Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes

Psychological Review

Volumn 111, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 662-720

  Harm, Michael W ^a   Seidenberg, Mark S ^b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK; EVALUATION; HUMAN; LEARNING; LINGUISTICS; PHONETICS; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; READING; REVIEW; SEMANTICS; VISION;

HUMANS; LEARNING; NEURAL NETWORKS (COMPUTER); PHONETICS; PSYCHOLINGUISTICS; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; READING; SEMANTICS; VISUAL PERCEPTION;

EID: 3042856465     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.111.3.662     Document Type: Review

References (172)

1. Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2. Andersen, R. (1999). Multimodal integration for the representation of space in the posterior parietal cortex. In N. Burgess & K. Jeffery (Eds.), The hippocampal and parietal foundations of spatial cognition (pp. 90-103). New York: Oxford University Press.
3. Anderson, S. (1988). Morphological theory. In F. Newmeyer (Ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge survey: Vol. 1, Linguistic theory: Foundations (pp. 146-191). Cambridge,. England: Cambridge University Press.
4. Balota, D. A. (1990). The role of meaning in word recognition. In D. A. Balota, G. B. Flores d'Arcais, & K. Rayner (Eds.), Comprehension processes in reading (pp. 9-32). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
5. Balota, D. A., & Chumbley, J. I. (1984). Are lexical decisions a good measure of lexical access? The role of word frequency in the neglected decision stage. Journal of Experimental Psychology; Human Perception and Performance, 10, 340-357.
6. Baron, J. (1973). Phonemic stage not necessary for reading. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25, 241-246.
7. Baron, J., & Strawson, C. (1976). Use of orthographic and word-specific knowledge in reading words aloud. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 207-214.
8. Barto, A. G. (1985). Learning by statistical cooperation of self-interested neuron-like computing elements. Human Neurobiology, 4, 229-256.
9. Bertelson, P., & de Gelder, B. (1989). Learning about reading from illiterates. In A. M. Galaburda (Ed.), From reading to neurons (pp. 1-23). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
10. Besner, D., Twilley, L., McCann, R., & Seergobin, K. (1990). On the connection between connectionism and data: Are a few words necessary? Psychological Review, 97, 432-446.
11. Bishop, C. (1995). Training with noise is equivalent to Tikhonov regularization. Neural Computation, 7, 108-116.
12. Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read - A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
13. Browman, C., & Goldstein, L. (1990). Representation and reality: Physical systems and phonological structure. Journal of Phonetics, 18, 411-424.
14. Bullinaria, J. (1996). Connectionist models of reading: Incorporating semantics. In Proceedings of the First European Workshop on Cognitive Modeling (pp. 224-229). Berlin, Germany: Technische Universitat Berlin.
15. Caplan, D. (Ed.). (1992). Language: Structure, processing, and disorders. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
16. Carey, S. (1978). The child as word-learner. In M. Halle, J. Bresnan, & G. Miller (Eds.), Linguistic theory and psychological reality (pp. 264-293), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
17. Carr, T. H., & Pollatsek, A. (1985). Recognizing printed words: A look at current models. In D. Besner, T. G. Waller, & G. E. MacKinnon (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (Vol. 5, pp. 2-82). New York: Academic Press.
18. Carroll, J. B., Davies, P., & Richman, B. (1971). American Heritage word frequency book. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
19. Chomsky, N., & Halle, M. (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row.
20. Cleermans, A. (1997). Principles for implicit learning. In D. Berry (Ed.), How implicit is implicit learning? (pp. 195-234). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
21. Coltheart, M. (1978). Lexical access in simple reading tasks. In G. Underwood (Ed.), Strategies of information processing (pp. 151-216). New York: Academic Press.
22. Coltheart, M. (1981). The MRC Psycholinguistic Database. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 33(A), 497-505.
23. Coltheart, M. (2000). Dual routes from print to speech and dual routes from print to meaning: Some theoretical issues, In A. Kennedy, R. Radach, D. Heller, & J. Pynte (Eds.), Reading as a perceptual process (pp. 475-490). Oxford, England: Elsevier.
24. Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.
25. Coltheart, M., Davelaar, E., Jonasson, K., & Besner, D. (1977). Access to the internal lexicon, In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention & performance VI (pp. 135-155). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
26. Coltheart, M., Patterson, K. E., & Marshall, J. C. (Eds.). (1980). Deep dyslexia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
27. Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud, Psychological Review, 108, 204-256.
28. Crowder, R. (1982). The psychology of reading. New York: Oxford University Press.
29. Daugherty, K., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1992). Rules or connections? The past tense revisited. In Proceedings of the 14th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 259-264). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
30. Dell, G. S. (1986). A spreading-activation theory of retrieval in sentence production. Psychological Review, 93, 283-321.
31. Ellis, A. W., & Monaghan, J. (2002). Reply to Strain, Patterson, and Seidenberg (2002). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 215-220.
32. Flesch, R. (1955). Why Johnny can't read. New York: Harper.
33. Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C., Seidenberg, M., Francis, D., & Harm, M. (2001, April). What kind of text is a decodable text? And what kind of text is an authentic text? Paper presented at the meeting of the American Education Research Association, Seattle, WA.
34. Forster, K. I. (1976). Accessing the mental lexicon. In R. J. Wales & E. Walker (Eds.), New approaches to language mechanisms (pp. 257-287). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
35. Francis, W. N., & Kučera, H. (1982). Frequency analysis of English usage. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
36. Frost, R. (1998). Toward a strong phonological theory of visual word recognition: True issues and false trials. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 71-99.
37. Frost, R., Katz, L., & Bentin, S. (1987). Strategies for visual word recognition and orthographic depth: A multilingual comparison. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 13, 104-115.
38. Gainotti, G. (2000). What the locus of brain lesion tells us about the nature of the cognitive deficit underlying category-specific disorders: A review. Cortex, 36, 539-559.
39. Gaskell, M. G., & Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (1997). Integrating form and meaning: A distributed model of speech perception. Language and Cognitive Processes, 12, 613-656.
40. Gathercole, S., & Baddeley, A. (1993). Phonological working memory: A critical building block for reading development and vocabulary acquisition. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 8, 259-272.
41. Gauthier, I., & Tarr, M. J. (2002). Unraveling mechanisms for expert object recognition: Bridging brain activity and behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 431-446.
42. Gernsbacher, M. A. (1984). Resolving 20 years of inconsistent interactions between lexical familiarity and orthography, concreteness, and polysemy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 256-281.
43. Glushko, R. J. (1979). The organization and activation of orthographic knowledge in reading aloud. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 5, 674-691.
44. Gordon, J., & Dell, G. (2003). Learning to divide the labor: An account of deficits in light and heavy verb production. Cognitive Science, 27, 1-40.
45. Grainger, J., & Jacobs, A. M. (1996). Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model. Psychological Review, 103, 518-565.
46. Harm, M. W. (1998). Division of labor in a computational model of visual word recognition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
47. Harm, M. W. (2002), Building large scale distributed semantic feature sets with WordNet (Tech. Rep. No. PDP.CNS.02.01). Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University, Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition.
48. Harm, M. W., McCandliss, B. D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2003). Modeling the successes and failures of interventions for disabled readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 155-182.
49. Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1997, August). The role of phonology in reading: A connectionist investigation. Paper presented at the Computational Psycholinguistics Conference, Berkeley, CA.
50. Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1999). Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: Insights from connectionist models. Psychological Review, 106, 491-528.
51. Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). Are there orthographic impairments in phonological dyslexia? Cognitive Neuropsychology, 18, 71-92.
52. Hebb, D. O. (1949), The organization of behavior. New York: Wiley.
53. Henderson, L. (1982). Orthography and word recognition in reading. London: Academic Press.
54. Hetherington, P., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1989). Is there "catastrophic interference" in connectionist networks? In Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 26-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
55. Hinton, G. E., & Shallice, T. (1991). Lesioning an attractor network: Investigations of acquired dyslexia. Psychological Review, 98, 74-95.
56. Hung, D., & Tzeng, O. (1981). Orthographic variations and visual information processing. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 377-414.
57. Ishai, A., Ungerleider, L., Martin, A., & Haxby, J. (2000). The representation of objects in the human occipital and temporal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(Suppl. 2), 35-51.
58. Jared, D. (1997). Spelling-sound consistency affects the naming of high-frequency words. Journal of Memory and Language, 36, 505-529.
59. Jared, D., McRae, K., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1990). The basis of consistency effects in word naming. Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 687-715.
60. Jared, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1991). Does word identification proceed from spelling to sound to meaning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 120, 358-394.
61. Joanisse, M. F., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1999). Impairments in verb morphology after brain injury: A connectionist model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 96, 7592-7597.
62. Jorm, A. F., & Share, D. L. (1983). Phonological receding and reading acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 4, 103-147.
63. Jusczyk, P. W. (1997). The discovery of spoken language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
64. Kawamoto, A., Kello, C., Higareda, I., & Vu, J. (1999). Parallel processing and initial phoneme criterion in naming words: Evidence from frequency effects on onset and rime duration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 362-381.
65. Kawamoto, A. H., Kello, C. T., Jones, R., & Barne, K. (1998). Initial phoneme versus whole-word criterion to initiate pronunciation: Evidence based on response latency and initial phoneme duration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 862-885.
66. Kelly, M. H. (1992). Using sound to solve syntactic problems: The role of phonology in grammatical category assignments. Psychological Review, 99, 349-364.
67. Kučera, H., & Francis, W. N. (1967). Computational analysis of present-day American English. Providence, RI: Brown University Press.
68. LaBerge, D. L., & Samuels, J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic word processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323.
69. Landauer, T. K., & Dumais, S. T. (1997). A solution to Plato's problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review, 104, 211-240.
70. Lesch, M. F., & Pollatsek, A. (1993). Automatic access of semantic information by phonological codes in visual word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 285-294.
71. Liberman, I. Y., & Shankweiler, D. (1985). Phonology and the problems of learning to read and write. Remedial and Special Education, 6(6), 8-17.
72. Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., & Liberman, A. M. (1989). The alphabetic principle and learning to read. In D. Shankweiler & I. Y. Liberman (Eds.), Phonology and reading disability: Solving the reading puzzle (pp. 1-33). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
73. Locke, J. L. (1995). Development of the capacity for spoken language. In P. Fletcher & B. MacWhinney (Eds.), The handbook of child language (pp. 278-302). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
74. Lukatela, G., & Turvey, M. T. (1994a). Visual lexical access is initially phonological: I. Evidence from associative priming by words, homophones, and pseudohomophones. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 107-128.
75. Lukatela, G., & Turvey, M. T. (1994b). Visual lexical access is initially phonological: II. Evidence from phonological priming by homophones and pseudohomophones. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 331-353.
76. Lukatela, G., Turvey, M., Feldman, L., Carello, C., & Katz, L. (1989). Alphabetic priming in bi-alphabetic word perception. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 237-254.
77. Lundberg, I., Olofsson, A., & Wall, S. (1980). Reading and spelling skills in the first school years predicted from phonemic awareness skills in kindergarten. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 21, 159-173.
78. MacDonald, M. C. (1993). The interaction of lexical and syntactic ambiguity. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 692-715.
79. Marchand, H. (1969). The categories and types of present-day English word-formation: A synchronic-diachronic approach (2nd ed.). Munich, Germany: Beck.
80. Marcus, M., Santorini, B., & Marcinkiewicz, M. A. (1993). Building a large annotated corpus of English: The Penn Treebank. Computational Linguistics, 19, 313-330.
81. Marshall, J. C., & Newcombe, F. (1973). Patterns of paralexia: A psycholinguistic approach. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2, 175-199.
82. Martin, A. (2002). Functional neuroimaging of semantic memory, In R. Cabeza & A. Kingstone (Eds.), Handbook of functional neuroimaging of cognition (pp. 153-186). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
83. McCann, R. S., & Besner, D. (1987). Reading pseudohomophones: Implications for models of pronunciation assembly and the locus of word-frequency effects in naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 13, 14-24.
84. McClelland, J. L., McNaughton, B. L., & O'Reilly, R. C. (1995). Why there are complementary learning systems in the hippocampus and neocortex: Insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and memory. Psychological Review, 102, 419-457.
85. McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: I. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375-407.
86. McCloskey, M., & Cohen, N. J. (1989). Catastrophic interference in connectionist networks: The sequential learning problem. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 23, pp. 109-164). New York: Academic Press.
87. McCusker, L., Hillinger, M., & Bias, R. (1981). Phonological recoding and reading. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 217-245.
88. McLeod, P., Plunkett, K., & Rolls, E. T. (1998), Introduction to connectionist modelling of cognitive processes. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
89. McRae, K., & Boisvert, S. (1998). Automatic semantic similarity priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 558-572.
90. McRae, K., de Sa, V. R., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1997). On the nature and scope of featural representations of word meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 99-130.
91. Meyer, D. E., Schvaneveldt, R. W., & Ruddy, M. G. (1974). Functions of graphemic and phonemic codes in visual word recognition. Memory & Cognition, 2, 309-321.
92. Miller, G. A. (1990). WordNet: An on-line lexical database. International Journal of Lexicography, 3, 235-312.
93. Morton, J. (1969). The interaction of information in word recognition. Psychological Review, 76, 165-178.
94. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Retrieved from http://www.nicdh.nih.gov/publications/ nrp/smallbook.htm
95. O'Reilly, R. C., & Munakata, Y. (2000). Computational explorations in cognitive neuroscience: Understanding the mind by simulating the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
96. Paap, K., Newsome, S., McDonald, J., & Schvanevelt, R. W. (1982). An activation verification model for letter and word recognition - The word-superiority effect. Psychological Review, 89, 573-594.
97. Paap, K. R., & Noel, R. W. (1991). Dual route models of print to sound: Still a good horse race. Psychological Research, 53, 13-24.
98. Page, M. (2000). Connectionist modelling in psychology: A localist manifest. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 443-512.
99. Patterson, K., & Hodges, J. R. (1992). Deterioration of word meaning: Implications for reading. Neuropsychologia, 30, 1025-1040.
100. Patterson, K., Lambon Ralph, M. A., Hodges, J. R., & McClelland, J. L. (2001). Deficits in irregular past-tense verb morphology associated with degraded semantic knowledge. Neuropsychologia, 39, 709-724.
101. Patterson, K. E., Marshall, J. C., & Coltheart, M. (Eds.). (1985). Surface dyslexia: Neuropsychological and cognitive studies of phonological reading. London: Erlbaum.
102. Patterson, K. E., Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). Connections and disconnections: Dyslexia in a computational model of reading. In P. Morris (Ed.), Parallel distributed processing: Implications for psychology and neuroscience, (pp. 131-181). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
103. Patterson, K., Suzuki, T., & Wydell, T. N. (1996). Interpreting a case of Japanese phonological alexia: The key is in phonology. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 13, 803-822.
104. Pearlmutter, B. A. (1989). Learning state space trajectories in recurrent neural networks. Neural Computation, 1, 263-269.
105. Pearlmutter, B. A. (1995). Gradient calculations for dynamic recurrent neural networks: A survey. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 6, 1212-1228.
106. Perfetti, C. A., & Bell, L. (1991). Phonemic activation during the first 40 ms of word identification: Evidence from backward masking and priming. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 473-485.
107. Perfetti, C. A., Bell, L., & Delaney, S. (1988). Automatic phonetic activation in silent word reading: Evidence from backward masking. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 59-70.
108. Perfetti, C., & McCutchen, D. (1982). Speech processes in reading. In N. Lass (Ed.), Speech and Language: Advances in basic research and practice (Vol. 7, pp. 237-269). New York: Academic Press.
109. Pinker, S. (1991, August 2). Rules of language. Science, 253, 530-535.
110. Pinker, S. (2000). Words and rules: The ingredients of language. New York: HarperCollins.
111. Pinker, S., & Prince, A. (1988). On language and connectionism: Analysis of a parallel distributed processing model of language acquisition. Cognition. 28, 73-193.
112. Pinker, S., & Ullman, M. (2003). The past and future of the past tense. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 456-463.
113. Plaut, D. C. (1997). Structure and function in the lexical system: Insights from distributed models of word reading and lexical decision. Language and Cognitive Processes, 12, 765-805.
114. Plaut, D. C., & Booth, J. R. (2000). Individual and developmental differences in semantic priming: Empirical and computational support for a single-mechanism account of lexical processing. Psychological Review, 107, 786-823.
115. Plaut, D. C., & Kello, C. T. (1999). The interplay of speech comprehension and production in phonological development: A forward modeling approach. In B. MacWhinney (Ed.), The emergence of language (pp. 381-415). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
116. Plaut, D. C., McClelland, J. L., Seidenberg, M., & Patterson, K. E. (1996). Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review, 103, 56-115.
117. Plaut, D. C., & Shallice, T. (1991). Effects of word abstractness in a connectionist model of deep dyslexia. In Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 73-78). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
118. Plaut, D. C., & Shallice, T. (1993). Deep dyslexia: A case study of connectionist neuropsychology. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 10, 377-500.
119. Polk, T. A., & Farah, M. (2002). Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, non-perceptual word-form area. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 65-72.
120. Pugh, K., Mencl, W., Jenner, A., Katz, L., Lee, J., Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, B. (2000). Functional neuroimaging studies of reading and reading disability (developmental dyslexia). Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Review, 6, 207-213.
121. Ratcliff, R., Gomez, P., & McKoon, G. (2004). A diffusion model account of the lexical decision task. Psychological Review, 111, 159-182.
122. Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 372-422.
123. Rayner, K., & Duffy, S. A. (1986). Lexical complexity and fixation times in reading: Effects of word frequency, verb complexity, and lexical ambiguity. Memory & Cognition, 14, 191-201.
124. Rayner, K., Foorman, B., Perfetti, C., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(2), 31-74.
125. Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The psychology of reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
126. Rolls, E., Critchley, H., & Treves, A. (1996). Representation of olfactory information in the primate orbitofrontal cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 75, 1982-1996.
127. Rubenstein, H., Lewis, S. S., & Rubenstein, M. A. (1971). Evidence for phonemic receding in visual word recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 645-657.
128. Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G., & Williams, R. (1986). Learning internal representations by error propagation. In D. E. Rumelhart, J. McClelland, & the PDF Research Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Vol. 1: Foundations (pp. 318-362). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
129. Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., & the PDP Research Group (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Vol. 1: Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
130. Saffran, J. R., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1996, December 13). Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants. Science, 274, 5294.
131. Seidenberg, M. S. (1985). The time course of information activation and utilization in visual word recognition. In D. Besner, T. G. Waller, & E. M. MacKinnon (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and practice (pp. 199-252). New York: Academic Press.
132. Seidenberg, M. S. (1987). Sublexical structures in visual word recognition: Access units or orthographic redundancy. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention & performance XII: The psychology of reading (pp. 245-263). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
133. Seidenberg, M. S. (1992a). Beyond orthographic depth: Equitable division of labor. In R. Frost & L. Katz (Eds.), Orthography, phonology, morphology and meaning (pp. 83-114). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
134. Seidenberg, M. S. (1992b). Dyslexia in a computational model of word recognition in reading. In P. Gough, L. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 243-274). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
135. Seidenberg, M. S. (1993). Connectionist models and cognitive theory. Psychological Science, 4, 228-235.
136. Seidenberg, M. S. (1995). Visual word recognition: An overview. In P. Eimas & J. L. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of perception and cognition: Language (pp. 137-179). New York: Academic Press.
137. Seidenberg, M. S., & Gonnerman, L. M. (2000). Explaining derivational morphology as the convergence of codes. Trends in Cognitive Science, 4, 353-361.
138. Seidenberg, M., & MacDonald, M. (1999). A probabilistic constraints approach to language acquisition and processing. Cognitive Science, 23, 569-588.
139. Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96, 523-568.
140. Seidenberg, M. S., & Plaut, D. C. (1998). Evaluating word reading models at the item level: Matching the grain of theory and data. Psychological Science, 9, 234-237.
141. Seidenberg, M. S., Plaut, D. C., Petersen, A. S., McClelland, J. L., & McRae, K. (1994). Nonword pronunciation and models of word recog-nition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 1177-1196.
142. Seidenberg, M. S., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1979). Orthographic effects on rhyme monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 546-554.
143. Seidenberg, M. S., & Waters, G. S. (1989). Word recognition and naming: A mega study [Abstract 30]. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 27, 489.
144. Seidenberg, M. S., Waters, G. S., Barnes, M. A., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1984). When does irregular spelling or pronunciation influence word recognition? Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 383-404.
145. Seidenberg, M. S., Waters, G. S., Sanders, M., & Langer, P. (1984). Pre-and postlexical loci of contextual effects on word recognition. Memory & Cognition, 12, 315-328.
146. Seidenberg, M., Zevin, J., & Harm, M. (2002, November). DRC doesn't read correctly. Paper presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society of America, Kansas City, MO.
147. Shu, H., Chen, X., Anderson, R. C., Wu, N., & Xuan, Y. (2003). Properties of school Chinese: Implications for learning to read. Child Development, 74, 27-47.
148. Simpson, G. B. (1994). Context and the processing of ambiguous words. In M. A. Gernsbacher (Ed.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 359-374). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
149. Smith, F. (1971). Understanding reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
150. Smith, F. (1973). Psycholinguistics and reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
151. Smith, F. (1983). Essays into literacy. Exeter, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.
152. Snowling, M. J. (1991). Developmental reading disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 49-77.
153. Spencer, A. (Ed.). (1991). Morphological theory. London: Blackwell.
154. Spieler, D. H., & Balota, D. A. (1997). Bringing computational models of word naming down to the item level. Psychological Science, 8, 411-416.
155. Strain, E., & Herdman, C. M. (1999). Imageability effect's in word naming: An individual differences analysis. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 53, 347-359.
156. Strain, E., Patterson, K., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1995). Semantic effects in single-word naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1140-1154.
157. Sutton, R. S. (1988). Learning to predict by the method of temporal differences. Machine Learning, 3, 9-44.
158. Swinney, D. (1979). Lexical access during sentence comprehension: (Re)consideration of context effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 645-660.
159. Tanenhaus, M., Leiman, J., & Seidenberg, M. (1979). Evidence for multiple stages in the processing of ambiguous words in syntactic contexts. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 427-440.
160. Taraban, R., & McClelland, J. L. (1987). Conspiracy effects in word pronunciation. Journal of Memory and Language, 26, 608-631.
161. Treiman, R., Kessler, B., & Bick, S. (2003). Influence of consonantal context on the pronunciation of vowels: A comparison of human readers and computational models. Cognition, 88, 49-78.
162. Treiman, R., Tincoff, R., Rodriguez, K., Mouzaki, A., & Francis, D. J. (1998). The foundations of literacy: Learning the sounds of letters. Child Development, 69, 1524-1540.
163. Van Orden, G. C. (1987). A ROWS is a ROSE: Spelling, sound and reading. Memory & Cognition, 15, 181-198.
164. Van Orden, G. C., Johnston, J. C., & Hale, B. L. (1988). Word identification in reading proceeds from the spelling to sound to meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Language, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 371-386.
165. Van Orden, G. C., Pennington, B. F., & Stone, G. O. (1990). Word identification in reading and the promise of subsymbolic psycholinguistics. Psychological Review, 97, 488-522.
166. Vihman, M. M. (1996). Phonological development: The origins of language in the child. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
167. Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192-212.
168. Williams, R. J., & Peng, J. (1990). An efficient gradient-based algorithm for on-line training of recurrent network trajectories. Neural Computation, 2, 490-501.
169. Zeno, S. (Ed.). (1995). The educator's word frequency guide, Brewster, NJ: Touchstone.
170. Zevin, J. D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2002). Age of acquisition effects in reading and other tasks, Journal of Memory and Language, 47, 1-29.
171. Zipf, G. K. (1935). The psycho-biology of language: An introduction to dynamic philogy, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
172. Zorzi, M., Houghton, G., & Butterworth, B. (1998). Two routes or one in reading aloud? A connectionist dual-process model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24, 1131-1161.