A critical comparison of discrete-state and continuous models of recognition memory: Implications for recognition and beyond

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 139, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 1173-1203

  Pazzaglia, Angela M ^a   Dube, Chad ^b   Rotello, Caren M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

^b BRANDEIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Memory models; Multinomial processing tree models; Recognition memory; Signal detection

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; HUMAN; MEMORY; MENTAL FUNCTION; PERCEPTIVE DISCRIMINATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; RECEIVER OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC; RECOGNITION;

HUMANS; MEMORY; MENTAL PROCESSES; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; RECOGNITION (PSYCHOLOGY); ROC CURVE; SIGNAL DETECTION, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 84887536715     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0033044     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Atkinson, R. C. (1963). A variable sensitivity theory of signal detection. Psychological Review, 70, 91-106. doi:10.1037/h0041428
2. Ball, L. J., Phillips, P., Wade, C. N., & Quayle, J. D. (2006). Effects of belief and logic on syllogistic reasoning: Eye-movement evidence for selective processing models. Experimental Psychology, 53, 77-86. doi:10.1027/1618-3169.53.1.77
3. Bamber, D. (1979). State-trace analysis: A method of testing simple theories of causation. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 19, 137-181. doi:10.1016/0022-2496(79)90016-6
4. Batchelder, W. H. (1998). Multinomial processing tree models and psychological assessment. Psychological Assessment, 10, 331-344. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.4.331
5. Batchelder, W. H., & Riefer, D. M. (1990). Multinomial processing models of source monitoring. Psychological Review, 97, 548-564. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.4.548
6. Batchelder, W. H., & Riefer, D. M. (1999). Theoretical and empirical review of multinomial process tree modeling. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6, 57-86. doi:10.3758/BF03210812
7. Batchelder, W. H., Riefer, D. M., & Hu, X. (1994). Measuring memory factors in source monitoring: Reply to Kinchla. Psychological Review, 101, 172-176. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.101.1.172
8. Bayen, U. J., Murnane, K., & Erdfelder, E. (1996). Source discrimination, item detection, and multinomial models of source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 197-215. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.22.1.197
9. Blackwell, H. R. (1953). Psychophysical thresholds: Experimental studies of methods of measurement. University of Michigan Engineering Research Institute Bulletin, 36, xiii, 227.
10. Box, G. E. P. (1979). Robustness in the strategy of scientific model building. In R. L. Launer & G. N. Wilkinson (Eds.), Robustness in statistics (pp. 201-236). New York, NY: Academic Press.
11. Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (1998). Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 71, 81-129. doi:10.1006/jecp.1998.2464
12. Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Mojardin, A. H. (1999). Conjoint recognition. Psychological Review, 106, 160-179. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.1.160
13. Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., Wright, R., & Mojardin, A. H. (2003). Recollection rejection: False-memory editing in children and adults. Psychological Review, 110, 762-784. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.4.762
14. Bröder, A., & Meiser, T. (2007). Measuring source memory. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, 215, 52-60. doi:10.1027/0044-3409.215.1.52
15. Bröder, A., & Schütz, J. (2009). Recognition ROCs are curvilinear-or are they? On premature arguments against the two-high-threshold model of recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 587-606. doi:10.1037/a0015279
16. Bröder, A., & Schütz, J. (2011). Correction to Bröder and Schütz (2009). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 1301. doi:10.1037/a0024783
17. Brown, M. W., & Aggleton, J. P. (2001). Recognition memory: What are the roles of the perirhinal cortex and hippocampus? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 51-61. doi:10.1038/35049064
18. Buchner, A., Erdfelder, E., Steffens, M. C., & Martensen, H. (1997). The nature of memory processes underlying recognition judgments in the process dissociation procedure. Memory & Cognition, 25, 508-517. doi:10.3758/BF03201126
19. Buchner, A., Erdfelder, E., & Vaterrodt-Plünnecke, B. (1995). Toward unbiased measurement of conscious and unconscious memory processes within the process dissociation framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 137-160. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.2.137
20. Conrey, F. R., Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., Hugenberg, K., & Groom, C. J. (2005). Separating multiple processes in implicit social cognition:The quad model of implicit task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 469-487. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.469
21. Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2002). The police officer's dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1314-1329. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314
22. Curran, T., & Hintzman, D. L. (1995). Violations of the independence assumption in process dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 531-547. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.3.531
23. DeCarlo, L. T. (2002). Signal detection theory with finite mixture distributions:Theoretical developments with applications to recognition memory. Psychological Review, 109, 710-721. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.4.710
24. DeCarlo, L. T. (2003). Source monitoring and multivariate signal detection theory, with a model for selection. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 47, 292-303. doi:10.1016/S0022-2496(03)00005-1
25. Dehn, D. M., & Engelkamp, J. (1997). Process dissociation procedure:Double dissociations following divided attention and speeded responding. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: A. Human Experimental Psychology, 50, 318-336. doi:10.1080/027249897392116
26. Dewhurst, S. A., & Conway, M. A. (1994). Pictures, images, and recollective experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1088-1098. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.5.1088
27. Dodson, C. S., Holland, P. W., & Shimamura, A. P. (1998). On the recollection of specific-and partial-source information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1121-1136. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.24.5.1121
28. Dodson, C. S., & Johnson, M. K. (1996). Some problems with the processdissociation approach to memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 125, 181-194. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.125.2.181
29. Dodson, C. S., Prinzmetal, W., & Shimamura, A. P. (1998). Using Excel to estimate parameters from observed data: An example from source memory data. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 30, 517-526. doi:10.3758/BF03200685
30. Donaldson, W. (1996). The role of decision processes in remembering and knowing. Memory & Cognition, 24, 523-533. doi:10.3758/BF03200940
31. Dougal, S., & Rotello, C. M. (2007). "Remembering" emotional words is based on response bias, not recollection. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 423-429. doi:10.3758/BF03194083
32. Dube, C., & Rotello, C. M. (2012). Binary ROCs in perception and recognition memory are curved. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 130-151. doi:10.1037/a0024957
33. Dube, C., Rotello, C. M., & Heit, E. (2010). Assessing the belief bias effect with ROCs: It's a response bias effect. Psychological Review, 117, 831-863. doi:10.1037/a0019634
34. Dube, C., Rotello, C. M., & Heit, E. (2011). The belief bias effect is aptly named: A reply to Klauer and Kellen (2011). Psychological Review, 118, 155-163. doi:10.1037/a0021774
35. Dube, C., Starns, J. J., Rotello, C. M., & Ratcliff, R. (2012). Beyond ROC curvature: Strength effects and response time data support continuousevidence models of recognition memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 67, 389-406. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2012.06.002
36. Dunn, J. C. (2004). Remember-know: A matter of confidence. Psychological Review, 111, 524-542. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.2.524
37. Dunn, J. C. (2008). The dimensionality of the remember-know task: A state-trace analysis. Psychological Review, 115, 426-446. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.426
38. Egan, J. P., Schulman, A. L., & Greenberg, G. Z. (1959). Operating characteristics determined by binary decisions and by ratings. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 31, 768-773. doi:10.1121/1.1907783
39. Erdfelder, E., Auer, T.-S., Hilbig, B. E., Aßfalg, A., Moshagen, M., & Nadarevic, L. (2009). Multinomial processing tree models: A review of the literature. Zeitschrift für Psychologie/Journal of Psychology, 217, 108-124. doi:10.1027/0044-3409.217.3.108
40. Erdfelder, E., & Buchner, A. (1998). Process-dissociation measurement models: Threshold theory or detection theory? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 83-97. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.127.1.83
41. Evans, J. S. B., Barston, J. L., & Pollard, P. (1983). On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 11, 295-306. doi:10.3758/BF03196976
42. Evans, J. S. B. T., & Curtis-Holmes, J. (2005). Rapid responding increases belief bias: Evidence for the dual-process theory of reasoning. Thinking & Reasoning, 11, 382-389. doi:10.1080/13546780542000005
43. Evans, J. S. B. T., Newstead, S. E., Allen, J. L., & Pollard, P. (1994). Debiasing by instruction: The case of belief bias. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 6, 263-285. doi:10.1080/09541449408520148
44. Fechner, G. T. (1966). Elements of psychophysics (Vol. 1; H. E. Adler, Trans.). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. (Original work published 1860)
45. Freeman, E., Dennis, S., & Dunn, J. C. (2010). An examination of the ERP correlates of recognition memory using state-trace analysis. In S. Ohlsson & R. Catrambone (Eds.), Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 97-102). Austin, TX:Cognitive Science Society.
46. Gardiner, J. M., Gregg, V. H., Mashru, R., & Thaman, M. (2001). Impact of encoding depth on awareness of perceptual effects in recognition memory. Memory & Cognition, 29, 433-440. doi:10.3758/BF03196394
47. Glanzer, M., Hilford, A., & Kim, K. (2004). Six regularities of source recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 1176-1195. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.6.1176
48. Goodman, L. A., & Kruskal, W. H. (1954). Measures of association for cross classifications. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 49, 732-764. doi:10.2307/2281536
49. Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. Oxford, England: Wiley.
50. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
51. Harvey, P. D. (1985). Reality monitoring in mania and schizophrenia: The association of thought disorder and performance. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173, 67-73. doi:10.1097/00005053-198502000-00001
52. Hautus, M. J., Macmillan, N. A., & Rotello, C. M. (2008). Toward a complete decision model of item and source recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 889-905. doi:10.3758/PBR.15.5.889
53. Higham, P. A. (2007). No special K! A signal detection framework for the strategic regulation of memory accuracy. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 136, 1-22. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.1
54. Hilford, A., Glanzer, M., Kim, K., & DeCarlo, L. T. (2002). Regularities of source recognition: ROC analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 131, 494-510. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.131.4.494
55. Holzinger, K. J. (1924). On scoring multiple response tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 15, 445-447. doi:10.1037/h0073083
56. Hu, X. (1999). Multinomial processing tree models: An implementation. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 31, 689-695. doi:10.3758/BF03200747
57. Ingram, K. M., Mickes, L., & Wixted, J. T. (2012). Recollection can be weak and familiarity can be strong. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 325-339. doi:10.1037/a0025483
58. Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513-541. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(91)90025-F
59. Jacoby, L. L. (1998). Invariance in automatic influences of memory:Toward a user's guide for the process-dissociation procedure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 3-26. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.24.1.3
60. Jang, Y., Wixted, J. T., & Huber, D. E. (2009). Testing signal-detection models of yes/no and two-alternative forced-choice recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 138, 291-306. doi:10.1037/a0015525
61. Jang, Y., Wixted, J. T., & Huber, D. E. (2011). The diagnosticity of individual data for model selection: Comparing signal-detection models of recognition memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 751-757. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0096-7
62. Johnson, M. K., & Raye, C. L. (1981). Reality monitoring. Psychological Review, 88, 67-85. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.88.1.67
63. Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
64. Kapucu, A., Rotello, C. M., Ready, R. E., & Seidl, K. N. (2008). Response bias in "remembering" emotional stimuli: A new perspective on age differences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 703-711. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.3.703
65. Keefe, R. S. E., Arnold, M. C., Bayen, U. J., & Harvey, P. D. (1999). Source monitoring deficits in patients with schizophrenia; A multinomial modeling analysis. Psychological Medicine, 29, 903-914. doi:10.1017/S0033291799008673
66. Keefe, R. S. E., Arnold, M. C., Bayen, U. J., McEvoy, J. P., & Wilson, W. H. (2002). Source-monitoring deficits for self-generated stimuli in schizophrenia: Multinomial modeling of data from three sources. Schizophrenia Research, 57, 51-67. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00306-1
67. Kellen, D., & Klauer, K. C. (2011). Evaluating models of recognition memory using first-and second-choice responses. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55, 251-266. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2010.11.004
68. Kincaid, W. M., & Hamilton, C. E. (1959). An experimental study of the nature of forced-choice responses in visual detection (Technical Report No. 2144-295-T). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Vision Research Laboratories.
69. Kinchla, R. A. (1994). Comments on Batchelder and Riefer's multinomial model for source monitoring. Psychological Review, 101, 166-171. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.101.1.166
70. Klauer, K. C. (2010). Hierarchical multinomial processing tree models: A latent-trait approach. Psychometrika, 75, 70-98. doi:10.1007/s11336-009-9141-0
71. Klauer, K. C., & Kellen, D. (2010). Toward a complete decision model of item and source recognition: A discrete-state approach. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 465-478. doi:10.3758/PBR.17.4.465
72. Klauer, K. C., & Kellen, D. (2011a). Assessing the belief bias effect with ROCs: Reply to Dube, Rotello, and Heit (2010). Psychological Review, 118, 164-173. doi:10.1037/a0020698
73. Klauer, K. C., & Kellen, D. (2011b). The flexibility of models of recognition memory: An analysis by the minimum-description length principle. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55, 430-450. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2011.09.002
74. Klauer, K. C., Musch, J., & Naumer, B. (2000). On belief bias in syllogistic reasoning. Psychological Review, 107, 852-884. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.107.4.852
75. Krantz, D. H. (1969). Threshold theories of signal detection. Psychological Review, 76, 308-324. doi:10.1037/h0027238
76. Kurilla, B. P., & Westerman, D. L. (2010). Source memory for unidentified stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 398-410. doi:10.1037/a0018279
77. Luce, R. D. (1963). A threshold theory for simple detection experiments. Psychological Review, 70, 61-79. doi:10.1037/h0039723
78. Macmillan, N. A., & Creelman, C. D. (2005). Detection theory: A user's guide (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
79. Malmberg, K. J. (2002). On the form of ROCs constructed from confidence ratings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 380-387. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.2.380
80. Masson, M. E. J., & Rotello, C. M. (2009). Sources of bias in the Goodman-Kruskal gamma coefficient measure of association: Implications for studies of metacognitive processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 509-527. doi:10.1037/a0014876
81. McElree, B., Dolan, P. O., & Jacoby, L. L. (1999). Isolating the contributions of familiarity and source information to item recognition: A time course analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 563-582. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.25.3.563
82. McNicol, D. (1972). A primer of signal detection theory. London, England:Allen & Unwin.
83. Meiser, T. (2005). A hierarchy of multinomial models for multidimensional source monitoring. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1, 2-17. doi:10.1027/1614-1881.1.1.2
84. Meiser, T., & Bröder, A. (2002). Memory for multidimensional source information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 116-137. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.1.116
85. Mickes, L., Johnson, E. M., & Wixted, J. T. (2010). Continuous recollection versus unitized familiarity in associative recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 843-863. doi:10.1037/a0019755
86. Mickes, L., Wixted, J. T., & Wais, P. E. (2007). A direct test of the unequal-variance signal detection model of recognition memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 858-865. doi:10.3758/BF03194112
87. Morley, N. J., Evans, J. S. B. T., & Handley, S. J. (2004). Belief bias and figural bias in syllogistic reasoning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: A. Human Experimental Psychology, 57, 666-692. doi:10.1080/02724980343000440
88. Mulligan, N. W., & Hirshman, E. (1997). Measuring the bases of recognition memory: An investigation of the process-dissociation framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 280-304. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.23.2.280
89. Murdock, B. (2006). Decision-making models of remember-know judgments:Comment on Rotello, Macmillan, and Reeder (2004). Psychological Review, 113, 648-655. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.113.3.648
90. Newell, B. R., & Dunn, J. C. (2008). Dimensions in data: Testing psychological models using state-trace analysis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 285-290. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.04.009
91. Newstead, S. E., Pollard, P., Evans, J. S., & Allen, J. (1992). The source of belief bias effects in syllogistic reasoning. Cognition, 45, 257-284. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(92)90019-E
92. O'Connor, A. R., Guhl, E. N., Cox, J. C., & Dobbins, I. G. (2011). Some memories are odder than others: Judgments of episodic oddity violate known decision rules. Journal of Memory and Language, 64, 299-315. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2011.02.001
93. Papesh, M. H., & Goldinger, S. D. (2012, November). Are eye movements "functional" for memory? Poster presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Minneapolis, MN.
94. Parks, C. M., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2007). Moving beyond pure signaldetection models: Comment on Wixted (2007). Psychological Review, 114, 188-201. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.188
95. Parks, C. M., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2009). Evidence for a memory threshold in second-choice recognition memory. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 11515-11519. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905505106
96. Pessoa, L., & Padmala, S. (2005). Quantitative prediction of perceptual decisions during near-threshold fear detection. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 5612-5617. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500566102
97. Petrusic, W. M., & Baranski, J. V. (2003). Judging confidence influences decision processing in comparative judgments. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10, 177-183. doi:10.3758/BF03196482
98. Pitt, M. A., Kim, W., & Myung, I. J. (2003). Flexibility versus generalizability in model selection. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10, 29-44. doi:10.3758/BF03196467
99. Pratte, M. S., & Rouder, J. N. (2011). Hierarchical single-and dual-process models of recognition memory. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 55, 36-46. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2010.08.007
100. Pratte, M. S., & Rouder, J. N. (2012). Assessing the dissociability of recollection and familiarity in recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 1591-1607. doi:10.1037/a0028144
101. Pratte, M. S., Rouder, J. N., & Morey, R. D. (2010). Separating mnemonic process from participant and item effects in the assessment of ROC asymmetries. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 224-232. doi:10.1037/a0017682
102. Province, J. M., & Rouder, J. N. (2012). Evidence for discrete-state processing in recognition memory. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 14357-14362. doi:10.1073/pnas.1103880109
103. Qin, J., Raye, C. L., Johnson, M. K., & Mitchell, K. J. (2001). Source ROCs are (typically) curvilinear: Comment on Yonelinas (1999). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 1110-1115. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.1110
104. Quayle, J. D., & Ball, L. J. (2000). Working memory, metacognitive uncertainty, and belief bias in syllogistic reasoning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: A. Human Experimental Psychology, 53, 1202-1223. doi:10.1080/02724980050156362
105. Ratcliff, R. (1978). A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological Review, 85, 59-108. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.85.2.59
106. Ratcliff, R., Sheu, C.-F., & Gronlund, S. D. (1992). Testing global memory models using ROC curves. Psychological Review, 99, 518-535. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.518
107. Ratcliff, R., Van Zandt, T., & McKoon, G. (1995). Process dissociation, single-process theories, and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 352-374. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.124.4.352
108. Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models:Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
109. Riefer, D. M., Hu, X., & Batchelder, W. H. (1994). Response strategies in source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 680-693. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.3.680
110. Roberts, M. J., & Sykes, E. D. A. (2003). Belief bias and relational reasoning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: A. Human Experimental Psychology, 56, 131-154. doi:10.1080/02724980244000233
111. Rotello, C. M. (2000). Recall processes in recognition memory. In D. L. Medin (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 40, pp. 183-221). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
112. Rotello, C. M., & Heit, E. (2000). Associative recognition: A case of recall-to-reject processing. Memory & Cognition, 28, 907-922. doi:10.3758/BF03209339
113. Rotello, C. M., Macmillan, N. A., Hicks, J. L., & Hautus, M. J. (2006). Interpreting the effects of response bias on remember-know judgments using signal detection and threshold models. Memory & Cognition, 34, 1598-1614. doi:10.3758/BF03195923
114. Rotello, C. M., Macmillan, N. A., & Reeder, J. A. (2004). Sum-difference theory of remembering and knowing: A two-dimensional signaldetection model. Psychological Review, 111, 588-616. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.3.588
115. Rotello, C. M., Macmillan, N. A., Reeder, J. A., & Wong, M. (2005). The remember response: Subject to bias, graded, and not a process-pure indicator of recollection. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 865-873. doi:10.3758/BF03196778
116. Rotello, C. M., Macmillan, N. A., & Van Tassel, G. (2000). Recall-toreject in recognition: Evidence from ROC curves. Journal of Memory and Language, 43, 67-88. doi:10.1006/jmla.1999.2701
117. Rotello, C. M., Masson, M. E. J., & Verde, M. F. (2008). Type I error rates and power analyses for single-point sensitivity measures. Perception & Psychophysics, 70, 389-401. doi:10.3758/PP.70.2.389
118. Rotello, C. M., & Zeng, M. (2008). Analysis of RT distributions in the remember-know paradigm. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 825-832. doi:10.3758/PBR.15.4.825
119. Schmitter-Edgecombe, M., Marks, W., Wright, M. J., & Ventura, M. (2004). Retrieval inhibition in directed forgetting following severe closed-head injury. Neuropsychology, 18, 104-114. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.1.104
120. Schütz, J., & Bröder, A. (2011). Signal detection and threshold models of source memory. Experimental Psychology, 58, 293-311. doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000097
121. Schwarz, N., Knäuper, B., Hippler, H.-J., Noelle-Neumann, E., & Clark, L. (1991). Rating scales: Numeric values may change the meaning of scale labels. Public Opinion Quarterly, 55, 570-582. doi:10.1086/269282
122. Shadlen, M. N., Britten, K. H., Newsome, W. T., & Movshon, J. A. (1996). A computational analysis of the relationship between neuronal and behavioral responses to visual motion. The Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 1486-1510.
123. Sherman, J. W. (2006). Clearing up some misconceptions about the quad model. Psychological Inquiry, 17, 269-276. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1703_7
124. Shynkaruk, J. M., & Thompson, V. A. (2006). Confidence and accuracy in deductive reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 34, 619-632. doi:10.3758/BF03193584
125. Simons, J. S., Verfaellie, M., Galton, C. J., Miller, B. L., Hodges, J. R., & Graham, K. S. (2002). Recollection-based memory in frontotemporal dementia: Implications for theories of long-term memory. Brain, 125, 2523-2536. doi:10.1093/brain/awf247
126. Slotnick, S. D., & Dodson, C. S. (2005). Support for a continuous (singleprocess) model of recognition memory and source memory. Memory & Cognition, 33, 151-170. doi:10.3758/BF03195305
127. Slotnick, S. D., Klein, S. A., Dodson, C. S., & Shimamura, A. P. (2000). An analysis of signal detection and threshold models of source memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1499-1517. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.26.6.1499
128. Smith, C. N., Wixted, J. T., & Squire, L. R. (2011). The hippocampus supports both recollection and familiarity when memories are strong. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 15693-15702. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3438-11.2011
129. Smith, D. G., & Duncan, M. J. J. (2004). Testing theories of recognition memory by predicting performance across paradigms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 615-625. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.3.615
130. Smith, J. B., & Batchelder, W. H. (2010). Beta-MPT: Multinomial processing tree models for addressing individual differences. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 54, 167-183. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2009.06.007
131. Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988). Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 34-50. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.1.34
132. Squire, L. R., Wixted, J. T., & Clark, R. E. (2007). Recognition memory and the medial temporal lobe: A new perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 872-883. doi:10.1038/nrn2154
133. Stahl, C., & Klauer, K. C. (2007). HMMTree: A computer program for latent-class hierarchical multinomial processing tree models. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 267-273. doi:10.3758/BF03193157
134. Stahl, C., & Klauer, K. C. (2008). A simplified conjoint recognition paradigm for the measurement of gist and verbatim memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 570-586. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.3.570
135. Starns, J. J., & Hicks, J. L. (2005). Source dimensions are retrieved independently in multidimensional monitoring tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 1213-1220. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.6.1213
136. Starns, J. J., Hicks, J. L., Brown, N. L., & Martin, B. A. (2008). Source memory for unrecognized items: Predictions from multivariate signal detection theory. Memory & Cognition, 36, 1-8. doi:10.3758/MC.36.1.1
137. Starns, J. J., Pazzaglia, A. M., Rotello, C. M., Hautus, M. J., & Macmillan, N. A. (in press). Unequal-strength source zROC slopes reflect criteria placement and not (necessarily) memory processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.
138. Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662. doi:10.1037/h0054651
139. Stupple, E. J. N., & Ball, L. J. (2008). Belief-logic conflict resolution in syllogistic reasoning: Inspection-time evidence for a parallel-process model. Thinking & Reasoning, 14, 168-181. doi:10.1080/13546780701739782
140. Swets, J. A. (1961). Is there a sensory threshold? Science, 134, 168-177. doi:10.1126/science.134.3473.168
141. Swets, J. A. (1964). Indices of signal detectability obtained with various psychophysical procedures. In J. A. Swets (Ed.), Signal detection and recognition by human observers (pp. 164-171). New York, NY: Wiley.
142. Swets, J. A. (1986a). Form of empirical ROCs in discrimination and diagnostic tasks: Implications for theory and measurement of performance. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 181-198. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.2.181
143. Swets, J. A. (1986b). Indices of discrimination or diagnostic accuracy:Their ROCs and implied models. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 100-117. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.100
144. Swets, J. A., Tanner, W. P., Jr., & Birdsall, T. G. (1961). Decision processes in perception. Psychological Review, 68, 301-340. doi:10.1037/h0040547
145. Thielscher, A., & Pessoa, L. (2007). Neural correlates of perceptual choice and decision making during fear-disgust discrimination. The Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 2908-2917. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3024-06.2007
146. Thompson, V. A., Striemer, C. L., Reikoff, R., Gunter, R. W., & Campbell, J. I. D. (2003). Syllogistic reasoning time: Disconfirmation disconfirmed. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 10, 184-189. doi:10.3758/BF03196483
147. Thurstone, L. L. (1919). A scoring method for mental tests. Psychological Bulletin, 16, 235-240. doi:10.1037/h0069898
148. Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 26, 1-12. doi:10.1037/h0080017
149. Verde, M. F., & Rotello, C. M. (2003). Does familiarity change in the revelation effect? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 739-746. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.5.739
150. Verde, M. F., & Rotello, C. M. (2004). ROC curves show that the revelation effect is not a single phenomenon. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 560-566. doi:10.3758/BF03196611
151. von Hecker, U., & Meiser, T. (2005). Defocused attention in depressed mood: Evidence from source monitoring. Emotion, 5, 456-463. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.456
152. Wagenmakers, E.-J., Ratcliff, R., Gomez, P., & Iverson, G. J. (2004). Assessing model mimicry using the parametric bootstrap. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 48, 28-50. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2003.11.004
153. Waubert de Puiseau, B., Aßfalg, A., Erdfelder, E., & Bernstein, D. M. (2012). Extracting the truth from conflicting eyewitness reports: A formal modeling approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18, 390-403. doi:10.1037/a0029801
154. Weaver, C. A., III, & Kelemen, W. L. (2003). Processing similarity does not improve metamemory: Evidence against transfer-appropriate monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 1058-1065. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.6.1058
155. Wickelgren, W. A. (1968). Testing two-state theories with operating characteristics and a posteriori probabilities. Psychological Bulletin, 69, 126-131. doi:10.1037/h0025264
156. Wixted, J. T. (2007). Dual-process theory and signal-detection theory of recognition memory. Psychological Review, 114, 152-176. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.152
157. Wixted, J. T., & Mickes, L. (2010). A continuous dual-process model of remember/know judgments. Psychological Review, 117, 1025-1054. doi:10.1037/a0020874
158. Wixted, J. T., Papesh, M. H., Goldinger, S. D., Jang, Y., & Steinmetz, P. N. (2012, November). Representation of episodic memory strength by single neurons in the human hippocampus. Paper presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Minneapolis, MN.
159. Wixted, J. T., & Stretch, V. (2004). In defense of the signal-detection interpretation of remember/know judgments. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 616-641. doi:10.3758/BF03196616
160. Wu, H., Myung, J. I., & Batchelder, W. H. (2010a). Minimum description length model selection of multinomial processing tree models. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 275-286. doi:10.3758/PBR.17.3.275
161. Wu, H., Myung, J. I., & Batchelder, W. H. (2010b). On the minimum description length complexity of multinomial processing tree models. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 54, 291-303. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2010.02.001
162. Yonelinas, A. P. (1994). Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition memory: Evidence for a dual-process model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1341-1354. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1341
163. Yonelinas, A. P. (1999). The contribution of recollection and familiarity to recognition and source-memory judgments: A formal dual-process model and an analysis of receiver operating characteristics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 1415-1434. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.25.6.1415
164. Yonelinas, A. P., Dobbins, I., Szymanski, M. D., Dhaliwal, H. S., & King, L. (1996). Signal detection, threshold, and dual process models of recognition memory: ROCs and conscious recollection. Consciousness and Cognition, 5, 418-441. doi:10.1006/ccog.1996.0026
165. Yonelinas, A. P., Kroll, N. E. A., Dobbins, I., Lazzara, M., & Knight, R. T. (1998). Recollection and familiarity deficits in amnesia: Convergence of remember-know, process dissociation, and receiver operating characteristic data. Neuropsychology, 12, 323-339. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.12.3.323
166. Yonelinas, A. P., Kroll, N. E. A., Dobbins, I. G., & Soltani, M. (1999). Recognition memory of faces: When familiarity supports associative recognition judgments. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6, 654-661. doi:10.3758/BF03212975