Neural systems for reading aloud: A multiparametric approach

Cerebral Cortex

Volumn 20, Issue 8, 2010, Pages 1799-1815

  Graves, William W ^a   Desai, Rutvik ^a   Humphries, Colin ^a   Seidenberg, Mark S ^b   Binder, Jeffrey R ^a  

^a MEDICAL COLLEGE OF WISCONSIN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

language; orthography; phonology; reading; semantics

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; CINGULATE GYRUS; CLINICAL ARTICLE; FEMALE; FRONTAL LOBE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; INSULA; MALE; OCCIPITAL CORTEX; PHONETICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; READING; SEMANTICS; SOUND; SPELLING; TASK PERFORMANCE; TEMPORAL CORTEX; THALAMUS; WORKING MEMORY;

ADULT; BRAIN MAPPING; DOMINANCE, CEREBRAL; FEMALE; FUNCTIONAL LATERALITY; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; LANGUAGE TESTS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MALE; NERVE NET; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PARIETAL LOBE; PHOTIC STIMULATION; READING; SEMANTICS; SPEECH; TEMPORAL LOBE; VERBAL BEHAVIOR; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 77955951172     PISSN: 10473211     EISSN: 14602199     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhp245     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Adelman JS, Brown GDA, Quesada JF. 2006. Contextual diversity, not word frequency, determines word-naming and lexical decision times. Psychol Sci. 17:814-823.
2. Adler CM, Sax KW, Holland SK, Schmithorst V, Rosenberg L, Strakowski SM. 2001. Changes in neuronal activation with increasing attention demand in healthy volunteers: an fMRI study. Synapse. 42:266-272.
3. Alathari L, Ngo CT, Dopkins S. 2004. Loss of distinctive features and a broader pattern of priming in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychol-ogy. 18:603-612.
4. Alexander MP. 2003. Aphasia: clinical and anatomic issues. In: Feinberg TE, Farah MJ, editors. Behavioral neurology and neuropsychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 147-164.
5. Alexander MP, Friedman RB, Loverso F, Fischer RS. 1992. Lesion localization of phonological agraphia. Brain Lang. 43:83-95.
6. Andrews S. 1982. Phonological recoding: is the regularity effect consistent? Mem Cognit. 10:565-575.
7. Arnold SE, Hyman BT, Flory J, Damasio AR, Van Hoesen GW. 1991. The topographical and neuroanatomical distribution of neurofibrillary tangles and neuritic plaques in the cerebral cortex of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Cereb Cortex. 1:103-116.
8. Baayen RH, Feldman LB, Schreuder R. 2006. Morphological influences on the recognition of monosyllabic monomorphemic words. J Mem Lang. 55:290-313.
9. Baayen RH, Piepenbrock R, Gulikers L. 1995. The CELEX lexical database. 2.5 edn. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Linguistic data consortium.
10. Badre D, Wagner AD. 2002. Semantic retrieval, mnemonic control, and prefrontal cortex. Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev. 1:206-218.
11. Balota DA, Cortese MJ, Sergent-Marshall SD, Spieler DH, Yap MJ. 2004. Visual word recognition of single-syllable words. J Exp Psychol Gen. 133:283-316.
12. Balota DA, Ferraro FR, Connor LT. 1991. On the early influence of meaning in word recognition: a review of the literature. In: Schwanenflugel PJ, editor. The psychology of word meanings. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 187-222.
13. Baron J, Strawson C. 1976. Use of orthographic and word-specific knowledge in reading words aloud. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2:386-393.
14. Bedny M, Thompson-Schill SL. 2006. Neuroanatomically separable effects of imageability and grammatical class during single-word comprehension. Brain Lang. 98:127-139.
15. Biederman GB. 1966. The recognition of tachistoscopically presented five-letter words as a function of digram frequency. J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav. 5:208-209.
16. Binder JR, Desai RH, Graves WW, Conant LL. 2009. Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cereb Cortex. Advance Access Published March 27, doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhp055.
17. Binder JR, Liebenthal E, Possing ET, Medler DA, Ward BD. 2004. Neural correlates of sensory and decision processes in auditory object identification. Nat Neurosci. 7:295-301.
18. Binder JR, Medler DA, Desai R, Conant LL, Liebenthal E. 2005. Some neurophysiological constraints on models of word naming. Neuro-image. 27:677-693.
19. Binder JR, Medler DA, Westbury CF, Liebenthal E, Buchanan L. 2006. Tuning of the human left fusiform gyrus to sublexical orthographic structure. Neuroimage. 33:739-748.
20. Binder JR, Mohr JP. 1992. The topography of callosal reading pathways. Brain. 115:1807-1826.
21. Binder JR, Westbury CF, McKiernan KA, Possing ET, Medler DA. 2005. Distinct brain systems for processing concrete and abstract concepts. J Cogn Neurosci. 17:905-917.
22. Bird H, Franklin S, Howard D. 2001. Age of acquisition and imageability ratings for a large set of words, including verbs and function words. Behav Res Methods Instr Comput. 33:73-79.
23. Bolger DJ, Hornickel J, Cone NE, Burman DD, Booth JR. 2008. Neural correlates of orthographic and phonological consistency effects in children. Hum Brain Mapp. 29:1416-1429.
24. Bolger DJ, Minas J, Burman DD, Booth JR. 2008. Differential effects of orthographic and phonological consistency in cortex for children with and without reading impairment. Neuropsychologia. 46:3210-3224.
25. Bolger DJ, Perfetti CA, Schneider W. 2005. Cross-cultural effect on the brain revisited: universal structures plus writing system variation. Hum Brain Mapp. 25:92-104.
26. Bookheimer S. 2002. Functional MRI of language: new approaches to understanding the cortical organization of semantic processing. Annu Rev Neurosci. 25:151-188.
27. Brambati SM, Ogar J, Neuhaus J, Miller BL, Gorno-Tempini ML. 2009. Reading disorders in primary progressive aphasia: a behavioral and neuroimaging study. Neuropsychologia. 47:1893-1900.
28. Braver TS, Barch DM, Gray JR, Molfese DL, Snyder A. 2001. Anterior cingulate cortex and response conflict: effects of frequency, inhibition and errors. Cereb Cortex. 11:825-836.
29. Broadbent DE, Gregory M. 1968. Visual preception of words differing in letter digram frequency. J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav. 7:569-571.
30. Buckner RL, Snyder AZ, Shannon BJ, LaRossa G, Sachs R, Fotenos AF, Sheline YI, Klunk WE, Mathis CA, Morris JC, et al. 2005. Molecular, structural, and functional characterization of Alzheimer's disease: evidence for a relationship between default activity, amyloid, and memory. J Neurosci. 25:7709-7717.
31. Carreiras M, Mechelli A, Price CJ. 2006. Effect of word and syllable frequency on activation during lexical decision and reading aloud. Hum Brain Mapp. 27:963-972.
32. Carreiras M, Riba J, Vergara M, Heldmann M, Munte TF. 2009. Syllable congruency and word frequency effects on brain activation. Hum Brain Mapp. 30:3079-3088.
33. Carter CS, Botvinick MM, Cohen JD. 1999. The contribution of the anterior cingulate cortex to executive processes in cognition. Rev Neurosci. 10:49-57.
34. Chee MWL, Hon NHH, Caplan D, Lee HL, Goh J. 2002. Frequency of concrete words modulates prefrontal activation during semantic judgments. Neuroimage. 16:259-268.
35. Chertkow H, Bub D, Seidenberg MS. 1989. Priming and sematic memory loss in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Lang. 36:420-446.
36. Clark JM, Paivio A. 2004. Extensions of the Paivio, Yuille, and Madigan (1968) norms. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 36: 371-383.
37. Cohen L, Dehaene S, Naccache L, Lehericy S, Dehaene-Lambertz G, Henaff M-A, Michel F. 2000. The visual word form area: spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients. Brain. 123:291-307.
38. Cohen L, Henry C, Dehaene S, Martinaud O, Lehericy S, Lemer C, Ferrieux S. 2004. The pathophysiology of letter-by-letter reading. Neuropsychologia. 42:1768-1780.
39. Cohen L, Jobert A, Le Bihan D, Dehaene S. 2004. Distinct unimodal and multimodal regions for word processing in the left temporal cortex. Neuroimage. 23:1256-1270.
40. Cohen L, Lehericy S, Chochon F, Lemer C, Rivaud S, Dehaene S. 2002. Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area. Brain. 125:1054-1069.
41. Coltheart M, Curtis B, Atkins P, Haller M. 1993. Models of reading aloud: dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychol Rev. 100:589-608.
42. Coltheart M, Davelaar E, Jonasson JT, Besner D. 1977. Access to the internal lexicon. In: Dornic S, editor. Attention and performance VI. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 535-555.
43. Coltheart M, Rastle K, Perry C, Langdon R, Ziegler J. 2001. DRC: a dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychol Rev. 108:204-256.
44. Corbetta M, Akbudak E, Conturo T, Snyder AZ, Ollinger JM, Drury HA, Linenweber MR, Petersen SE, Raichle ME, Van Essen DC, et al. 1998. A common network of functional areas for attention and eye movements. Neuron. 21:761-773.
45. Cortese MJ, Fugett A. 2004. Imageability ratings for 3,000 monosyllabic words. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 36:384-387.
46. Cox RW. 1996. AFNI: software for analysis and visualization of functional magnetic resonance neuroimages. Comput Biomed Res. 29:162-173.
47. Cusack R, Cumming N, Bor D, Norris D, Lyzenga J. 2005. Automated post-hoc noise cancellation tool for audio recordings acquired in an MRI scanner. Hum Brain Mapp. 24:299-304.
48. Damasio H. 1998. Neuroanatomical correlates of the aphasias. In: Sarno MT, editor. Acquired aphasia. San Diego (CA): Academic Press. p. 43-70.
49. Damasio H, Damasio AR. 1980. The anatomical basis of conduction aphasia. Brain. 103:337-350.
50. Dehaene S, Cohen L, Sigman M, Vinckier F. 2005. The neural code for written words: a proposal. Trends Cogn Sci. 9:335-341.
51. Demonet J-F, Chollet F, Ramsay S, Cardebat D, Nespoulous J-L, Wise R, Rascol A, Frackowiak R. 1992. The anatomy of phonological and semantic processing in normal subjects. Brain. 115:1753-1768.
52. Derrfuss J, Brass M, Neumann J, Yves von Cramon D. 2005. Involvement of the inferior frontal junction in cognitive control: meta-analyses of switching and stroop studies. Hum Brain Mapp. 25:22-34.
53. Desai R, Conant LL, Waldron E, Binder JR. 2006. FMRI of past tense processing: the effects of phonological complexity and task difficulty. J Cogn Neurosci. 18:278-297.
54. Duncan J, Owen AM. 2000. Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Trends Neurosci. 23:475-483.
55. Fiebach CJ, Friederici AD. 2003. Processing concrete words: fMRI evidence against a specific right-hemisphere involvement. Neuro-psychologia. 42:62-70.
56. Fiebach CJ, Friederici AD, Muller K, Yves von Cramon D. 2002. fMRI evidence for dual routes to the mental lexicon in visual word recognition. J Cogn Neurosci. 14:11-23.
57. Fiez JA, Balota DA, Raichle ME, Petersen SE. 1999. Effects of lexicality, frequency, and spelling-to-sound consistency on the functional anatomy of reading. Neuron. 24:205-218.
58. Fiez JA, Petersen SE. 1998. Neuroimaging studies of word reading. Proc Natl Acad Sci\USA. 95:914-921.
59. Fiez JA, Tranel D, Seager-Frerichs D, Damasio H. 2006. Specific reading and phonological processing deficits are associated with damage to the left frontal operculum. Cortex. 42:624-643.
60. Forster KI, Chambers SM. 1973. Lexical access and naming time. J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav. 12:627-635.
61. Friederici AD, Opitz B, Yves von Cramon D. 2000. Segregating semantic and syntactic aspects of processing in the human brain: an fMRI investigation of different word types. Cereb Cortex. 10:698-705.
62. Friedman L, Glover GH, Krenz D, Magnotta V. 2006. Reducing inter-scanner variability of activation in a multicenter fMRI study: role of smoothness equalization. Neuroimage. 32:1656-1668.
63. Frost SJ, Mencl WE, Sandak R, Moore DL, Rueckl JG, Katz L, Fulbright RK, Pugh KR. 2005. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of the tradeoff between semantics and phonology in reading aloud. Neuroreport. 16:621-624.
64. Gernsbacher MA. 1984. Resolving 20 years of inconsistent interactions between lexical familiarity and orthography, concreteness, and polysemy. J Exp Psychol Gen. 113:256-281.
65. Giffard B, Desgranges B, Nore-Mary F, Lalevee C, de la Sayette V, Pasquier F, Eustache F. 2001. The nature of semantic memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease: new insights from hyperpriming effects. Brain. 124:1522-1532.
66. Gilhooly KJ, Logie RH. 1980. Age-of-acquisition, imagery, concreteness, familiarity, and ambiguity measures for 1,944 words. Behav Res Methods Instr. 12:395-427.
67. Glushko RJ. 1979. The organization and activation of orthographic knowledge in reading aloud. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 5:674-691.
68. Goldrick M, Larson M. 2008. Phonotactic probability influences speech production. Cognition. 107:1155-1164.
69. Gould RL, Brown RG, Owen AM, ffytche DH, Howard RJ. 2003. FMRI BOLD response to increasing task difficulty during successful paired associates learning. Neuroimage. 20:1006-1019.
70. Graves WW, Grabowski TJ, Mehta S, Gupta P. 2008. Left posterior superior temporal gyrus participates specifically in accessing lexical phonology. J Cogn Neurosci. 20:1698-1710.
71. Grosbras M-H, Laird AR, Paus T. 2005. Cortical regions involved in eye movements, shifts of attention, and gaze perception. Hum Brain Mapp. 25:140-154.
72. Gusnard DA, Raichle ME. 2001. Searching for a baseline: functional imaging and the resting brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2:685-694.
73. Harm MW, Seidenberg MS. 2004. Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative Division of Labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychol Rev. 111:662-720.
74. Hauk O, Davis MH, Kherif F, Pulvermuller F. 2008. Imagery or meaning? Evidence for a semantic origin of category-specific brain activity in metabolic imaging. Eur J Neurosci. 27:1856-1866.
75. Hauk O, Davis MH, Pulvermuller F. 2008. Modulation of brain activity by multiple lexical and word form variables in visual word recognition: a parametric fMRI study. Neuroimage. 42:1185-1195.
76. Hennessey NW, Kirsner K. 1999. The role of sub-lexical orthography in naming: a performance and acoustic analysis. Acta Psychol (Amst). 103:125-148.
77. Henry JD, Crawford JR, Phillips LH. 2004. Verbal fluency performance in dementia of the Alzheimer's type: a meta-analysis. Neuro-psychologia. 42:1212-1222.
78. Herbster AN, Mintun MA, Nebes RD, Becker JT. 1997. Regional cerebral blood flow during word and nonword reading. Hum Brain Mapp. 5:84-92.
79. Hillis AE, Newhart M, Heidler J, Barker P, Herskovits E, Degaonkar M. 2005. The roles of the "visual word form area" in reading. Neuroimage. 24:548-559.
80. Hino Y, Lupker SJ. 2000. Effects of word frequency and spelling-to-sound regularity in naming with and without preceding lexicial decision. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 26:166-183.
81. Honey GD, Bullmore ET, Sharma T. 2000. Prolonged reaction time to a verbal working memory task predicts increased power of posterior parietal cortical activation. Neuroimage. 12:495-503.
82. Huttenlocher J, Kubicek LF. 1983. The source of relatedness effects on naming latency. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 9:486-496.
83. Indefrey P, Levelt WJM. 2004. The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components. Cognition. 92:101-144.
84. James CT. 1975. The role of semantic information in lexical decisions. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 104:130-136.
85. Jared D. 1997. Spelling-sound consistency affects the naming of high-frequency words. J Mem Lang. 36:505-529.
86. Jared D. 2002. Spelling-sound consistency and regularity effects in word naming. J Mem Lang. 46:723-750.
87. Jessen F, Heun R, Erb M, Granath D-O, Klose U, Papassotiropoulos A, Grodd W. 2000. The concreteness effect: evidence for dual-coding and context availability. Brain Lang. 74:103-112.
88. Jobard G, Crivello F, Tzourio-Mazoyer N. 2003. Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage. 20:693-712.
89. Joubert S, Beauregard M, Walter N, Bourgouin P, Beaudoin G, Leroux J-M, Karama S, Lecours AR. 2004. Neural correlates of lexical and sublexical processes in reading. Brain Lang. 89:9-20.
90. Kounios J, Holcomb PJ. 1994. Concreteness effects in semantic processing: ERP evidence supporting dual-encoding theory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 20:804-823.
91. Kroll JF, Merves JS. 1986. Lexical access for concrete and abstract words. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 12:92-107.
92. Kronbichler M, Hutzler F, Wimmer H, Mair A, Staffen W, Ladurner G. 2004. The visual word form area and the frequency with which words are encountered: evidence from a parametric fMRI study. Neuroimage. 21:946-953.
93. LaBar KS, Gitelman DR, Parrish TB, Mesulam M-M. 1999. Neuroanatomic overlap of working memory and spatial attention networks: a functional MRI comparison within subjects. Neuroimage. 10:695-704.
94. Leff AP, Crewes H, Plant GT, Scott SK, Kennard C, Wise RJS. 2001. The functional anatomy of single-word reading in patients with hemi-anopic and pure alexia. Brain. 124:510-521.
95. Lehmann C, Vannini P, Wahlund L, Almkvist O, Dierks T. 2006. Increased sensitivity in mapping task demand in visuospatial processing using reaction-time dependent hemodynamic response predictors in rapid event-related fMRI. Neuroimage. 31:505-512.
96. Majerus S, Collette F, Van der Linden M, Peigneux P, Laureys S, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Salmon E. 2002. A PET investigation of lexicality and phonotactic frequency in oral language processing. Cognitive Neuropsychol. 19:343-360.
97. Martin A. 1992. Degraded knowledge representations in patients with Alzheimer's disease: implications for models of semantic and repetition priming. In: Squire LR, Butters N, editors. Neuropsychol-ogy of memory. New York: The Guilford Press.
98. McCandliss BD, Cohen L, Dehaene S. 2003. The visual word form area: expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus. Trends Cogn Sci. 7:293-299.
99. McClelland JL, Rumelhart DE. 1981. An interactive activation model of context effects in letter preception: part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychol Rev. 88:375-407.
100. McRae K, Cree GS, Seidenberg MS, McNorgan C. 2005. Semantic feature production norms for a large set of living and nonliving things. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 37:547-559.
101. Mechelli A, Crinion JT, Long S, Friston KJ, Lambon Ralph MA, Patterson K, McClelland JL, Price CJ. 2005. Dissociating reading processes on the basis of neuronal interactions. J Cogn Neurosci. 17:1753-1765.
102. Mechelli A, Humphreys GW, Mayall K, Olson A, Price CJ. 2000. Differential effects of word length and visual contrast in the fusiform and lingual gyri during reading. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 267:1909-1913.
103. Mitchell RLC. 2005. The BOLD response during Stroop task-like inhibition paradigms: effects of task difficulty and task-relevant modality. Brain Cogn. 59:23-37.
104. Monsell S. 1991. The nature and locus of word frequency effects in reading. In: Besner D, Humphreys GW, editors. Basic processes in reading: visual word recognition. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 148-197.
105. Monsell S, Doyle MC, Haggard PN. 1989. Effects of frequency on visual word recognition tasks: where are they? J Exp Psychol Gen. 118:43-71.
106. Nakic M, Smith BW, Busis S, Vythilingam M, Blair RJR. 2006. The impact of affect and frequency on lexical decision: the role of the amygdala and inferior frontal cortex. Neuroimage. 31:1752-1761.
107. Nelson DL, McEvoy CL. 2000. What is this thing called frequency? Mem Cognit. 28:509-522.
108. Nestor PJ, Fryer TD, Hodges JR. 2006. Declarative memory impairments in Alzheimer's disease and semantic dementia. Neuroimage. 30:1010-1020.
109. Noble K, Glosser G, Grossman M. 2000. Oral reading in dementia. Brain Lang. 74:48-69.
110. Noppeney U, Price CJ. 2004. Retrieval of abstract semantics. Neuro-image. 22:164-170.
111. O'Malley S, Besner D. 2008. Reading aloud: qualitative differences in the relation between stimulus quality and word frequency as a function of context. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 34:1400-1411.
112. Oldfield RC. 1971. The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia. 9:97-113.
113. Owen AM, McMillan KM, Laird AR, Bullmore E. 2005. N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuro-imaging studies. Hum Brain Mapp. 25:46-59.
114. Paivio A. 1991. Dual coding theory: retrospect and current status. Can J Psychol. 45:255-287.
115. Paivio A, Yuille JC, Madigan SA. 1968. Concreteness, imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns. J Exp Psychol Monogr Suppl. 76:1-25.
116. Patterson K, Hodges JR. 1992. Deterioration of word meaning: implications for reading. Neuropsychologia. 30:1025-1040.
117. Patterson K, Marshall JC, Coltheart M. 1985. Surface dyslexia: neuro-psychological and cognitive studies of phonological reading. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
118. Perani D, Cappa SF, Schnur T, Tettamanti M, Collina S, Rosa MM, Fazio F. 1999. The neural correlates of verb and noun processing: a PET study. Brain. 122:2337-2344.
119. Perry C, Ziegler J, Zorzi M. 2007. Nested incremental modeling in the development of computational theories: the CDP+ model of reading aloud. Psychol Rev. 114:273-315.
120. Pexman PM, Hargreaves IS, Edwards JD, Henry LC, Goodyear BG. 2007. Neural correlates of concreteness in semantic categorization. J Cogn Neurosci. 19:1407-1419.
121. Plaut DC, McClelland JL, Seidenberg MS, Patterson K. 1996. Understanding normal and impaired word reading: computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychol Rev. 103:56-115.
122. Prabhakaran R, Blumstein SE, Myers EB, Hutchison E, Britton B. 2006. An event-related fMRI investigation of phonological-lexical competition. Neuropsychologia. 44:2209-2221.
123. Price CJ. 2000. The anatomy of language: contributions from functional neuroimaging. J Anat. 197:335-359.
124. Price CJ, Devlin JT. 2003. The myth of the visual word form area. Neuroimage. 19:473-481.
125. Price CJ, Gorno-Tempini ML, Graham KS, Biggio N, Mechelli A, Patterson K, Noppeney U. 2003. Normal and pathological reading: converging data from lesion and imaging studies. Neuroimage. 20:S30-S41.
126. Price CJ, Winterburn D, Giraud AL, Moore CJ, Noppeney U. 2003. Cortical localisation of the visual and auditory word form areas: a reconsideration of the evidence. Brain Lang. 86: 272-286.
127. Rice GA, Robinson DO. 1975. The role of bigram frequency in the perception of words and nonwords. Mem Cognit. 3:513-518.
128. Richlan F, Kronbichler M, Wimmer H. 2009. Functional abnormalities in the dyslexic brain: a quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Hum Brain Mapp. 30:3299-3308.
129. Roeltgen DP, Sevush S, Heilman KM. 1983. Phonological agraphia: writing by the lexical-semantic route. Neurology. 33:755-765.
130. Rumelhart DE, Siple P. 1974. Process of recognizing tachistoscopically presented words. Psychol Rev. 81:99-118.
131. Saad ZS, Glen DR, Chen G, Beauchamp MS, Desai R, Cox RW. 2009. A new method for improving functional-to-structural MRI alignment using local Pearson correlation. Neuroimage. 44: 839-848.
132. Sabsevitz DS, Medler DA, Seidenberg M, Binder JR. 2005. Modulation of the semantic system by word imageability. Neuroimage. 27:188-200.
133. Saffran EM. 2000. Aphasia and the relationship of language and brain. Semin Neurol. 20:409-418.
134. Salmon DP, Butters N, Chan AS. 1999. The deterioration of semantic memory in Alzheimer's disease. Can J Exp Psychol. 53:108-116.
135. Sandak R, Mencl WE, Frost SJ, Rueckl JG, Katz L, Moore DL, Mason SA, Fulbright RK, Constable RT, Pugh KR. 2004. The neurobiology of adaptive learning in reading: a contrast of different training conditions. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 4:67-88.
136. Schilling HH, Rayner K, Chumbley JI. 1998. Comparing naming, lexical decision, and eye fixation times: word frequency effects and individual differences. Mem Cognit. 26:1270-1281.
137. Schwanenflugel PJ. 1991. Why are abstract concepts hard to understand? In: Schwanenflugel PJ, editor. The psychology of word meanings. Hillsdale (NJ): Erlbaum.
138. Seidenberg MS, McClelland JL. 1989. A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychol Rev. 96:523-568.
139. Seidenberg MS, Waters GS, Barnes M, Tanenhaus MK. 1984. When does irregular spelling or pronunciation influence word recognition? J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav. 23:383-404.
140. Shallice T. 1988. From neuropsychology to mental structure. New York: Cambridge University Press.
141. Shibahara N, Zorzi M, Hill MP, Wydell T, Butterworth B. 2003. Semantic effects in word naming: evidence from English and Japanese Kanji. Q J Exp Psychol. 56A:263-286.
142. Strain E, Herdman CM. 1999. Imageability effects in word naming: an individual differences analysis. Can J Exp Psychol. 53:347-359.
143. Strain E, Patterson K, Graham N, Hodges JR. 1998. Word reading in Alzheimer's disease: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of response time and accuracy data. Neuropsychologia. 36: 155-171.
144. Strain E, Patterson K, Seidenberg MS. 1995. Semantic effects in single-word naming. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 21:1140-1154.
145. Talairach J, Tournoux P. 1988. Co-planar stereotaxic axis of the human brain. Stuttgart (Germany): Thieme.
146. Taraban R, McClelland JL. 1987. Conspiracy effects in word recognition. J Mem Lang. 26:608-631.
147. Toglia MP, Battig WF. 1978. Handbook of semantic word norms. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
148. Tregallas JR, Davalos DB, Rojas DC. 2006. Effect of task difficulty on the functional anatomy of temporal processing. Neuroimage. 32:307-315.
149. Turkeltaub PE, Eden GF, Jones KM, Zeffiro TA. 2002. Meta-analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of single-word reading: method and validation. Neuroimage. 16:765-780.
150. Ullsperger M, Yves von Cramon D. 2001. Subprocesses of performance monitoring: a dissociation of error processing and response competition revealed by event-related fMRI and ERPs. Neuroimage. 14:1387-1401.
151. Vinckier F, Dehaene S, Jobert A, Dubus JP, Sigman M, Cohen L. 2007. Hierarchical coding of letter strings in the ventral stream: dissecting the inner organization of the visual word-form system. Neuron. 55:143-156.
152. Vitevitch MS, Armbruster J, Chu S. 2004. Sublexical and lexical representations in speech production: effects of phonotactic probability and onset density. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 30:514-529.
153. Vitevitch MS, Luce PA. 2004. A web-based interface to calculate phonotactic probability for words and nonwords in English. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 36:481-487.
154. Ward BD. 2006. Deconvolution analysis of fMRI time series data 1: program 3dDeconvolve. Available at http://afni.nimh.nih.gov/pub/dist/doc/manual/ Deconvolvem.pdf.
155. Waters GS, Seidenberg MS. 1985. Spelling-sound effects in reading: time-course and decision criteria. Mem Cognit. 13:557-572.
156. Wechsler D. 2001. Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (WTAR). San Antonio (TX): The Psychological Corporation.
157. Weekes BS. 1997. Differential effects of number of letters on word and nonword naming latency. Q J Exp Psychol. 50A:439-456.
158. Westbury C, Buchanan L. 2002. The probability of the least likely non-length-controlled bigram affects lexical decision reaction times. Brain Lang. 81:66-78.
159. Whatmough C, Chertkow H, Murtha S, Templeman D, Babins L, Kelner N. 2003. The semantic category effect increases with worsening anomia in Alzheimer's type dementia. Brain Lang. 84:134-147.
160. Wilson MD. 1988. The MRC psycholinguistic database: machine readable dictionary, version 2. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 20:6-11.
161. Wilson SM, Brambati SM, Henry RG, Handwerker DA, Agosta F, Miller BL, Wilkins DP, Ogar JM, Gorno-Tempini ML. 2009. The neural basis of surface dyslexia in semantic dementia. Brain. 132:71-86.
162. Wilson SM, Isenberg AL, Hickok G. 2009. Neural correlates of word production stages delineated by parametric modulation of psycho-linguistic variables. Hum Brain Mapp. 30:3596-3608.
163. Woollams AM. 2005. Imageability and ambiguity effects in speeded naming: convergence and divergence. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 31:878-890.
164. Woollams AM, Lambon Ralph MA, Plaut DC, Patterson K. 2007. SD-squared: on the association between semantic dementia and surface dyslexia. Psychol Rev. 114:316-339.
165. Wydell TN, Vuorinen T, Helenius P, Salmelin R. 2003. Neural correlates of letter-string length and lexicality during reading in a regular orthography. J Cogn Neurosci. 15:1052-1062.