Can cognitive models explain brain activation during word and pseudoword reading? A meta-analysis of 36 neuroimaging studies

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 139, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 766-791

  Taylor, J S H ^a,b   Rastle, Kathleen ^c   Davis, Matthew H ^a  

^a MRC COGNITION AND BRAIN SCIENCES UNIT   (United Kingdom)

^b NEWNHAM COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Activation likelihood estimation; Dual route cascaded model; FMRI; PET; Triangle model

Indexed keywords

EID: 84880292898     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0030266     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Abutalebi, J., Keim, R., Brambati, S. M., Tettamanti, M., Cappa, S. F., De Bleser, R., & Perani, D. (2007). Late acquisition of literacy in a native language. Human Brain Mapping, 28, 19-33. doi:10.1002/hbm.20240
2. Andrews, T. J., & Ewbank, M. P. (2004). Distinct representations for facial identity and changeable aspects of faces in the human temporal lobe. NeuroImage, 23, 905-913. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.060
3. Balota, D. A., Cortese, M. J., Sergent-Marshall, S. D., Spieler, D. H., & Yap, M. J. (2004). Visual word recognition of single-syllable words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 283-316. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.283
4. Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617-645. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093639
5. Bates, E., Wilson, S. M., Saygin, A. P., Dick, F., Sereno, M. I., Knight, R. T., & Dronkers, N. F. (2003). Voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 448-450. doi:10.1038/nn1050
6. Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Graves, W. W., & Conant, L. L. (2009). Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 2767-2796. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp055
7. Binder, J. R., McKiernan, K. A., Parsons, M. E., Westbury, C. F., Possing, E. T., Kaufman, J. N., & Buchanan, L. (2003). Neural correlates of lexical access during visual word recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 372-393. doi:10.1162/089892903321593108
8. Binder, J. R., Medler, D. A., Desai, R., Conant, L. L., & Liebenthal, E. (2005). Some neurophysiological constraints on models of word naming. NeuroImage, 27, 677-693. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.029
9. Boatman, D., Gordon, B., Hart, J., Selnes, O., Miglioretti, D., & Lenz, F. (2000). Transcortical sensory aphasia: Revisited and revised. Brain, 123, 1634-1642. doi:10.1093/brain/123.8.1634
10. Bolger, D. J., Hornickel, J., Cone, N. E., Burman, D. D., & Booth, J. R. (2008). Neural correlates of orthographic and phonological consistency effects in children. Human Brain Mapping, 29, 1416-1429. doi:10.1002/hbm.20476
11. Bolger, D. J., Minas, J., Burman, D. D., & Booth, J. R. (2008). Differential effects of orthographic and phonological consistency in cortex for children with and without reading impairment. Neuropsychologia, 46, 3210-3224. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.024
12. Bolger, D. J., Perfetti, C. A., & Schneider, W. (2005). Cross-cultural effect on the brain revisited: Universal structures plus writing system variation. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 92-104. doi:10.1002/hbm.20124
13. Booth, J. R., Burman, D. D., Meyer, J. R., Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. B., & Mesulam, M. M. (2003). Relation between brain activation and lexical performance. Human Brain Mapping, 19, 155-169. doi:10.1002/hbm.10111
14. Bowers, J. S., Davis, C. J., & Hanley, D. A. (2005). Interfering neighbours: The impact of novel word learning on the identification of visually similar words. Cognition, 97, B45-B54. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2005.02.002
15. Braet, W., Wagemans, J., & Op de Beeck, H. P. (2012). The visual word form area is organized according to orthography. NeuroImage, 59, 2751-2759. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.032
16. Brambati, S. M., Ogar, J., Neuhaus, J., Miller, B. L., & Gorno-Tempini, M. L. (2009). Reading disorders in primary progressive aphasia: A behavioral and neuroimaging study. Neuropsychologia, 47, 1893-1900. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.02.033
17. Brett, M., Johnsrude, I. S., & Owen, A. M. (2002). The problem of functional localization in the human brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3, 243-249. doi:10.1038/nrn756
18. Bruno, J. L., Zumberge, A., Manis, F. R., Lu, Z. L., & Goldman, J. G. (2008). Sensitivity to orthographic familiarity in the occipito-temporal region. NeuroImage, 39, 1988-2001. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.10.044
19. Carreiras, M., Mechelli, A., Estevez, A., & Price, C. J. (2007). Brain activation for lexical decision and reading aloud: Two sides of the same coin? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 433-444. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.3.433
20. Chateau, D., & Lupker, S. J. (2003). Strategic effects in word naming: Examining the route-emphasis versus time-criterion accounts. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 29, 139-151. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.29.1.139
21. Cohen, L., Dehaene, S., Vinckier, F., Jobert, A., & Montavont, A. (2008). Reading normal and degraded words: Contribution of the dorsal and ventral visual pathways. NeuroImage, 40, 353-366. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.11.036
22. Cohen, L., Lehericy, S., Chochon, F., Lemer, C., Rivaud, S., & Dehaene, S. (2002). Language-specific tuning of visual cortex functional properties of the visual word form area. Brain, 125, 1054-1069. doi:10.1093/brain/awf094
23. Coltheart, M. (1982). The psycholinguistic analysis of acquired dyslexias: Some illustrations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 298, 151-164. doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0078
24. Coltheart, M. (2006a). Acquired dyslexias and the computational modelling of reading. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 23, 96-109. doi:10.1080/02643290500202649
25. Coltheart, M. (2006b). What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? Cortex, 42, 323-331. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7
26. Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108, 204-256. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.108.1.204
27. Coltheart, M., Tree, J. J., & Saunders, S. J. (2010). Computational modeling of reading in semantic dementia: Comment on Woollams, Lambon Ralph, Plaut, and Patterson (2007). Psychological Review, 117, 256-271. doi:10.1037/a0015948
28. Coltheart, M., Woollams, A., Kinoshita, S., & Perry, C. (1999). A positionsensitive Stroop effect: Further evidence for a left-to-right component in print-to-speech conversion. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6, 456-463. doi:10.3758/BF03210835
29. Cummine, J., Gould, L., Zhou, C., Hrybouski, S., Siddiqi, Z., Chouinard, B., & Borowsky, R. (2012). Manipulating instructions strategically affects reliance on the ventral-lexical reading stream: Converging evidence from neuroimaging and reaction time. Brain and Language., Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2012.04.009
30. Davis, M. H., & Gaskell, M. G. (2009). A complementary systems account of word learning: Neural and behavioural evidence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364, 3773-3800. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0111
31. Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Sigman, M., & Vinckier, F. (2005). The neural code for written words: A proposal. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 335-341. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.05.004
32. Devlin, J. T., Jamison, H. L., Matthews, P. M., & Gonnerman, L. M. (2004). Morphology and the internal structure of words. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 14984-14988. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403766101
33. Devlin, J. T., Matthews, P. M., & Rushworth, M. F. S. (2003). Semantic processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: A combined functional magnetic resonance imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 71-84. doi:10.1162/089892903321107837
34. Devlin, J. T., Russell, R. P., Davis, M. H., Price, C. J., Wilson, J., Moss, H. E.,. .. Tyler, L. K. (2000). Susceptibility-induced loss of signal: Comparing PET and fMRI on a semantic task. NeuroImage, 11, 589-600. doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0595
35. Dietz, N. A. E., Jones, K. M., Gareau, L., Zeffiro, T. A., & Eden, G. F. (2005). Phonological decoding involves left posterior fusiform gyrus. Human Brain Mapping, 26, 81-93. doi:10.1002/hbm.20122
36. Duncan, J. (2010). The multiple-demand (MD) system of the primate brain: Mental programs for intelligent behaviour. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 172-179. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.01.004
37. Eickhoff, S. B., Laird, A. R., Grefkes, C., Wang, L. E., Zilles, K., & Fox, P. T. (2009). Coordinate-based activation likelihood estimation metaanalysis of neuroimaging data: A random-effects approach based on empirical estimates of spatial uncertainty. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 2907-2926. doi:10.1002/hbm.20718
38. Evans, A. C., Collins, D. L., Mills, S. R., Brown, E. D., Kelly, R. I., & Peters, T. M. (1993). 3D statistical neuroanatomical models from 305 MRI volumes. Paper presented at the IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference. doi:10.1109/NSSMIC.1993.373602
39. Fiebach, C. J., Friederici, A. D., Muller, K., & von Cramon, D. Y. (2002). fMRI evidence for dual routes to the mental lexicon in visual word recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 11-23. doi:10.1162/089892902317205285
40. Fiebach, C. J., Gruber, T., & Supp, G. G. (2005). Neuronal mechanisms of repetition priming in occipitotemporal cortex: Spatiotemporal evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 3414-3422. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4107-04.2005
41. Fiebach, C. J., Ricker, B., Friederici, A. D., & Jacobs, A. M. (2007). Inhibition and facilitation in visual word recognition: Prefrontal contribution to the orthographic neighborhood size effect. NeuroImage, 36, 901-911. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.04.004
42. Fiez, J. A., Balota, D. A., Raichle, M. E., & Petersen, S. E. (1999). Effects of lexicality, frequency, and spelling-to-sound consistency on the functional anatomy of reading. Neuron, 24, 205-218. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80833-8
43. Funnell, E. (1983). Phonological processes in reading: New evidence from acquired dyslexia. British Journal of Psychology, 74, 159-180. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1983.tb01851.x
44. Gagnepain, P., Henson, R. N., & Davis, M. H. (2012). Temporal predictive codes for spoken words in auditory cortex. Current Biology, 22, 615-621. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.02.015
45. Garagnani, M., Shtyrov, Y., & Pulvermüller, F. (2009). Effects of attention on what is known and what is not: MEG evidence for functionally discrete memory circuits. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 10. doi:10.3389/neuro.09.010.2009
46. Gaskell, M. G., & Dumay, N. (2003). Lexical competition and the acquisition of novel words. Cognition, 89, 105-132. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(03)00070-2
47. Glezer, L. S., Jiang, X., & Riesenhuber, M. (2009). Evidence for highly selective neuronal tuning to whole words in the "visual word form area." Neuron, 62, 199-204. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.03.017
48. Gold, B. T., Balota, D. A., Kirchhoff, B. A., & Buckner, R. L. (2005). Common and dissociable activation patterns associated with controlled semantic and phonological processing: Evidence from fMRI adaptation. Cerebral Cortex, 15, 1438-1450. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi024
49. Gough, P. M., Nobre, A. C., & Devlin, J. T. (2005). Dissociating linguistic processes in the left inferior frontal cortex with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 8010-8016. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2307-05.2005
50. Gow, D. W. (2012). The cortical organization of lexical knowledge: A dual lexicon model of spoken language processing. Brain and Language, 121, 273-288. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2012.03.005
51. Grainger, J., & Jacobs, A. M. (1996). Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model. Psychological Review, 103, 518-565. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.518
52. Graves, W. W., Desai, R., Humphries, C., Seidenberg, M. S., & Binder, J. R. (2010). Neural systems for reading aloud: A multiparametric approach. Cerebral Cortex, 20, 1799-1815. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp245
53. Grill-Spector, K., Henson, R. N. A., & Martin, A. (2006). Repetition and the brain: Neural models of stimulus-specific effects. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 14-23. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.11.006
54. Hagoort, P., Indefrey, P., Brown, C., Herzog, H., Steinmetz, H., & Seitz, R. J. (1999). The neural circuitry involved in the reading of German words and pseudowords: A PET study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11, 383-398. doi:10.1162/089892999563490
55. Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1999). Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: Insights from connectionist models. Psychological Review, 106, 491-528. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.491
56. Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychological Review, 111, 662-720. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.3.662
57. Hashimoto, R., & Sakai, K. L. (2004). Learning letters in adulthood: Direct visualization of cortical plasticity for forming a new link between orthography and phonology. Neuron, 42, 311-322. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00196-5
58. Hauk, O., Davis, M. H., Kherif, F., & Pulvermüller, F. (2008). Imagery or meaning? Evidence for a semantic origin of category-specific brain activity in metabolic imaging. European Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 1856-1866. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06143.x
59. Haynes, J. D., & Rees, G. (2006). Decoding mental states from brain activity in humans. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 523-534. doi:10.1038/nrn1931
60. Henry, M. L., Beeson, P. M., Stark, A. J., & Rapcsak, S. Z. (2007). The role of left perisylvian cortical regions in spelling. Brain and Language, 100, 44-52. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2006.06.011
61. Henson, R. (2005). What can functional neuroimaging tell the experimental psychologist? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 58A, 193-233. doi:10.1080/02724980443000502
62. Henson, R. (2006a). Forward inference using functional neuroimaging: Dissociations versus associations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 64-69. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.12.005
63. Henson, R. (2006b). What has (neuro)psychology told us about the mind (so far)? A reply to Coltheart (2006). Cortex, 42, 387-392. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70365-4
64. Henson, R. N. A., Price, C. J., Rugg, M. D., Turner, R., & Friston, K. J. (2002). Detecting latency differences in event-related BOLD responses: Application to words versus nonwords and initial versus repeated face presentations. NeuroImage, 15, 83-97. doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0940
65. Henson, R., Shallice, T., & Dolan, R. (2000). Neuroimaging evidence for dissociable forms of repetition priming. Science, 287, 1269-1272. doi:10.1126/science.287.5456.1269
66. Herbster, A. N., Mintun, M. A., Nebes, R. D., & Becker, J. T. (1997). Regional cerebral blood flow during word and nonword reading. Human Brain Mapping, 5, 84-92. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0193(1997)5:2<84::AID-HBM2>3.0.CO;2-I
67. Honey, G. D., Bullmore, E. T., & Sharma, T. (2000). Prolonged reaction time to a verbal working memory task predicts increased power of posterior parietal cortical activation. NeuroImage, 12, 495-503. doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0624
68. Indefrey, P., & Levelt, W. J. M. (2004). The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components. Cognition, 92, 101-144. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2002.06.001
69. Jensen, E. J., Hargreaves, I., Bass, A., Pexman, P., Goodyear, B. G., & Federico, P. (2011). Cortical reorganization and reduced efficiency of visual word recognition in right temporal lobe epilepsy: A functional MRI study. Epilepsy Research, 93, 155-163. doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2010.12.003
70. Jobard, G., Crivello, F., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2003). Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: A metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. NeuroImage, 20, 693-712. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00343-4
71. Jonides, J., Schumacher, E. H., Smith, E. E., Koeppe, R. A., Awh, E., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A.,. .. Willis, C. R. (1998). The role of parietal cortex in verbal working memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 5026-5034.
72. Joubert, S., Beauregard, M., Walter, N., Bourgouin, P., Beaudoin, G., Leroux, J.-M.,. .. Lecours, A. R. (2004). Neural correlates of lexical and sublexical processes in reading. Brain and Language, 89, 9-20. doi:10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00403-6
73. Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 4302-4311.
74. Katz, L., & Frost, R. (1992). The reading process is different for different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. In R. Frost & L. Katz (Eds.), Advances in Psychology: Vol. 94. Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning (pp. 67-84). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: North-Holland. doi:10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62789-2
75. Keuleers, E., & Brysbaert, M. (2011). Detecting inherent bias in lexical decision experiments with the LD1NN algorithm. The Mental Lexicon, 6, 34-52. doi:10.1075/ml.6.1.02keu
76. Kherif, F., Josse, G., & Price, C. J. (2011). Automatic top-down processing explains common left occipito-temporal responses to visual words and objects. Cerebral Cortex, 21, 103-114. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq063
77. Kinoshita, S., & Lupker, S. J. (2007). Switch costs when reading aloud words and nonwords: Evidence for shifting route emphasis? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 449-454. doi:10.3758/BF03194087
78. Kinoshita, S., Lupker, S. J., & Rastle, K. (2004). Modulation of regularity and lexicality effects in reading aloud. Memory & Cognition, 32, 1255-1264. doi:10.3758/BF03206316
79. Kriegeskorte, N., Mur, M., Ruff, D. A., Kiani, R., Bodurka, J., Esteky, H.,. .. Bandettini, P. A. (2008). Matching categorical object representations in inferior temporal cortex of man and monkey. Neuron, 60, 1126-1141. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.10.043
80. Kringelbach, M. L., & Rolls, E. T. (2004). The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: Evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Progress in Neurobiology, 72, 341-372. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.03.006
81. Kronbichler, M., Hutzler, F., Wimmer, H., Mair, A., Staffen, W., & Ladurner, G. (2004). The visual word form area and the frequency with which words are encountered: Evidence from a parametric fMRI study. NeuroImage, 21, 946-953. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.10.021
82. Kuchinke, L., Jacobs, A. M., Grubich, C., Võ, M. L.-H., Conrad, M., & Herrmann, M. (2005). Incidental effects of emotional valence in single word processing: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 28, 1022-1032. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.06.050
83. Laird, A. R., Fox, P. M., Price, C. J., Glahn, D. C., Uecker, A. M., Lancaster, J. L.,. .. Fox, P. T. (2005). ALE meta-analysis: Controlling the false discovery rate and performing statistical contrasts. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 155-164. doi:10.1002/hbm.20136
84. Lancaster, J. L., Tordesillas-Gutiérrez, D., Martinez, M., Salinas, F., Evans, A., Zilles, K.,. .. Fox. P. T. (2007). Bias between MNI and Talairach coordinates analyzed using the ICBM-152 brain template. Human Brain Mapping, 28, 1194-1205. doi:10.1002/hbm.20345
85. Logothetis, N. K., Pauls, J., Augath, M., Trinath, T., & Oeltermann, A. (2001). Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. Nature, 412, 150-157. doi:10.1038/35084005
86. Marshall, J. C., & Newcombe, F. (1973). Patterns of paralexia: A psycholinguistic approach. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2, 175-199. doi:10.1007/BF01067101
87. Mayall, K., Humphreys, G. W., Mechelli, A., Olson, A., & Price, C. J. (2001). The effects of case mixing on word recognition: Evidence from a PET study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 844-853. doi:10.1162/08989290152541494
88. McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375-407. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.88.5.375
89. McKay, A., Davis, C., Savage, G., & Castles, A. (2008). Semantic involvement in reading aloud: Evidence from a nonword training study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 1495-1517. doi:10.1037/a0013357
90. Mechelli, A., Crinion, J. T., Long, S., Friston, K. J., Lambon Ralph, M. A., Patterson, K.,. .. Price, C. J. (2005). Dissociating reading processes on the basis of neuronal interactions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 1753-1765. doi:10.1162/089892905774589190
91. Mechelli, A., Friston, K. J., & Price, C. J. (2000). The effects of presentation rate during word and pseudoword reading: A comparison of PET and fMRI. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 145-156. doi:10.1162/089892900564000
92. Mechelli, A., Gorno-Tempini, M. L., & Price, C. J. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of word and pseudoword reading: Consistencies, inconsistencies, and limitations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 260-271. doi:10.1162/089892903321208196
93. Mechelli, A., Josephs, O., Lambon Ralph, M. A., McClelland, J. L., & Price, C. J. (2007). Dissociating stimulus-driven semantic and phonological effect during reading and naming. Human Brain Mapping, 28, 205-217. doi:10.1002/hbm.20272
94. Merkx, M., Rastle, K., & Davis, M. H. (2011). The acquisition of morphological knowledge investigated through artificial language learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 1200-1220. doi:10.1080/17470218.2010.538211
95. Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M. J., & Stevenson, J. (2004). Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 40, 665-681. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.665
96. Nation, K. (2009). Form-meaning links in the development of visual word recognition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364, 3665-3674. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0119
97. Nation, K., & Cocksey, J. (2009). The relationship between knowing a word and reading it aloud in children's word reading development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103, 296-308. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.03.004
98. Nosarti, C., Mechelli, A., Green, D. W., & Price, C. J. (2010). The impact of second language learning on semantic and nonsemantic first language reading. Cerebral Cortex, 20, 315-327. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp101
99. Novick, J. M., Kan, I. P., Trueswell, J. C., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2009). A case for conflict across multiple domains: Memory and language impairments follow damage to ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26, 527-567. doi:10.1080/02643290903519367
100. Osipowicz, K., Rickards, T., Shah, A., Sharan, A., Sperling, M., Kahn, W., & Tracy, J. (2011). A test of the role of the medial temporal lobe in single-word decoding. NeuroImage, 54, 1455-1464. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.049
101. Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005). N-back working memory paradigm: A meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 46-59. doi:10.1002/hbm.20131
102. Papoutsi, M., De Zwart, J. A., Jansma, J. M., Pickering, M. J., Bednar, J. A., & Horwitz, B. (2009). From phonemes to articulatory codes: An fMRI study of the role of Broca's area in speech production. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 2156-2165. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn239
103. Patterson, K., Coltheart, M., & Marshall, J. C. (1985). Surface dyslexia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
104. Patterson, K., Lambon Ralph, M. A., Jefferies, E., Woollams, A., Jones, R., Hodges, J. R., & Rogers, T. T. (2006). "Presemantic" cognition in semantic dementia: Six deficits in search of an explanation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 169-183. doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.2.169
105. Patterson, K., Nestor, P. J., & Rogers, T. T. (2007). Where do you know what you know? The representation of semantic knowledge in the human brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 976-987. doi:10.1038/nrn2277
106. Paulesu, E., McCrory, E., Fazio, F., Menoncello, L., Brunswick, N., Cappa, S. F., & Frith, U. (2000). A cultural effect on brain function. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 91-96. doi:10.1038/71163
107. Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2001). The lexical quality hypothesis. In L. Vehoeven, C. Elbro, & P. Reitsma (Eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189-213). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Benjamins.
108. Perry, C., Ziegler, J. C., & Zorzi, M. (2007). Nested incremental modeling in the development of computational theories: The CDP+ model of reading aloud. Psychological Review, 114, 273-315. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.2.273
109. Perry, C., Ziegler, J. C., & Zorzi, M. (2010). Beyond single syllables: Large-scale modeling of reading aloud with the connectionist dual process (CDP++) model. Cognitive Psychology, 61, 106-151. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.04.001
110. Plaut, D. C. (1997). Structure and function in the lexical system: Insights from distributed models of word reading and lexical decision. Language and Cognitive Processes, 12, 765-805. doi:10.1080/016909697386682
111. Plaut, D. C., McClelland, J. L., Seidenberg, M. S., & Patterson, K. (1996). Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review, 103, 56-115. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.56
112. Pobric, G., Jefferies, E., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2007). Anterior temporal lobes mediate semantic representation: Mimicking semantic dementia by using rTMS in normal participants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 20137-20141. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707383104
113. Poldrack, R. A., Wagner, A. D., Prull, M. W., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1999). Functional specialization for semantic and phonological processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 10, 15-35. doi:10.1006/nimg.1999.0441
114. Price, C. J. (2010). The anatomy of language: A review of 100 fMRI studies published in 2009. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1191, 62-88. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05444.x
115. Price, C. J., & Devlin, J. T. (2011). The interactive account of ventral occipitotemporal contributions to reading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 246-253. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.001
116. Price, C. J., Wise, R. J. S., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1996). Demonstrating the implicit processing of visually presented words and pseudowords. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 62-70. doi:10.1093/cercor/6.1.62
117. Pugh, K. R., Frost, S. J., Sandak, R., Landi, N., Rueckl, J. G., Constable, R. T.,. .. Mencl, W. E. (2008). Effects of stimulus difficulty and repetition on printed word identification: An fMRI comparison of nonimpaired and reading-disabled adolescent cohorts. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 1146-1160. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20079
118. Pugh, K. R., Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Constable, R. T., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R. K.,. .. Gore, J. C. (1996). Cerebral organization of component processes in reading. Brain, 119, 1221-1238. doi:10.1093/brain/119.4.1221
119. Rastle, K., & Brysbaert, M. (2006). Masked phonological priming effects in English: Are they real? Do they matter? Cognitive Psychology, 53, 97-145. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2006.01.002
120. Rastle, K., & Coltheart, M. (1999). Serial and strategic effects in reading aloud. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25, 482-503. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.25.2.482
121. Rastle, K., Harrington, J., & Coltheart, M. (2002). 358,534 nonwords: The ARC Nonword Database. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 55A, 1339-1362. doi:10.1080/02724980244000099
122. Reynolds, M., & Besner, D. (2008). Contextual effects on reading aloud: Evidence for pathway control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 50-64. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.1.50
123. Ricketts, J., Nation, K., & Bishop, D. V. M. (2007). Vocabulary is important for some, but not all reading skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 235-257. doi:10.1080/10888430701344306
124. Roeltgen, D. P., & Heilman, K. M. (1984). Lexical agraphia. Brain, 107, 811-827. doi:10.1093/brain/107.3.811
125. Rorden, C., Karnath, H., & Bonilha, L. (2007). Improving lesion-symptom mapping. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 1081-1088. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.7.1081
126. Rotshtein, P., Henson, R. N. A., Treves, A., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Morphing Marilyn into Maggie dissociates physical and identity face representations in the brain. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 107-113. doi:10.1038/nn1370
127. Rumsey, J. M., Horwitz, B., Donohue, B. C., Nace, K., Maisog, J. M., & Andreason, P. (1997). Phonological and orthographic components of word recognition: A PET-rCBF study. Brain, 120, 739-759. doi:10.1093/brain/120.5.739
128. Sachs, O., Weis, S., Zellagui, N., Huber, W., Zvyagintsev, M., Mathiak, K., & Kircher, T. (2008). Automatic processing of semantic relations in fMRI: Neural activation during semantic priming of taxonomic and thematic categories. Brain Research, 1218, 194-205. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.03.045
129. Sakurai, Y., Momose, T., Iwata, M., Sudo, Y., Ohtomo, K., & Kanazawa, I. (2000). Different cortical activity in reading of Kanji words, Kana words and Kana nonwords. Cognitive Brain Research, 9, 111-115. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(99)00052-X
130. Schnur, T. T., Schwartz, M. F., Kimberg, D. Y., Hirshorn, E., Coslett, H. B., & Thompson-Schill, S. L. (2009). Localizing interference during naming: Convergent neuroimaging and neuropsychological evidence for the function of Broca's area. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 322-327. doi:10.1073/pnas.0805874106
131. Seidenberg, M. S., & Plaut, D. C. (2006). Progress in understanding word reading: Data fitting versus theory building. In S. Andrews (Ed.), From inkmarks to ideas: Current issues in lexical processing (pp. 25-49). Hove, England: Psychology Press.
132. Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55, 151-218. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)00645-2
133. Sibley, D. E., Kello, C. T., Plaut, D. C., & Elman, J. L. (2008). Large-scale modeling of wordform learning and representation. Cognitive Science, 32, 741-754. doi:10.1080/03640210802066964
134. Sibley, D. E., Kello, C. T., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2010). Learning orthographic and phonological representations in models of monosyllabic and bisyllabic naming. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 22, 650-668. doi:10.1080/09541440903080583
135. Simos, P. G., Breier, J. I., Fletcher, J. M., Foorman, B. R., Castillo, E. M., & Papanicolaou, A. C. (2002). Brain mechanisms for reading words and pseudowords: An integrated approach. Cerebral Cortex, 12, 297-305. doi:10.1093/cercor/12.3.297
136. Sohoglu, E., Peelle, J., Carlyon, R. P., & Davis, M. H. (2012). Predictive top-down integration of prior knowledge during speech perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 8443-8453. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5069-11.2012
137. Strain, E., Patterson, K., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1995). Semantic effects in single-word naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1140-1154. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.5.1140
138. Strain, E., Patterson, K., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2002). Theories of word naming interact with spelling-sound consistency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 207-214. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.1.207
139. Szwed, M., Dehaene, S., Kleinschmidt, A., Eger, E., Valabrègue, R., Amadon, A., & Cohen, L. (2011). Specialization for written words over objects in the visual cortex. NeuroImage, 56, 330-344. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.01.073
140. Taft, M., & van Graan, F. (1998). Lack of phonological mediation in a semantic categorization task. Journal of Memory and Language, 38, 203-224. doi:10.1006/jmla.1997.2538
141. Tagamets, M. A., Novick, J. M., Chalmers, M. L., & Friedman, R. B. (2000). A parametric approach to orthographic processing in the brain: An fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 281-297. doi:10.1162/089892900562101
142. Talairach, J., & Tournoux, P. (1988). Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain: 3-dimensional proportional system: An approach to cerebral imaging. New York, NY: Thieme.
143. Taylor, J. S. H., Plunkett, K., & Nation, K. (2011). The influence of consistency, frequency, and semantics on learning to read: An artificial orthography paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 60-76. doi:10.1037/a0020126
144. Thompson, C. K., Bonakdarpour, B., Fix, S. C., Blumenfeld, H. K., Parrish, T. B., Gitelman, D. R., & Mesulam, M.-M. (2007). Neural correlates of verb argument structure processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 1753-1767. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.11.1753
145. Treiman, R., Mullennix, J., Bijeljac-Babic, R., & Richmond-Welty, E. D. (1995). The special role of rimes in the description, use, and acquisition of English orthography. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 107-136. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.2.107
146. Turkeltaub, P. E., Eden, G. F., Jones, K. M., & Zeffiro, T. A. (2002). Meta-analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of single-word reading: Method and validation. NeuroImage, 16, 765-780. doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1131
147. Vartiainen, J., Liljeström, M., Koskinen, M., Renvall, H., & Salmelin, R. (2011). Functional magnetic resonance imaging blood oxygenation level-dependent signal and magnetoencephalography evoked responses yield different neural functionality in reading. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 1048-1058. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3113-10.2011
148. Vigneau, M., Jobard, G., Mazoyer, B., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2005). Word and non-word reading: What role for the visual word form area? NeuroImage, 27, 694-705. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.038
149. Vinckier, F., Dehaene, S., Jobert, A., Dubus, J. P., Sigman, M., & Cohen, L. (2007). Hierarchical coding of letter strings in the ventral stream: Dissecting the inner organization of the visual word-form system. Neuron, 55, 143-156. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.05.031
150. Visser, M., Jefferies, E., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2010). Semantic processing in the anterior temporal lobes: A meta-analysis of the functional neuroimaging literature. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 1083-1094. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21309
151. Wilson, M. A., Joubert, S., Ferré, P., Belleville, S., Ansaldo, A. I., Joanette, Y.,. .. Brambati, S. M. (2012). The role of the left anterior temporal lobe in exception word reading: Reconciling patient and neuroimaging findings. NeuroImage, 60, 2000-2007. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.02.009
152. Wilson, S. M., Brambati, S. M., Henry, R. G., Handwerker, D. A., Agosta, F., Miller, B. L.,. .. Gorno-Tempini, M. L. (2009). The neural basis of surface dyslexia in semantic dementia. Brain, 132, 71-86. doi:10.1093/brain/awn300
153. Wise, R. J. S., Howard, D., Mummery, C. J., Fletcher, P., Leff, A., Büchel, C., & Scott, S. K. (2000). Noun imageability and the temporal lobes. Neuropsychologia, 38, 985-994. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(99)00152-9
154. Woollams, A. M., Lambon Ralph, M. A., Plaut, D. C., & Patterson, K. (2007). SD-squared: On the association between semantic dementia and surface dyslexia. Psychological Review, 114, 316-339. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.2.316
155. Woollams, A. M., Silani, G., Okada, K., Patterson, K., & Price, C. J. (2011). Word or word-like? Dissociating orthographic typicality from lexicality in the left occipito-temporal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 992-1002. doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21502
156. Xu, B., Grafman, J., Gaillard, W. D., Ishii, K., Vega-Bermudez, F., Pietrini, P.,. .. Theodore, W. (2001). Conjoint and extended neural networks for the computation of speech codes: The neural basis of selective impairment in reading words and pseudowords. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 267-277. doi:10.1093/cercor/11.3.267
157. Zevin, J. D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2006). Simulating consistency effects and individual differences in nonword naming: A comparison of current models. Journal of Memory and Language, 54, 145-160. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2005.08.00