316-339. (doi:10.1037/0033-295X. 114.2.316)
13. Woollams AM, Patterson K. 2012 The consequences of progressive phonological impairment for reading aloud. Neuropsychologia 50, 3469-3477. (doi:10. 1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.09.020)
14. Patterson K, Lambon Ralph MA. 1999 Selective disorders of reading? Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 9, 235-239. (doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)80033-6)
15. Behrmann M, Plaut DC. 2013 Distributed circuits, not circumscribed centers, mediate visual recognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 17, 210-219. (doi:10. 1016/j.tics.2013.03.007)
16. Plaut DC, Kello CT. 1999 The emergence of phonology from the interplay of speech comprehension and production: a distributed connectionist approach. In The emergence of language (ed. B MacWhinney), pp. 381-415. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
17. Rogers TT, Lambon Ralph MA, Garrard P, Bozeat S, McClelland JL, Hodges JR, Patterson K. 2004 Structure and deterioration of semantic memory: a neuropsychological and computational investigation. Psychol. Rev. 111, 205-235. (doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.205)
18. Bowers JS, Arguin M, Bub DN. 1996 Fast and specific access to orthographic knowledge in a case of letter-by-letter surface alexia. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 13, 525-567. (doi:10.1080/026432996381917)
19. Nickels L, Biedermann B, Coltheart M, Saunders S, Tree JJ. 2008 Computational modelling of phonological dyslexia: how does the DRC model fare? Cogn. Neuropsychol. 25, 165-193. (doi:10.1080/02643290701514479)
20. Nickels LA. 2002 Theoretical and methodological issues in the cognitive neuropsychology of spoken word production. Aphasiology 16, 3-19. (doi:10. 1080/02687040143000645)
21. Patterson K, Plaut DC. 2009 'Shallow draughts intoxicate the brain': lessons from cognitive science for cognitive neuropsychology. Topics Cogn. Sci. 1, 39-58. (doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2008.01012.x)
22. Lambon Ralph MA, Patterson K, Plaut DC. 2011 Finite case series or infinite single-case studies? Comments on 'Case series investigations in cognitive neuropsychology' by Schwartz and Dell (2010). Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28, 466-474. (doi:10.1080/ 02643294.2012.671765)
23. Coltheart M. 2006 Acquired dyslexias and the computational modelling of reading. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 23, 96-109. (doi:10.1080/ 02643290500202649)
24. Noble K, Glosser G, Grossman M. 2000 Oral reading in dementia. Brain Lang. 74, 48-69. (doi:10.1006/brln.2000.2330)
25. Price CJ. 2013 Current themes in neuroimaging studies of reading. Brain Lang. 125, 131-133. (doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2013.02.002)
26. Coltheart M. 1999 Modularity and cognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 3, 115-120. (doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01289-9)
27. Caramazza A. 1984 The logic of neuropsychological research and the problem of patient classification in aphasia. Brain Lang. 21, 9-20. (doi:10.1016/0093-934X(84)90032-4)
28. Seidenberg MS, Plaut DC. 2006 Progress in understanding word reading: data fitting versus theory building. In From inkmarks to ideas: current issues in lexical processing (ed. S Andrews), pp. 25-49. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
29. Plaut DC, Behrmann M. 2011 Complementary neural representations for faces and words: a computational exploration. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28, 251-275. (doi:10.1080/02643294.2011.609812)
30. Cohen L, Lehéricy S, Chochon F, Lemer C, Rivaud S, Dehaene S. 2002 Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area. Brain 125, 1054-1069. (doi:10.1093/ brain/awf094)
31. Weekes BS. 1997 Differential effects of number of letters on word and nonword naming latency. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. A Hum. Exp. Psychol. 50, 439-456.
32. Cohen L, Dehaene S. 2004 Specialization within the ventral stream: the case for the visual word form area. NeuroImage 22, 466-476. (doi:10.1016/j. neuroimage.2003.12.049)
33. Price CJ, Devlin JT. 2003 The myth of the visual word form area. NeuroImage 19, 473-481. (doi:10. 1016/S1053-8119(03)00084-3)
34. Dehaene S, Cohen L. 2011 The unique role of the visual word form area in reading. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 254-262. (doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.003)
35. Behrmann M, Nelson J, Sekuler EB. 1998 Visual complexity in letter-by-letter reading: 'Pure' alexia is not pure. Neuropsychologia 36, 1115-1132. (doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(98)00005-0)
36. Mycroft RH, Behrmann M, Kay J. 2009 Visuoperceptual deficits in letter-by-letter reading? Neuropsychologia 47, 1733-1744. (doi:10.1016/j. neuropsychologia.2009.02.014)
37. Woodhead ZVJ, Wise RJS, Sereno M, Leech R. 2011 Dissociation of sensitivity to spatial frequency in word and face preferential areas of the fusiform gyrus. Cereb. Cortex 21, 2307-2312. (doi:10.1093/ cercor/bhr008)
38. Hasson U, Levy I, Behrmann M, Hendler T, Malach R. 2002 Eccentricity bias as an organizing principle for human high-order object areas. Neuron 34, 479-490. (doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00662-1)
39. Malach R, Levy I, Hasson U. 2002 The topography of high-order human object areas. Trends Cogn. Sci. 6, 176-184. (doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01870-3)
40. Levy I, Hasson U, Avidan G, Hendler T, Malach R. 2001 Center-periphery organization of human object areas. Nat. Neurosci. 4, 533-539.
41. Behrmann M, Plaut DC. 2012 Bilateral hemispheric representation of words and faces: evidence from word impairments in prosopagnosia and face impairments in pure alexia. Cereb. Cortex. (doi:10. 1093/cercor/bhs390)
42. Forster KI, Chambers SM. 1973 Lexical access and naming time. J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 12, 627-635. (doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(73)80042-8)
43. Crisp J, Lambon Ralph MA. 2006 Unlocking the nature of the phonological-deep dyslexia continuum: the keys to reading aloud are in phonology and semantics. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18, 348-362. (doi:10.1162/089892906775990543)
44. Rapcsak SZ, Beeson PM, Henry ML, Leyden A, Kim E, Rising K, Anderson S, Cho H. 2009 Phonological dyslexia and dysgraphia: cognitive mechanisms and neural substrates. Cortex 45, 575-591. (doi:10. 1016/j.cortex.2008.04.006)
45. Welbourne SR, Woollams AM, Crisp J, Ralph MAL. 2011 The role of plasticity-related functional reorganization in the explanation of central dyslexias. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 28, 65-108. (doi:10. 1080/02643294.2011.621937)
46. Vigneau M, Beaucousin V, Hervé PY, Duffau H, Crivello F, Houdé O, Mazoyer B, Tzourio-Mazoyer N. 2006 Meta-analyzing left hemisphere language areas: phonology, semantics, and sentence processing. NeuroImage 30, 1414-1432. (doi:10. 1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.002)
47. Farah MJ, Stowe RM, Levinson KL. 1996 Phonological dyslexia: loss of a reading-specific component of the cognitive architecture? Cogn. Neuropsychol. 13, 849-868. (doi:10.1080/ 026432996381836)
48. Patterson KM, Marcel A. 1992 Phonological ALEXIA or PHONOLOGICAL alexia? In Analytic approaches to human cognition (eds J Alegria, D Holender, J Junca de Morais, M Radeau), pp. 259-274. New York, NY: Elsevier.
49. Price CJ, Howard D, Patterson K, Warburton EA, Friston KJ, Frackowiak RSJ. 1998 A functional neuroimaging description of two deep dyslexic patients. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 10, 303-315. (doi:10. 1162/089892998562753)
50. Hillis AE, Caramazza A. 1991 Mechanisms for accessing lexical representations for output: evidence from a category-specific semantic deficit. Brain Lang. 40, 106-144. (doi:10.1016/0093-934X(91)90119-L)
51. Ciaghi M, Pancheri E, Miceli G. 2010 Semantic paralexias: a group-case study on the underlying functional mechanisms, incidence and clinical features in a consecutive series of 340 Italian aphasics. Brain Lang. 115, 121-132. (doi:10.1016/ j.bandl.2010.06.003)
52. Nestor PJ, Graham NL, Fryer TD, Williams GB, Patterson K, Hodges JR. 2003 Progressive non-fluent aphasia is associated with hypometabolism centred on the left anterior insula. Brain 126, 2406-2418. (doi:10.1093/brain/awg240)
53. Gorno-Tempini ML, Dronkers NF, Rankin KP, Ogar JM, Phengrasamy L, Rosen HJ, Johnson JK, Weiner MW, Miller BL. 2004 Cognition and anatomy in three variants of primany progressive aphasia. Ann. Neurol. 55, 335-346. (doi:10.1002/ana.10825)
54. Louis M, Espesser R, Rey V, Daffaure V, Di Cristo A, Habib M. 2001 Intensive training of phonological skills in progressive aphasia: a model of brain plasticity in neurodegenerative disease. Brain Cogn. 46, 197-201. (doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(01)80065-8)
55. Patterson K, Graham NL, Lambon Ralph MA, Hodges JR. 2006 Progressive non-fluent aphasia is not a progressive form of non-fluent (post-stroke) aphasia. Aphasiology 20, 1018-1034. (doi:10.1080/ 02687030600739463)
56. Brambati SM, Ogar J, Neuhaus J, Miller BL, Gorno-Tempini ML. 2009 Reading disorders in primary progressive aphasia: a behavioral and neuroimaging study. Neuropsychologia 47, 1893-1900. (doi:10. 1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.02.033)
57. Henry ML, Beeson PM, Alexander GE, Rapcsak SZ. 2012 Written language impairments in primary progressive aphasia: a reflection of damage to central semantic and phonological processes. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 24, 261-275. (doi:10.1162/ jocn_a_00153)
58. Wilson SM, Henry ML, Besbris M, Ogar JM, Dronkers NF, Jarrold W, Miller BL, Gorno-Tempini ML. 2010 Connected speech production in three variants of primary progressive aphasia. Brain 133, 2069-2088. (doi:10.1093/brain/awq129)
59. Nestor PJ, Fryer TD, Hodges JR. 2006 Declarative memory impairments in Alzheimer's disease and semantic dementia. NeuroImage 30, 1010-1020. (doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.10.008)
60. Welbourne SR, Lambon Ralph MA. 2007 Using parallel distributed processing models to simulate phonological dyslexia: the key role of plasticity-related recovery. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19, 1125-1139. (doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.7.1125)
61. Plaut DC, McClelland JL, Seidenberg MS, Patterson K. 1996 Understanding normal and impaired word reading: computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychol. Rev. 103, 56-115. (doi:10.1037/ 0033-295X.103.1.56)
62. Baron J, Strawson C. 1976 Use of orthographic and word-specific knowledge in reading words aloud. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 2, 386-393. (doi:10.1037/0096-1523.2.3.386)
63. Graham NL, Patterson K, Hodges JR. 2000 The impact of semantic memory impairment on spelling: evidence from semantic dementia. Neuropsychologia 38, 143-163. (doi:10.1016/ S0028-3932(99)00060-3)
64. Adlam ALR, Patterson K, Rogers TT, Nestor PJ, Salmond CH, Acosta-Cabronero J, Hodges JR. 2006 Semantic dementia and fluent primary progressive aphasia: two sides of the same coin? Brain 129, 3066-3080. (doi:10.1093/brain/awl285)
65. Mion M et al. 2010 What the left and right anterior fusiform gyri tell us about semantic memory. Brain 133, 3256-3268. (doi:10.1093/brain/awq272)
66. Binney RJ, Embleton KV, Jefferies E, Parker GJM, Lambon Ralph MA. 2010 The ventral and inferolateral aspects of the anterior temporal lobe are crucial in semantic memory: evidence from a novel direct comparison of distortion-corrected fMRI, rTMS, and semantic dementia. Cereb. Cortex 20, 2728-2738. (doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq019)
67. Visser M, Embleton KV, Jefferies E, Parker GJ, Ralph MAL. 2010 The inferior, anterior temporal lobes and semantic memory clarified: novel evidence from distortion-corrected fMRI. Neuropsychologia 48, 1689-1696. (doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010. 02.016)
68. Wilson MA, Joubert S, Ferré P, Belleville S, Ansaldo AI, Joanette Y, Rouleau I, Brambati SM. 2012 The role of the left anterior temporal lobe in exception word reading: reconciling patient and neuroimaging findings. NeuroImage 60, 2000-2007. (doi:10. 1016/j.neuroimage.2012.02.009)
69. Strain E, Patterson K, Seidenberg MS. 1995 Semantic effects in single-word naming. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 21, 1140-1154. (doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.5.1140)
70. Woollams AM. 2005 Imageability and ambiguity effects in speeded naming: convergence and divergence. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 31, 878-890. (doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.878)
71. Shibahara N, Zorzi M, Hill MP, Wydell T, Butterworth B. 2003 Semantic effects in word naming: evidence from English and Japanese Kanji. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. A Hum. Exp. Psychol. 56A, 263-286. (doi:10.1080/02724980244000369)
72. Patterson K, Hodges JR. 1992 Deterioration of word meaning: implications for reading. Neuropsychologia 30, 1025-1040. (doi:10.1016/0028-3932(92) 90096-5)
73. Jefferies E, Ralph MAL, Jones R, Bateman D, Patterson K. 2004 Surface dyslexia in semantic dementia: a comparison of the influence of consistency and regularity. Neurocase 10, 290-299. (doi:10.1080/13554790490507623)
74. Graham KS, Hodges JR, Patterson K. 1994 The relationship between comprehension and oral reading in progressive fluent aphasia. Neuropsychologia 32, 299-316. (doi:10.1016/0028-3932(94)90133-3)
75. Funnell E. 1996 Response biases in oral reading: an account of the co-occurrence of surface dyslexia and semantic dementia. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. A Hum. Exp. Psychol. 49, 417-446.
76. McKay A, Castles A, Davis C, Savage G. 2007 The impact of progressive semantic loss on reading aloud. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 24, 162-186. (doi:10. 1080/02643290601025576)
77. Hodges JR, Patterson K, Oxbury S, Funnell E. 1992 Semantic dementia. Progressive fluent aphasia with temporal lobe atrophy. Brain 115, 1783-1806. (doi:10.1093/brain/115.6.1783)
78. Neary D et al. 1998 Frontotemporal lobar degeneration: a consensus on clinical diagnostic criteria. Neurology 51, 1546-1554. (doi:10.1212/ WNL.51.6.1546)
79. Gorno-Tempini ML et al. 2011 Classification of primary progressive aphasia and its variants. Neurology 76, 1006-1014. (doi:10.1212/WNL. 0b013e31821103e6)
80. Rohrer JD, Warren JD, Modat M, Ridgway GR, Douiri A, Rossor MN, Ourselin S, Fox NC. 2009 Patterns of cortical thinning in the language variants of frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Neurology 72, 1562-1569. (doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181a4124e)
81. Plaut DC. 1997 Structure and function in the lexical system: insights from distributed models of word reading and lexical decision. Lang. Cogn. Process. 12, 765-805. (doi:10.1080/016909697386682)
82. Alessi G. 1992 Models of proximate and ultimate causation in psychology. Am. Psychol. 47, 1359-1370. (doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.11.1359)
83. Starrfelt R, O'Lafsdóttir RR, Arendt IM. 2013 Rehabilitation of pure alexia: a review. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 23, 755-779. (doi:10.1080/ 09602011.2013.809661)
84. Maher LM, Clayton MC, Barrett AM, Schober-Peterson D, Gonzalez Rothi LJ. 1998 Rehabilitation of a case of pure alexia: exploiting residual abilities. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 4, 636-647. (doi:10.1017/S1355617798466128)
85. Sage K, Hesketh A, Lambon Ralph MA. 2005 Using errorless learning to treat letter-by-letter reading: contrasting word versus letter-based therapy. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 15, 619-642. (doi:10.1080/ 09602010443000155)
86. Beeson PM, Rising K, Kim ES, Rapcsak SZ. 2010 A treatment sequence for phonological alexia/ agraphia. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 53, 450-468. (doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0229)
87. Kendall DL, Conway T, Rosenbek J, Gonzalez-Rothi L. 2003 Phonological rehabilitation of acquired phonologic alexia. Aphasiology 17, 1073-1095. (doi:10.1080/02687030344000355)
88. Stadie N, Rilling E. 2006 Evaluation of lexically and nonlexically based reading treatment in a deep dyslexic. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 23, 643-672. (doi:10. 1080/02643290500538364)
89. Ska B, Garneau-Beaumont D, Chesneau S, Damien B. 2003 Diagnosis and rehabilitation attempt of a patient with acquired deep dyslexia. Brain Cogn. 53, 359-363. (doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00143-X)
90. Scott C, Byng S. 1989 Computer assisted remediation of a homophone comprehension disorder in surface dyslexia. Aphasiology 3, 301-320. (doi:10.1080/02687038908248996)
91. Coltheart M, Byng S. 1989 A treatment for surface dyslexia. In Cognitive approaches in neuropsychological rehabilitation (eds X Seron, G Deloche), pp. 159-174. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
92. Plaut DC. 1996 Relearning after damage in connectionist networks: toward a theory of rehabilitation. Brain Lang. 52, 25-82. (doi:10.1006/ brln.1996.0004)
93. Welbourne SR, Lambon Ralph MA. 2005 Using computational, parallel distributed processing networks to model rehabilitation in patients with acquired dyslexia: an initial investigation. Aphasiology 19, 789-806. (doi:10.1080/ 02687030500268811)
94. Kiran S, Thompson CK. 2003 The role of semantic complexity in treatment of naming deficits: training semantic categories in fluent aphasia by controlling exemplar typicality. J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 46, 608-622. (doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2003/048)
95. Kiran S, Thompson CK, Hashimoto N. 2001 Training grapheme to phoneme conversion in patients with oral reading and naming deficits: a model-based approach. Aphasiology 15, 855-876. (doi:10.1080/02687040143000258)
96. Ramus F, Rosen S, Dakin SC, Day BL, Castellote JM, White S, Frith U. 2003 Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain 126, 841-865. (doi:10.1093/ brain/awg076)
97. Richlan F, Sturm D, Schurz M, Kronbichler M, Ladurner G, Wimmer H. 2010 A common left occipito-temporal dysfunction in developmental dyslexia and acquired letter-by-letter reading? PLoS ONE 5, e12073. (doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012073)
98. Richlan F, Kronbichler M, Wimmer H. 2011 Meta-analyzing brain dysfunctions in dyslexic children and adults. NeuroImage 56, 1735-1742. (doi:10.1016/j. neuroimage.2011.02.040)
99. Kronbichler M, Wimmer H, Staffen W, Hutzier F, Mair A, Ladurner G. 2008 Developmental dyslexia: gray matter abnormalities in the occipitotemporal cortex. Hum. Brain Mapp. 29, 613-625. (doi:10. 1002/hbm.20425)
100. Raschle NM, Chang M, Gaab N. 2011 Structural brain alterations associated with dyslexia predate reading onset. NeuroImage 57, 742-749. (doi:10. 1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.055)
101. Liberman IY, Shankweiler D. 1985 Phonology and the problems of learning to read and write. Remedial Spec. Educ. 6, 8-17. (doi:10.1177/ 074193258500600604)
102. Herrmann JA, Matyas T, Pratt C. 2006 Meta-analysis of the nonword reading deficit in specific reading disorder. Dyslexia 12, 195-221. (doi:10.1002/ dys.324)
103. Rack JP, Olson RK. 1993 Phonological deficits, IQ, and individual differences in reading disability: genetic and environmental influences. Dev. Rev. 13, 269-278. (doi:10.1006/drev.1993.1013)
104. Brambati SM, Termine C, Ruffino M, Stella G, Fazio F, Cappa SF, Perani D. 2004 Regional reductions of gray matter volume in familial dyslexia. Neurology 63, 742-745. (doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000134673. 95020.EE)
105. Brown WE, Eliez S, Menon V, Rumsey JM, White CD, Reiss AL. 2001 Preliminary evidence of widespread morphological variations of the brain in dyslexia. Neurology 56, 781-783. (doi:10.1212/WNL. 56.6.781)
106. Paulesu E et al. 2001 Dyslexia: cultural diversity and biological unity. Science 291, 2165-2167. (doi:10. 1126/science.1057179)
107. Shaywitz SE et al. 1998 Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95, 2636-2641. (doi:10. 1073/pnas.95.5.2636)
108. Nation K, Snowling MJ. 1998 Semantic processing and the development of word-recognition skills: evidence from children with reading comprehension difficulties. J. Mem. Lang. 39, 85-101. (doi:10. 1006/jmla.1998.2564)
109. Ricketts J, Nation K, Bishop DVM. 2007 Vocabulary is important for some, but not all reading skills. Sci. Stud. Read. 11, 235-257. (doi:10.1080/ 10888430701344306)
110. Castles A, Coltheart M. 1993 Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition 47, 149-180. (doi:10.1016/0010-0277(93)90003-E)
111. Castles A, Bates TC, Coltheart M. 2006 John Marshall and the developmental dyslexias. Aphasiology 20, 871-892. (doi:10.1080/02687030600738952)
112. Manis FR, Seidenberg MS, Doi LM, McBride-Chang C, Petersen A. 1996 On the bases of two subtypes of development dyslexia. Cognition 58, 157-195. (doi:10.1016/0010-0277(95)00679-6)
113. Peterson RL, Pennington BF, Olson RK. 2013 Subtypes of developmental dyslexia: testing the predictions of the dual-route and connectionist frameworks. Cognition 126, 20-38. (doi:10.1016/j. cognition.2012.08.007)
114. Harm MW, Seidenberg MS. 1999 Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: insights from connectionist models. Psychol. Rev. 106, 491-528. (doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.491)
115. Hennessey NW, Deadman A, Williams C. 2012 Semantic effects on word naming in children with developmental dyslexia. J. Res. Read. 35, 267-286. (doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01458.x)
116. Bus AG, Van Ijzendoorn MH. 1999 Phonological awareness and early reading: a meta-analysis of experimental training studies. J. Educ. Psychol. 91, 403-414. (doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.403)
117. Ehri LC, Nunes SR, Stahl SA, Willows DM. 2001 Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: evidence from the national reading panel's meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 71, 393-447. (doi:10.3102/00346543071003393)
118. Ehri LC, Nunes SR, Willows DM, Schuster BV, Yaghoub-Zadeh Z, Shanahan T. 2001 Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: evidence from the national reading panels meta-analysis. Read. Res. Q. 36, 250-283. (doi:10.1598/ RRQ.36.3.2)
119. Harm MW, McCandliss BD, Seidenberg MS. 2003 Modeling the successes and failures of interventions for disabled readers. Sci. Stud. Read. 7, 155-182. (doi:10.1207/S1532799 XSSR0702_3)