Seaweed Digestibility and Methods Used for Digestibility Determination

Handbook of Marine Macroalgae: Biotechnology and Applied Phycology

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 285-301

  Mišurcová, Ladislava ^a  

^a TOMAS BATA UNIVERSITY IN ZLIN   (Czech Republic)

Author keywords

Amino acid score (AAS); Digestibility determination; Digestibility, in seaweed evaluation; EAAI, and accurate values; Exogenous, seaweed digestibility; in vitro digestibility; PDCAAS, protein quality; Protein digestibility; Seaweed digestibility; Stable isotope IAAO method

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886066077     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781119977087.ch13     Document Type: Chapter

References (116)

1. Adesogan, A.T. (2005) Effect of bag type on the apparent digestibility of feeds inANKOMDaisyII incubators.Animal Feed Sci. Technol., 119, 333-344.
2. Aguilera-Morales, M., Casas-Valdez, M., Carrillo-Dominquez, S., González-Acosta, B. and Pérez-Gil, F. (2005) Chemical composition and microbiological assays of marine algae Enteromorpha ssp. as potential food source. J. Food Comp. Anal., 18, 79-88.
3. Au, A.P. and Reddy, M.B. (2000) Caco-2 cells used to assess human iron bioavailability from a semipurified meal. J. Nutr., 130, 1329-1334.
4. Bocanegra, A., Nieto, A., Blas, B. and Sánches-Muniz., F.J. (2003) Diets containing a high percentage of Nori or Konbu algae are well-accepted and efficiently utilised by growing rats but induce different degrees of histological changes in the liver and bowel. Food Chem. Toxicol., 41, 1473-1480.
5. Bodwell, C.E. (1977) Application of animal data to human protein nutrition: a review. Cereal Chemistry, 54, 958-983.
6. Boisen, S. and Eggum, B.O. (1991) Critical evaluation of in vitro methods for estimating digestibility in simplestomach animals. Nutr. Res. Rev., 4, 141-162.
7. Boisen, S. andMoughan, P.J. (1996) Different expressions of dietary protein and amino acid digestibility in pig feeds and their application in protein evaluation: a theoretical approach. Acta Agric. Scand., Section A-Animal Science, 46, 165-172.
8. Boza, J.J., Moënnoz, D., Vuichoud, J. et al. (1999) Food deprivation and refeeding influence growth, nutrient retention and functional recovery of rats. J. Nutr., 129, 1340-1346.
9. Burtin, P. (2003) Nutritional value of seaweeds. Electron. J. Env., Agric. Food Chem., 2, 498-503.
10. Carvalho, L.P.F., Melo, D.S.P., Pereira, C.R.M., Rodriques, M.A.M., Cabrita, A.R.J. and Fonseca, A.J.M. (2005) Chemical composition, in vivo digestibility, N degradability and enzymatic intestinal digestibility of five protein supplements. Animal Feed Sci. Technol., 119, 171-178.
11. Cheryan, M. (1980) Phytic acid interactions in food systems. Crit. Rev. Food Sci.Nutr., 13, 297-335.
12. Cho, M.L.,Han, J.H. and You, A.G. (2010) Inhibitory effects of fucan sulphates on enzymatic hydrolysis of starch.LWT-Food Sci. Technol., 44, 1164-1171.
13. Coleman, M.E., Dreesen, D.W. and Wiegert, R.G. (1996) A simulation of microbial competition in the human colonic ecosystem. Appl. Env. Microbiol., 62, 3632-3639.
14. Coles, L.T.,Moughan, P.J. and Darragh, A.J. (2005) In vitro digestion and fermentation methods, including gas production techniques, as applied to nutritive evaluation of foods in the hindgut of humans and other simplestomached animals. Animal Feed Sci. Technol., 123-124, 421-444.
15. Cooper, D.A., Berry, D.A., Spendel, V.A., Kiorpes, A.L. and Peters, J.C. (1997) The domestic pig as a model for evaluating Olestra's nutritional effects. J. Nutr., 127, 1555S-1565S.
16. Crespi, Ch. L., Penman, B.W. and Hu, M. (1996) Development of Caco-2 Cells expresing high levels of cDNA-derived cytochrome P4503A4. Pharm. Res., 13, 1635-1641.
17. Cummings, J.H. and Macfarlane, G.T. (1991) The control and consequences of bacterial fermentation in the human colon. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 70, 443-459.
18. Darragh, A.J. and Hodgkinson, S.M. (2000) Quantifying the digestibility of dietary protein. J. Nutr., 130, 1850S-1856S.
19. Davies, N.T. and Reid, H. (1979) An evaluation of the phytate, zinc, copper, iron, and manganese contents of, and Zn availability from, soya-based textured-vegetableprotein meat-substitutes or meat-extenders. Br. J. Nutr., 41, 579-589.
20. Deglaire, A., Moughan. P.J., Rutherfurd, S.M., Bos, C. and Tomé,D. (2007) Feeding dietary peptides to growing rats enhances gut endogenous protein flows compared with feeding protein-free or free amino acid-based diets. J. Nutr., 137, 2431-2436.
21. Deglaire, A.,Moughan. P.J., Bos, C., Petzke, K. and Rutherfurd, S.M. (2008) A casein hydrolysate does not enhance gut endogenous protein flows compared with intact casein when fed to growing rats. J. Nutr., 138, 556-561.
22. De Oliviera, M.N., Freitas, A.L.P., Carvalho, A.F.U. et al. (2009) Nutritive and non-nutritive attributes of washedup seaweeds from the coast of Ceará, Brazil. Food Chem., 115, 254-259.
23. Dierick, N., Ovyn, A. and De Smet, S. (2010) In vitro assessment of the effect of intact marine brown macro-algae Ascophyllumnodosumon the gut flora of piglets. Livestock Science, 133, 154-156.
24. Eid, A.E. and Matty, A.J. (1989) A simple in vitro method for measuring protein digestibility. Aquaculture, 79, 111-119.
25. Eggum, B.O.,Hansen, I. and Larsen, T. (1989) Protein quality and digestible energy of selected foods determined in balance trials with rats. Plant Foods forHuman Nutrition, 39, 13-21.
26. El, S.N. and Kavas, A. (1996) Determination of protein quality of rainbow trout (Salmo irideus) by in vitro protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS). Food Chem., 55, 221-223.
27. Elango, R., Humayun, M.A., Ball, R.O. and Pencharz, P.B. (2007) Lysine requirement of healthy scholl-age children determinated by the indicator amino acid oxidation method. Am. J. Clin.Nutr., 86, 360-365.
28. Elango, R., Ball, R.O. and Pencharz, P.B. (2008) Indicator amino acid oxidation: concept and application. J. Nutr., 138, 243-246.
29. Elango, R., Ball, R.O. and Pencharz, P.B. (2009) Amino acid requirements in humans: with a special emphasis on the metabolic availability of amino acids. Amino Acids, 37, 19-27.
30. Fleurence, J. (1999) Seaweed proteins: biochemical, nutritional aspects and potential uses. Trends Food Sci. Technol., 10, 25-28.
31. Friedman, M. (1996) Nutritional value of proteins from different food sources. A review. J. Agric. Food Chem., 44, 6-29.
32. Galland-Irmouli, A.V., Fleurence, J., Lamghari, R. and et al. (1999) Nutritional value of proteins from edible seaweed Palmaria palmata (Dulse). J. Nutr. Biochem., 10, 353-359.
33. Geurden, I., Jutfelt, F., Olsen, R.E. and Sundell, K.S. (2009) A vegetable oil feeding history affects digestibility and intestinal fatty acid uptake in juvenile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., Part A, 152, 552-559.
34. Glahn, R.P., Lee, O.A., Yeung, A., Goldman, M.I. and Miller, D.D. (1998) Caco-2 cell ferritin formation predicts nonradiolabeled food iron availability in an in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cell culture model. J. Nutr., 128, 1555-1561.
35. Glahn, R.P. and Wortley, G.M. (2002) Inhibition of iron uptake by phytic acid, tannic acid, and ZnCl2: studies using an in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cell model. J. Agric. Food Chem., 50, 390-395.
36. Golding,M.andWooster,T.J. (2010) The influence of emulsion structure and stability on lipid digestion. Curr.Opin. Colloid Interf. Sci., 15, 90-101.
37. Goñi, I., Valdivieso, L. and Garcia-Alonso, A. (2000) Nori seaweed consumption modifies glycemic response in healthy volunteers. Nutr. Res., 20, 1367-1375.
38. Goñi, I., Urbano, M.G. and Saura-Calixto, F. (2002) In vitro determination of digestible and unavailable protein in edible seaweeds. J. Sci. Food Agric., 82, 1850-1854.
39. Gosselink, J.M.J., Dulphy, J.P., Poncet, C., Jailler, M., Tamminga, S. and Cone, J.W. (2004) Prediction of forage digestibility in ruminants using in situ and in vitro techniques. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 115, 227-246.
40. Hamilton, P.B. and Archibald, R.M. (1944) A dialysis cell. for rapid quantitative analytical determination of diffusible components in blood plasma. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Analytical Edition, 16, 136-137.
41. Hay, M.E. (1996) Marine chemical ecology: what's known and what's next? J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 200, 103-134.
42. Hesseltine, C.W. and Wang, H.L. (1980) The importance of traditional fermented foods. BioScience, 30, 402-404.
43. Hodgkinson, S.M. (2006) Evaluation of the quality of protein sources for inclusion in diets for monogastric animals. Ciencia e Investigación Agraria, 33, 83-90.
44. Horie, Y, Sugase, K, and Horie, K. (1995) Physiological differences of soluble and insoluble dietary fibre fractions of brown algae andmushrooms in pepsin activity in vitro and protein digestibility. Asia Pacific J. Clin. Nutr., 4, 251-255.
45. Hsu, H.W., Vavak, D.L., Satterlee, L.D. and Miller, G.A. (1977) A multienzyme technique for estimating protein digestibility. J. Food Sci., 42, 1269-1273.
46. Hu, M., Li, Y., Davitt, Ch. M. et al. (1999) Transport and metabolic characterization of Caco-2 cells expressing CYP3A4 and CYP3A4 plus oxidoreductase. Pharm. Res., 16, 1352-1359.
47. Humayun, M.A., Elango, R., Moehn, S. and Ball, R.O. (2007) Application of the indicator amino acid oxidation technique for the determination of metabolic availability of sulphur amino acids from casein versus soy protein isolate in adult men. J. Nutr., 137, 1874-1879.
48. Hur, S.J., Lim, B.O, Decker, E.A. and McClements, D.J. (2011) In vitro human digestion model for food applications. Food Chem., 125, 1-12.
49. Jiménez-Escrig, A. and Sánches-Muniz, F.J. (2000) Dietary fibre from edible seaweeds: chemical structure, physicochemical properties and effects on cholesterol metabolism. Nutr. Res., 20, 585-598.
50. Kannan, S., Nielsen, S.S. and Mason, A.C. (2001) Protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores for bean and bean-rice infant weaning food products. J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 5070-5074.
51. Lahaye, M. and Vigouroux, J. (1992) Liquefaction of dulse (Palmaria palmata (L.) Kuntze) by a commercial enzyme preparation and a purified endo-ß-1,4-D-xylanase. J. Appl. Phycol., 4, 329-337.
52. Lathia, D.,Hoch, G. and Kievernagel, Y. (1987) Influence of phytate on in vitro digestibility of casein under physiological conditions. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 37, 229-235.
53. Lemos, D., Lawrence, A.L. and Siccardi, A.J. (2009) Prediction of apparent protein digestibility of ingredients and diets by in vitro pH-stat degree of protein hydrolysis with species-specific enzymes for juvenile Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Aquaculture, 295, 89-98.
54. Levesque, C.L., Moehn, S., Pencharz, P.B and Ball, R.O. (2010) Review of advances in metabolic bioavailability of amino acids. Livestock Science, 133, 4-9.
55. Liener, I.E. (1979) The nutritional significance of plant protease inhibitors. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 38, 109-113.
56. Likuski, H.J.A. and Forbes, R.M. (1964) Effect of phytic acids on the availability of zinc in amino acid and casein diets fed to chicks. J. Nutr., 84, 145-148.
57. Mackie, A. and Macierzanka, A. (2010) Colloidal aspects of protein digestion. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interf. Sci., 15, 102-108.
58. Mager, D.R., Wykes, L.J., Ball, R.O. and Pencharz, P.B. (2003) Branched-chain amino acid requirements in school-aged children determined by indicator amino acid oxidation (IAAO). J. Nutr., 133, 3540-3545.
59. Mager, D.R.,Wykes, L.J., Roberts, E.A., Ball, R.O. and Pencharz, P.B. (2006) Branched-chain amino acid needs in children with mild-to-moderate chronic cholestatic liver disease. J. Nutr., 136, 133-139.
60. Mahler, G.J., Shuler, M.L. and Glahn, R.P. (2009) Characterization of Caco-2 and HT29-MTX cocultures in an in vitro digestion/cell culture model used to predict iron bioavailability. J. Nutr. Biochem., 20, 494-502.
61. Marrion, O., Schwertz, A., Fleurence, J. Guéant, J.L. and Villaume, Ch. (2003) Improvement of the digestibility of the proteins of the red alga Palmaria palmata by physical processes and fermentation.Nahrung/Food, 47, 339-344.
62. Mariotti, F., Mahé, S., Luengo, C., Benamouzig, R. and Tomé, D. (2000) Postprandial modulation of dietary and whole-body nitrogen utilization by carbohydrates in humans. Am. J. Clin.Nutr., 72, 954-962.
63. Martínez, T.F. andMoyano, F.J. (2003) Effect of tannic acid on in vitro enzymatic hydrolysis of some protein sources. J. Sci. Food Agric., 83, 456-464.
64. Miller, E.R. and Ullrey, D.E. (1987) The pig as a model for human nutrition. Annu. Rev. Nutr., 7, 361-382.
65. Millward, D.J., Fereday, A., Gibson, N.R. and Pacy, P.J. (1996) Post-prandial protein metabolism. Bailliére's Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 10, 533-549.
66. Millward, D.J., Layman, D.K., Tomé, D. and Schaafsma, G. (2008) Protein quality assessment: impact of expanding understanding of protein and amino acids needs for optimal health. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 87, 1567S-1581S.
67. Minekus, M., Smeets-Peeters, M., Bernalier, A. et al. (1999) A computer-controlled system to simulate conditions of the large intestine with peristaltic mixing, water absorption and absorption of fermentation products. Appl.Microbiol. Biotechnol., 53, 108-114.
68. Mišurcová, L., Kráčmar, S., Klejdus, B. and Vacek, J. (2010) Nitrogen content, dietary fiber, and digestibility in algal food products. Czech J. Food Sci., 28, 27-35.
69. Moehn, S., Bertolo, R.F.P., Pencharz, P.B. and Ball, R.O. (2004) Indicator amino acid oxidation responds rapidly to changes in lysine or protein intake in growing and adult pigs. J. Nutr., 134, 836-841.
70. Moehn, S., Bertolo, R.F.P., Pencharz, P.B. and Ball, R.O. (2005) Development of the indicator amino acid oxidation technique to determine the availability of amino acids from dietary protein in pigs. J. Nutr., 135, 2866-2870.
71. Moughan, P.J. (2003) Amino acid availability: aspects of chemical analysis and bioassay methodology. Nutr. Res. Rev., 16, 127-141.
72. Moure, A., Cruz, J.M., Franco, D. et al. (2001) Natural antioxidants from residual sources. Food Chem., 72, 145-171.
73. Navarro, P., Aspe, T. and Seiquer, I. (2000) Zinc transport in Caco-2 Cells and zinc balance in rats: influence of the heat treatment of a casein-glucose-fructose mixture. J. Agric. Food Chem., 48, 3589-3596.
74. Negesse, T., Makkar, H.P.S. and Becker, K. (2009) Nutritive value of some non-conventional feed resources of Ethiopia determined by chemical analyses and an in vitro gas method. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 154, 204-217.
75. Oshodi, A.A., Beames, R.M. and Nakai, S. (1997) In vitro protein digestibility, amino acid profile and available iron of infant-weaning food prepared from maize flour and bovine blood. Food Res. Int., 30, 193-197.
76. Ragan, M.A., Smidsrød, O. and Larsen, B. (1979) Chelation of divalent metal ions by brown algal polyphenols. Mar. Chem., 7, 265-271.
77. Reeds, P.J. and Garlick, P.J. (2003) Protein and amino acid requirements and the composition of complementary foods. J. Nutr., 133, 2953S-2961S.
78. Reilly, P., O'Doherty, J.V., Pierce, K.M., Callan, J.J., O'Sullivan, J.T. and Sweeney, T. (2008) The effects of seaweed extract inclusion on gut morphology, selected istestinal microbiota, nutrient digestibility, volatile fatty acid concentrations and theimmune status of theweaned pig. Animal, 2, 1465-1473.
79. Rehman, Z. and Salariya, A.M. (2005) The effects of hydrothermal processing on antinutrients, protein and starch digestibility of food legumes. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 40, 695-700.
80. Rehman, Z. and Shah,W.H. (2005) Thermal heat processing effects on antinutrients, proteins and starch digestibility of food legumes. Food Chem., 91, 327-331.
81. Rodriguez, N.R. (2005) Optimal quantity and composition of protein for growing children. J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 24, 150S-154S.
82. Rowan, A.M., Moughan, P.J. and Wilson, M.N. (1992) Effect of hydrolysis time on the determination of the amino acid composition of diet, ileal digesta, and feces samples and on the determination of dietary amino acid digestibility coefficients. J. Agric. Food Chem., 40, 981-985.
83. Rowan, A.M., Moughan, P.J.,Wilson, M.N., Maher, K. and Tasman-Jones, C. (1994) Comparison of the ileal and faecal digestibility of dietary amino acids in adult humans and evaluation of the pig as a model animal for digestion studies in man. Br. J. Nutr., 71, 29-42.
84. Rozan, P., Lamghari, R., Linder, M. et al. (1997) In vivo and in vitro digestibility of soybean, lupine, and rapeseed meal proteins after various technological processes. J. Agric. Food Chem., 45, 1762-1769.
85. Rupérez, P. and Saura-Calixto, F. (2001) Dietary fibre and physicochemical properties of edible Spanish seaweed. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 212, 349-354.
86. Santoso. J., Gunji, S., Yosire-Stark, Y. and Suzuki, T. (2006) Mineral contents of Indonesian seaweeds and mineral solubility affected by basic cooking. Food Sci. Technol. Res., 12, 59-66.
87. Sarwar, G. (1997) The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score method overestimates quality of proteins containing antinutritional factors and of poorly digestible proteins supplemented with limiting amino acids in rats. J. Nutr., 127, 758-764.
88. Sarwar, G. and Peace, R.W. (1986) Comparison between true digestibility of total nitrogen and limiting amino acids in vegetable proteins fed to rats. J. Nutr., 116, 1172-1184.
89. Sarwar, G. and Peace, R.W. (1994) The protein quality of some enteral products is inferior to that of casein as assessed by rat growth methods and digestibility-corrected amino acid scores. J. Nutr., 124, 2223-2232.
90. Sarwar, G., Peace, R.W., Botting, H.G. and Brullé,D. (1989) Digestibility of protein and amino acids in selected foods as determined by a rat balance method. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 39, 23-32.
91. Satterlee, L.D., Marshall, H.F. and Tennyson, J.M. (1979) Measuring Protein Quality. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 56, 103-109.
92. Savoie, L. and Gauthier, S.F. (1986) Dialysis cell for the in vitro measurement of protein digestibility. J. Food Sci., 51, 494-498.
93. Savoie, L. and Charbonneau, R. (1990) Specific role of endopeptidases in modulating the nature of protein digestion products. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 40, 233-242.
94. Seligson, F.H. andMackey, L.N. (1984) Variable predictions of protein quality by chemical score due to amino acid analysis and reference pattern. J. Nutr., 114, 682-691.
95. Shan, B.E., Yoshida, Y., Kuroda, E. and Yamashita,U. (1999) Immunomodulating activity of seaweed extract on human lymphocytes in vitro. Int. J. Immunopharmacol., 21, 59-70.
96. Schaafsma, G. (2000) The protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score. J. Nutr., 130, 1865S-1867S.
97. Sultana, Z., Ahmed, S., Iqball, S. and Chisty, A.H. (2010) Determination of in vitro protein digestibility of different feed ingredients for Nilotica (Oreochromis nilotica). Bangladesh Research Publications Journal, 4, 87-94.
98. Tagle, M.A. and Donoso, G. (1965) Net protein utilization determined in short-and long-term experiments with rats. J. Nutr., 87, 173-178.
99. Targett, N.M., Boettcher, A.A., Targett, T.E. and Vrolijk, N.H. (1995) Tropical marine herbivore assimilation of phenolic-rich plants. Oecologia, 103, 170-179.
100. Thompson, L.U. (1993) Potential health benefits and problems associated with antinutrients in foods. Food Res. Int., 26, 131-149.
101. Třináctỳ, J., Homolka. P., Zeman, L. and Richter,M. (2003) Whole tract and post ruminal digestibility determined by in situ ruminal, intestinal mobile nylon bag and whole tract nylon capsule methods. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 106, 56-67.
102. Třináctỳ, J., Richter, M., Homolka. P., Rabišková, M. and Doležal, P. (2005) Comparison of apparent and true digestibility of nutrients determined in dairy cows either by the nylon capsule or in vivo method. Czech J. Animal Sci., 50, 402-410.
103. Tuan, Y.H., Phillips, R.D. and Dove, C.R. (1999) Predicting integrated protein nutritional quality, Part 1: Amino acid availability corrected amino acid score and nitrogen balance data fitted to linear and non-linear models for test proteins. Nutr. Res., 19, 1791-1805.
104. Turner, J.M., Humayun, M.A., Elango, R. et al. (2006) Total sulphur amino acid requirements on healthy school-age children as determined by indicator amino acid oxidation technique. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 83, 619-623.
105. Urbano, M.G. and Goñi, I. (2002) Bioavailability of nutrients in rats fed on edible seaweedsNori (Porphyra tenera) andWakame (Undaria pinnatifida) as a source of dietary fibre. Food Chem., 76, 281-286.
106. Wang, T., Jónsdóttir, R. and Oĺafsdóttir, G. (2009) Total phenolic compounds, radical scavenging and metal chelation of extracts from Icelandic seaweeds. Food Chem., 116, 240-248.
107. Wang,W.W., Qiao, S.Y. and Li,D.F. (2009) Amino acids and gut function. Amino Acids, 37, 105-110.
108. WHO(2002)Report of a JointWHO/FAO/UNUExpertConsultation, WHO Technical Report Series 935. Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition. WHO Press, Geneva.
109. Wolzak, A., Bressani, R. and Brenes, R.G. (1981) A comparison of in vivo and in vitro estimates of protein digestibility of native and thermally processed vegetable proteins. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 31, 31-43.
110. Wolzak, A., Elías, L.G. and Bressani, R. (1981) Protein quality of vegetable proteins as determined by traditional biological methods and rapid chemical assay. J. Agric. Food Chem., 29, 1063-1068.
111. Wong, K.H. and Cheung, C.K. (2001) Nutritional evaluation of some subtropical red and green seaweeds Part II. In vitro protein digestibility and amino acid profiles of protein concentrates. Food Chem., 72, 11-17.
112. Wortley, G., Leusner, S., Good, C., Gugger, E. and Glahn, R. (2005) Iron availability of a fortified processed wheat ceral: a comparison of fourteen iron forms using an in vitro digestion/human colonic adenocarcinoma (CaCo-2) cell model. Br. J. Nutr., 93, 65-71.
113. Yang, Ch., Chung, D. and You, S.G. (2008) Determination of physicochemical properties of sulphated fucans from sporophyll of Undaria pinnatifida using light scattering technique. Food Chem., 111, 503-507.
114. Yoshie, Y., Suzuki, T., Pandolf, T. and Clydesdale, F.M. (1999) Solubility of Iron and Zinc in Selected Seafoods under Simulated Gastrointestinal Conditions. Food Sci. Technol. Res., 5, 140-144.
115. You, S.G., Yang, Ch., Lee, H.Y. and Lee, B.Y. (2010)Molecular characteristics of partially hydrolyzed fucoidans from sporophyll of Undaria pinnatifida and their in vitro anticancer activity. Food Chem., 119, 554-559.
116. Young, V.R. and Pellett, P.L. (1991) Protein evaluation, amino acid scoring and the Food and Drug Administration's proposed food labeling regulations. J. Nutr., 121, 145-150.