Measuring the bases of recognition memory: An investigation of the process-dissociation framework

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 280-304

  Mulligan, Neil W ^a,b   Hirshman, Elliot ^a  

^a University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

^b ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031521036     PISSN: 02787393     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0278-7393.23.2.280     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. Allen, S. W., & Jacoby, L. L. (1990). Reinstating study context produces unconscious influences of memory. Memory & Cognition, 18, 270-278.
2. Baddeley, A., Lewis, V., Eldridge, M., & Thomson, N. (1984). Attention and retrieval from long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 518-540.
3. Batchelder, W. H., & Riefer, D. M. (1990). Multinomial processing models of source monitoring. Psychological Review, 97, 548-564.
4. Batchelder, W. H., Riefer, D. M., & Hu, X. (1994). Measuring memory factors in source monitoring: Reply to Kinchla. Psychological Review, 101, 172-176.
5. Begg, I. A., Anas, A., & Farinacci, S. (1992). Dissociation of processes in belief: Source recollection, statement familiarity and the illusion of truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 446-458.
6. Buchner, A., Erdfelder, E., & Vaterrodt-Plünnecke, B. (1995). Toward unbiased measurement of conscious and unconscious memory processes within the process dissociation framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 137-160.
7. Cermak, L. S., Verfaellie, M., Sweeney, M., & Jacoby, L. L. (1992). Fluency versus conscious recollection in the word completion performance of amnesic patients. Brain and Cognition, 20, 367-377.
8. Clark, S. E., & Gronlund, S. D. (1996). Global matching models of recognition memory: How the models match the data. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 37-60.
9. Conway, M., & Dewhurst, S. (1995). The self and recollective experience. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9, 1-19.
10. Cowan, N., & Stadler, M. A. (1996). Estimating unconscious processes: Implications of a general class of models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 195-200.
11. Craik, F. I. M. (1982). Selective changes in encoding as a function of reduced processing capacity. In F. Klix, J. Hoffman, & E. van der Meer (Eds.), Cognitive research in psychology (pp. 152-161). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
12. Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
13. Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
14. Curran, T., & Hintzman, D. L. (1995). Violations of the independence assumptions in process dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 531-547.
15. Curran, T., & Hintzman, D. L. (1997). Consequences and causes of correlations in process dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 496-504.
16. Debner, J. A., & Jacoby, L. L. (1994). Unconscious perception: Attention, awareness, and control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 304-317.
17. Dodson, C. S., & Johnson, M. K. (1996). Some problems with the process-dissociation approach to memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 181-194.
18. Dusoir, A. E. (1974). Thomas and Legge's matching hypothesis for detection and recognition tasks: Two tests. Perception & Psychophysics, 16, 466-470.
19. Dusoir, A. E. (1975). Treatments of bias in detection and recognition models: A review. Perception & Psychophysics, 17, 167-178.
20. Dwyan, J., & Jacoby, L. L. (1990). Effects of aging on source monitoring: Differences in susceptibility to false fame. Psychology and Aging, 5, 379-387.
21. Ericksen, C. W. (1960). Discrimination and learning without awareness: A methodological survey and evaluation. Psychological Review, 67, 279-300.
22. Gardiner, J. M. (1988). Functional aspects of recollective experience. Memory & Cognition, 16, 309-313.
23. Gardiner, J. M., & Java, R. (1993). Recognising and remembering. In A. Collins, S. Gathercole, M. Conway, & P. Morris (Eds.), Theories of memory (pp. 163-188). Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum.
24. Gardiner, J. M., & Parkin, A. (1990). Attention and recollective experience in recognition memory. Memory & Cognition, 18, 579-583.
25. Gillund, G., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1984). A retrieval model of both recognition and recall. Psychological Review, 91, 1-67.
26. Graf, P., & Komatsu, S. (1994). Process dissociation procedure: Handle with caution! European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 6, 113-129.
27. Graf, P., & Mandler, G. (1984). Activation makes words more accessible, but not necessarily more retrievable. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 553-568.
28. Gronlund, S. D., & Ratcliff, R. (1989). Time course of item and associative information: Implications for global memory models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 846-858.
29. Gruppuso, V., Lindsay, D. S., & Kelley, C. M. (1997). The process-dissociation procedure and similarity: Defining and estimating recollection and familiarity in recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 259-278.
30. Guttentag, R. E., & Carroll, D. (in press). Identifying the basis for the word frequency effect in recognition memory. Memory.
31. Haist, F., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1992). On the relationship between recall and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 691-702.
32. Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1979). Automatic and effortful processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108, 356-386.
33. Healy, A. F., & Kubovy, M. (1978). The effects of payoffs and prior probabilities on indices of performance and cutoff location in recognition memory. Memory & Cognition, 6, 544-553.
34. Hertel, P. T., & Milan, S. (1994). Depressive deficits in recognition: Dissociations of recollection and familiarity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 736-742.
35. Hilgard, E. R. (1980). Consciousness in contemporary psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 1-26.
36. Hintzman, D. L., & Curran, T. (1994). Retrieval dynamics of recognition and frequency judgments: Evidence for separate processes of familiarity and recall. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 1-18.
37. Hirshman, E., & Master, S. (in press). Modeling the conscious correlates of recognition memory: Reflection on the remember - know paradigm. Memory & Cognition.
38. Holender, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 1-23.
39. Hu, X. (1991). Statistical Inference Program for multinomial binary tree models. [Computer software]. Irvine, CA: University of California, Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, School of Social Sciences.
40. Hu, X., & Batchelder, W. H. (1994). The statistical analysis of general processing tree models with the EM algorithm. Psychometrika, 59, 21-47.
41. Humphreys, M. S., & Bain, J. D. (1983). Recognition memory: A cue and information analysis. Memory & Cognition, 11, 583-600.
42. Hyde, T. S., & Jenkins, J. J. (1973). Recall for words as a function of semantic, graphic, and syntactic orienting tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 471-480.
43. Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513-541.
44. Jacoby, L. L., Begg, I. M., & Toth, J. P. (1997). In defense of functional independence: Violations of assumptions underlying the process-dissociation procedure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 484-495.
45. Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 306-340.
46. Jacoby, L. L., & Hollingshead, A. (1990). Toward a generate/ recognize model of performance on direct and indirect tests of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 433-454.
47. Jacoby, L. L., & Kelley, C. M. (1992a). A process dissociation framework for investigating unconscious influences: Freudian slips, projective tests, subliminal perception, and signal detection theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 174-179.
48. Jacoby, L. L., & Kelley, C. M. (1992b). Unconscious influences on memory: Dissociations and automaticity. In D. Milner & M. Rugg (Eds.), The neuropsychology of consciousness (pp. 201-223). London: Academic Press.
49. Jacoby, L. L., Lindsay, D. S., & Toth, J. P. (1992). Unconscious influences revealed: Attention, awareness, and control. American Psychologist, 47, 802-809.
50. Jacoby, L. L., Toth, J. P., & Yonelinas, A. P. (1993). Separating conscious and unconscious influences of memory: Measuring recollection. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 1-16.
51. Jacoby, L. L., Yonelinas, A. P., & Jennings, J. (in press). The relation between conscious and unconscious (automatic) influences: A declaration of independence. In J. Cohen & J. W. Schooler (Eds.), Scientific approaches to the question of consciousness. Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum.
52. Jennings, J. M., & Jacoby, L. L. (1993). Automatic versus intentional uses of memory: Aging, attention, and control. Psychology and Aging, 8, 283-293.
53. Johnson, M. K., Hashtroudi, S., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Source monitoring. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 3-28.
54. Johnson, M. K., Kounios, J., & Reeder, J. A. (1994). Time-course studies of reality monitoring and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1409-1419.
55. Johnston, W. A., Hawley, K. J., & Elliott, J. M. (1991). Contribution of perceptual fluency to recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 210-223.
56. Jones, G. V. (1987). Independence and exclusivity among psychological processes: Implication for the structure of recall. Psychological Review, 94, 229-235.
57. Jones, T., & Roediger, H. L. (1995). The experiential basis of serial position effects. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 65-86.
58. Joordens, S., & Merikle, P. M. (1993). Independence of redundancy? Two models of conscious and unconscious influences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 462-467.
59. Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
60. Kelley, C. M., & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Remembering mistaken for knowing: Ease of retrieval as a basis for confidence in answers to general knowledge questions. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 1-24.
61. Kinchla, R. A. (1994). Comments on Batchelder and Riefer's multinomial model for source monitoring. Psychological Review, 101, 166-171.
62. Komatsu, S., Graf, P., & Uttl, B. (1995). Process dissociation procedure: Core assumptions fail, sometimes. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 19-40.
63. Kučera, H., & Francis, W. N. (1967). Computational analysis of present-day American English. Providence, RI: Brown University Press.
64. LeCompte, D. C. (1995). Recollective experience in the revelation effect: Separating the contributions of recollection and familiarity. Memory & Cognition, 23, 324-334.
65. Lindsay, D. S. (1990). Misleading suggestions can impair eyewitnesses' ability to remember event details. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 1077-1083.
66. Lindsay, D. S., & Jacoby, L. L. (1994). Stroop process dissociations: The relationship between facilitation and interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 219-234.
67. Lindsay, D. S., Johnson, M. K., & Kwon, P. (1991). Developmental changes in memory source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 52, 297-318.
68. MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 163-203.
69. Mandler, G. (1980). Recognizing: The judgment of previous occurrence. Psychological Review, 87, 252-271.
70. Mandler, G. (1991). Your face looks familiar but I can't remember your name: A review of dual process theory. In W. E. Hockley & S. Lewandowsky (Eds.), Relating theory to data: Essays in honor of Bennet B. Murdock (pp. 230-255). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
71. Marcel, A. J., & Bisiach, E. (1988). Consciousness in contemporary science. New York: Clarendon Press.
72. Martin, D. W. (1970). Residual processing capacity during verbal organization in memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 391-397.
73. Mulligan, N. W., & Hirshman, E. (1995). Speed-accuracy tradeoffs and the dual process model of recognition memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 34, 1-18.
74. Neal, A., Hesketh, B., & Andrews, S. (1995). Instance-based categorization: Automatic versus intentional forms of retrieval. Memory & Cognition, 23, 227-242.
75. Neumann, O. (1984). Automatic processing: A review of recent findings and a plea for an old theory. In W. Prinz & A. F. Sanders (Eds.), Cognition and motor processes (pp. 255-293). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
76. Parkin, A., & Walter, B. (1992). Recollective experience, normal aging and frontal dysfunction. Psychology and Aging, 7, 290-298.
77. Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing in cognition: The Loyola symposium (pp. 55-85). Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum.
78. Rajaram, S. (1993). Remembering and knowing: Two means of access to the personal past. Memory & Cognition, 21, 89-102.
79. Ratcliff, R., Van Zandt, T., & McKoon, G. (1995). Process dissociation, single-process theories, and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 352-374.
80. Richardson-Klavehn, A., Gardiner, J. M., & Java, R. I. (1994). Involuntary conscious memory and the method of opposition. Memory, 2, 1-29.
81. Riefer, D. M., & Batchelder, W. H. (1988). Multinomial modeling and the measurement of cognitive processes. Psychological Review, 95, 318-339.
82. Riefer, D. M., Hu, X., & Batchelder, W. H. (1994). Response strategies in source monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 680-693.
83. Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1994). The problem of differing false-alarm rates for the process dissociation procedure: Comment on Verfaellie and Treadwell (1993). Neuropsychology, 8, 284-288.
84. Russo, R., & Andrade, J. (1995). The directed forgetting effect in word-fragment completion: An application of the process dissociation procedure. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 48(A), 405-423.
85. Shallice, T. (1972). Dual functions of consciousness. Psychological Review, 79, 383-393.
86. Shallice, T. (1978). The dominant action system: An information-processing approach to consciousness. In K. S. Pope & J. L. Singer (Eds.), The stream of consciousness: Scientific investigations into the flow of human experience (pp. 117-157). New York: Plenum Press.
87. Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988). Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: Applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 34-50.
88. Squire, L. R., Shimamura, A. P., & Graf, P. (1985). Independence of recognition memory and priming effects: A neuropsychological analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 37-44.
89. Toth, J. P. (1995). Unintentional influences and opposition: A reply to Graf. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 233-237.
90. Toth, J. P., Reingold, E. M., & Jacoby, L. L. (1994). Toward a redefinition of implicit memory: Process dissociations following elaborative processing and self-generation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 290-303.
91. Toth, J. P., Reingold, E. M., & Jacoby, L. L. (1995). A response to Graf and Komatsu's (1994) critique of the process-dissociation procedure: When is caution necessary? European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 113-130.
92. Trumbo, D., & Milone, F. (1971). Primary task performance as a function of encoding, retention and recall on a secondary task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 91, 273-279.
93. Tulving, E., Schacter, D. L., & Stark, H. A. (1982). Priming effects in word fragment completion are independent of recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 8, 336-342.
94. Umilta, C. (1988). The control operations of consciousness. In A. J. Marcel & E. Bisiach (Eds.), Consciousness in contemporary science (pp. 334-356). New York: Clarendon Press.
95. Verfaellie, M., & Treadwell, J. R. (1993). Status of recognition memory in amnesia. Neuropsychology, 7, 5-13.
96. Wagner, A. D., Gabrieli, J. D. E., & Verfaellie, M. (1997). Dissociations between familiarity processes in explicit-recognition and implicit-perceptual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 305-323.
97. Watkins, M. J., & Gibson, J. M. (1988). On the relation between perceptual priming and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 477-483.
98. Winograd, E. (1968a). List differentiation as a function of frequency and retention interval. Journal of Experimental Psychology Monographs, 76 (2, Pt. 2).
99. Winograd, E. (1968b). List differentiation, recall, and category similarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 78, 510-515.
100. Yonelinas, A. P. (1994). Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition memory: Evidence for a dual-process model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1341-1354.
101. Yonelinas, A. P., & Jacoby, L. L. (1994). Dissociations of processes in recognition memory: Effects of interference and response speed. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48, 516-534.
102. Yonelinas, A. P., & Jacoby, L. L. (1995). The relation between remembering and knowing as bases for recognition: Effects of size congruency. Journal of Memory and Language, 34, 622-643.
103. Yonelinas, A. P., Regehr, G., & Jacoby, L. L. (1995). Incorporating response bias in a dual-process theory of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 34, 821-835.