Protein and amino acid supplementation in older humans

Amino Acids

Volumn 44, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 1493-1509

  Fukagawa, Naomi K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Amino acids; Human; Protein

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; AMINO ACID; ARGININE; BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACID; CITRULLINE; CREATINE; CYSTEINE; ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID; GLUTAMIC ACID; GLUTAMINE; ISOLEUCINE; LEUCINE; METHIONINE; PLACEBO; PROTEIN; SULFUR AMINO ACID; TAURINE; VALINE;

AGING; AMINO ACID METABOLISM; COGNITION; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; ELDERLY CARE; EXERCISE TOLERANCE; FRAIL ELDERLY; GERIATRIC NUTRITION; HEALTH PROMOTION; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INDEPENDENT LIVING; MALNUTRITION; MUSCLE MASS; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN INTAKE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SARCOPENIA; TISSUE METABOLISM;

AGED; AGING; AMINO ACIDS; CHRONIC DISEASE; DIETARY PROTEINS; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; EXERCISE; HUMANS; NUTRITION DISORDERS; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; SARCOPENIA;

EID: 84878247818     PISSN: 09394451     EISSN: 14382199     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00726-013-1480-6     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Abebe W, Mozaffari MS (2011) Role of taurine in the vasculature: an overview of experimental and human studies. Am J Cardiovasc Dis 1:293-311
2. Ables GP, Perrone CE, Orentreich D, Orentreich N (2012) Methionine-restricted C57BL/6 J mice are resistant to diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance but have low bone density. PLoS One 7:e51357
3. Adams SH (2011) Emerging perspectives on essential amino acid metabolism in obesity and the insulin-resistant state. Adv Nutr 2:445-456
4. Bahri S, Zerrouk N, Aussel C, Moinard C, Crenn P, Curis E, Chaumeil JC, Cynober L, Sfar S (2012) Citrulline: From metabolism to therapeutic use. Nutrition in press, USA, pp 1-6
5. Baker DH (2006) Comparative species utilization and toxicity of sulfur amino acids. J Nutr 136:1670S-1675S
6. Balderas-Munoz K, Castillo-Martinez L, Orea-Tejeda A, Infante-Vazquez O, Utrera-Lagunas M, Martinez-Memije R, Keirns-Davis C, Becerra-Luna B, Sanchez-Vidal G (2012) Improvement of ventricular function in systolic heart failure patients with oral L-citrulline supplementation. Cardiol J 19:612-617
7. Blomstrand E (2006) A role for branched-chain amino acids in reducing central fatigue. J Nutr 136:544S-554S
8. Blouet CM, Mariotti F, Azzout-Marniche D, Math V, Mikogami T, Tome D, Huneau JF (2007) Dietary cysteine alleviates sucrose-induced oxidative stress and insulin resistance. Free Radical Biol Med 42:1089-1097
9. Boger RH (2007) The pharmacodynamics of l-arginine. J Nutr 137:1650S-1655S
10. Boirie Y, Gachon P, Beaufrere B (1997) Splanchnic and whole-body leucine kinetics in young and elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr 65:489-495
11. Bollhalder L, Pfeil AM, TomonagaY, Schwenkglenks M (2013) A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials of parenteral glutamine supplementation. Clin Nutr 32(2):213-223. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2012.11. 003
12. Borsheim E, Bui QU, Tissier S, Kobayashi H, Ferrando AA, Wolfe RR (2008) Effect of amino acid supplementation on muscle mass, strength and physical function in elderly. Clin Nutr 27:189-195
13. Breen L, Phillips SM (2011) Skeletal muscle protein metabolism in kthe elderly: interventions to counteract the 'anabolic resistance' of ageing. Nutr Metab 8:68-78
14. Brosnan JT, Brosnan ME (2006) Branched-chain amino acids: enzyme and substrate regulation. J Nutr 136:207S-221S
15. Brosnan JT, Brosnan ME (2007) Creatine: endogenous metabolite, dietary, and therapeutic supplement. Annu Rev Nutr 27:241-261
16. Brosnan JT, Brosnan ME (2012) Glutamate: a truly functional amino acid. Amino Acids (in press)
17. Brosnan JT, da Silva RP, Brosnan ME (2011) The metabolic burden of creatine synthesis. Amino Acids 40:1325-1331
18. Burd NA, Yang Y, Moore DR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM (2012) Greater stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis with ingestion of whey protein isolate v. micellar casein at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. Br J Nutr 108:958-962
19. Candow DG (2011) Sarcopenia: current theories and the potential beneficial effect of creatine application strategies. Biogerontology 12:273-281
20. Cano NJ, Fouque D, Leverve XM (2006) Application of branched-chain amino acids in human pathological states: renal failure. J Nutr 136:299S-307S
21. Casperson SL, Sheffield-Moore M, Hewlings SJ, Paddon-Jones D (2012) Leucine supplementation chronically improves muscle protein synthesis in older adults consuming the RDA for protein. Clin Nutr 31:512-519
22. Cavuoto P, Fenech MF (2012) A review of methionine dependency and the role of methionine restriction in cancer growth control and life-span extension. Cancer Treat Rev 38:726-736
23. Chen J, Herrup K (2012) Glutamine acts as a neuroprotectant against DNA damage, beta-amyloid and H2O2-induced stress. PLoS One 7:e33177
24. Conley TB, McCabe GP, Lim E, Yarasheski KE, Johnson CA, Campbell WW (2012) Age and sex affect protein metabolism at protein intakes that span the range of adequacy: comparison of leucine kinetics and nitrogen balance data. J Nutr Biochem (in press)
25. Cowan RW, Seidlitz EP, Singh G (2012) Glutamate signaling in healthy and diseased bone. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 3:1-7
26. Cynober L, Moinard C, De Bandt JP (2010) The 2009 ESPEN Sir David Cuthbertson. Citrulline: a new major signaling molecule or just another player in the pharmaconutrition game? Clin Nutr 29:545-551
27. Derave W, Jones G, Hespel P, Harris RC (2008) Creatine supplementation augments skeletal muscle carnosine content in senescence-accelerated mice (SAMP8). Rejuven Res 11:641-647
28. Dillon EL, Sheffield-Moore M, Paddon-Jones D, Gilkison C, Sanford AP, Casperson SL, Jiang J, Chinkes DL, Urban RJ (2009) Amino acid supplementation increases lean body mass, basal muscle protein synthesis, and IGF-1 expression in older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:1630-1637
29. Dunn-Lewis C, Kraemer WJ, Kupchak BR, Kelly NA, Creighton BA, Luk HY, Ballard KD, Comstock BA, Szivak TK, Hooper DR, Denegar CR, Volek JS (2011) A multi-nutrient supplement reduced markers of inflammation and improved physical performance in active individuals of middle to older age: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Nutr J 10:90-100
30. Dutta C (1997) Significance of sarcopenia in the elderly. J Nutr 127:992S-993S
31. Elango R, Chapman K, Rafii M, Ball RO, Pencharz PB (2012) Determination of the tolerable upper intake level of leucine in acute dietary studies in young men. Am J Clin Nutr 96:759-767
32. Evans W (1997) Functional and metabolic consequences of sarcopenia. J Nutr 127:998S-1003S
33. Fernstrom JD (2012) Large neutral amino acids: dietary effects on brain neurochemistry and function. Amino Acids (in press)
34. Ferrando AA, Paddon-Jones D, Hays NP, Kortebein P, Ronsen O, Williams RH, McComb A, Symons TB, Wolfe RR, Evans W (2010) EAA supplementation to increase nitrogen intake improves muscle function during bed rest in the elderly. Clin Nutr 29:18-23
35. Figueroa A, Trivino JA, Sanchez-Gonzalez MA, Vicil F (2010) Oral L-citrulline supplementation attenuates blood pressure response to cold pressor test in young men. Am J Hypertens 23:12-16
36. Fukagawa NK (2006) Sparing of methionine requirements: evaluation of human data takes sulfur amino acids beyond protein. J Nutr 136:1676S-1681S
37. Fukagawa NK, Galbraith RA (2004) Advancing age and other factors influencing the balance between amino acid requirements and toxicity. J Nutr 134:1569S-1574S
38. 13C-labeled L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid: probe for precursor mobilization for glutathione synthesis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 278:E171-E176
39. Galera SC, Fechine FV, Teixeira MJ, Coelho ZC, de Vasconcelos RC, de Vasconcelos PR (2010) The safety of oral use of l-glutamine in middle-aged and elderly individuals. Nutrition 26:375-381
40. Garlick PJ (2006) Toxicity of methionine in humans. J Nutr 136:1722S-1725S
41. Gualano B, Roschel H, Lancha Jr AH, Brightbill CE, Rawson ES (2012) In sickness and in health: the widespread application of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids 43:519-529
42. Hays NP, Kim H, Wells AM, Kajkenova O, Evans WJ (2009) Effects of whey and fortified collagen hydrolysate protein supplements on nitrogen balance and body composition in older women. J Am Diet Assoc 109:1082-1087
43. Heffernan KS, Fahs CA, Ranadive SM, Patvardhan EA (2010) l-Arginine as a nutritional prophylaxis against vascular endothelial dysfunction with aging. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 15:17-23
44. Holecek M (2010) Three targets of branched-chain amino acid supplementation in the treatment of liver disease. Nutrition 26:482-490
45. Holecek M (2012) Side Effects of Long-term Glutamine Supplementation. J Parenter Enteral Nutr (in press)
46. Imae M, Asano T, Murakami S (2012) Potential role of taurine in the prevention of diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Amino Acids (in press)
47. Institute of Medicine (2002/2005) Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC. www.nap.edu
48. Ito T, Schaffer SW, Azuma J (2012) The potential usefulness of taurine on diabetes mellitus and its complications. Amino Acids 42:1529-1539
49. Jackman SR, Witard OC, Jeukendrup AE, Tipton KD (2010) Branched-chain amino acid ingestion can ameliorate soreness from eccentric exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42:962-970
50. Jager R, Purpura M, Shao A, Inoue T, Kreider RB (2011) Analysis of the efficacy, safety, and regulatory status of novel forms of creatine. Amino Acids 40:1369-1383
51. Jonker R, Engelen MP, Deutz NE (2012) Role of specific dietary amino acids in clinical conditions. Br J Nutr 108(Suppl 2):S139-S148
52. Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR (2006) A high proportion of leucine is required for optimal stimulation of the rate of muscle protein synthesis by essential amino acids in the elderly. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 291:E381-E387
53. Katsanos CS, Chinkes DL, Paddon-Jones D, Zhang XJ, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR (2008) Whey protein ingestion in elderly persons results in greater muscle protein accrual than ingestion of its constituent essential amino acid content. Nutr Res 28:651-658
54. Kawaguchi T, Izumi N, Charlton MR, Sata M (2011) Branched-chain amino acids as pharmacological nutrients in chronic liver disease. Hepatology 54:1063-1070
55. Kawaguchi T, Torimura T, Takata A, Satomi S, Sata M (2012) Valine, a branched-chain amino Acid, reduced HCV viral load and led to eradication of HCV by interferon therapy in a decompensated cirrhotic patient. Case Rep Gastroenterol 6:660-667
56. Khan M, Steppan J, Schuleri K, Ryoo S, Tuday E, Bugaj L, Santhanam L, Berkowitz T, Nyhan D, Shoukas AA, Berkowitz DE (2012) Upregulation of arginase-II contributes to decreased age-related myocardial contractile reserve. Eur J Appl Physiol 112:2933-2941
57. Kim SJ, Ramesh C, Gupta H, Lee W (2007) Taurine-diabetes interaction: from involvement to protection. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 21:63-77
58. Kim HK, Suzuki T, Saito K, Yoshida H, Kobayashi H, Kato H, Katayama M (2012) Effects of exercise and amino acid supplementation on body composition and physical function in community-dwelling elderly Japanese sarcopenic women: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc 60:16-23
59. Kitamura A, Tsurugizawa T, Uematsu A, Torii K, Uneyama H (2012) New therapeutic strategy for amino acid medicine: effects of dietary glutamate on gut and brain function. J Pharmacol Sci 118:138-144
60. Koopman R, Verdijk L, Manders RJ, Gijsen AP, Gorselink M, Pijpers E, Wagenmakers AJ, van Loon LJ (2006) Co-ingestion of protein and leucine stimulates muscle protein synthesis rates to the same extent in young and elderly lean men. Am J Clin Nutr 84:623-632
61. Koopman R, Verdijk LB, Beelen M, Gorselink M, Kruseman AN, Wagenmakers AJ, Kuipers H, van Loon LJ (2008) Co-ingestion of leucine with protein does not further augment post-exercise muscle protein synthesis rates in elderly men. Br J Nutr 99:571-580
62. Kostandy BB (2012) The role of glutamate in neuronal ischemic injury: the role of spark in fire. Neurol Sci 33:223-237
63. Leenders M, van Loon LJ (2011) Leucine as a pharmaconutrient to prevent and treat sarcopenia and type 2 diabetes. Nutr Rev 69:675-689
64. Leenders M, Verdijk LB, van der Hoeven L, Hartgens F, Wodzig WK, Saris WH, van Loon LJ (2011) Prolonged leucine supplementation does not augment muscle mass or affect glycemic control in elderly type 2 diabetic men. J Nutr 141:1070-1076
65. Levis S, Lagari VS (2012) The role of diet in osteoporosis prevention and management. Curr Osteoporos Rep 10:296-302
66. Luiking YC, Ten Have GA, Wolfe RR, Deutz NE (2012) Arginine de novo and nitric oxide production in disease states. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 303:E1177-E1189
67. Manzo ND, Lagier AJ, Slade R, Ledbetter AD, Richards JH, Dye JA (2012) Nitric oxide and superoxide mediate diesel particle effects in cytokine-treated mice and murine lung epithelial cells [box drawings light horizontal] implications for susceptibility to traffic-related air pollution. Part Fibre Toxicol 9:43-57
68. Marcinkiewicz J, Kontny E (2012) Taurine and inflammatory diseases. Amino Acids (in press)
69. Mariotti F, Simbelie KL, Makarios-Lahham L, Huneau JF, Laplaize B, Tome D, Even PC (2004) Acute ingestion of dietary proteins improves post-exercise liver glutathione in rats in a dose-dependent relationship with their cysteine content. J Nutr 134:128-131
70. Matthews DE (2005) Observations of branched-chain amino acid administration in humans. J Nutr 135:1580S-1584S
71. May RC, Piepenbrock N, Kelly RA, Mitch WE (1991) Leucine-induced amino acid antagonism in rats: muscle valine metabolism and growth impairment. J Nutr 121:293-301
72. McPherson RA, Hardy G (2011) Clinical and nutritional benefits of cysteine-enriched protein supplements. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 14:562-568
73. McPherson RA, Hardy G (2012) Cysteine: the Fun-Ke nutraceutical. Nutrition 28:336-337
74. Menzie J, Pan C, Prentice H, Wu JY (2012) Taurine and central nervous system disorders. Amino Acids (in press)
75. Millward DJ (2008) Sufficient protein for our elders? Am J Clin Nutr 88:1187-1188
76. Millward DJ (2012) Knowledge gained from studies of leucine consumption in animals and humans. J Nutr 142:2212S-2219S
77. Nagao Y, Kawaguchi T, Ide T, Sata M (2012) Effect of branched-chain amino acid-enriched nutritional supplementation on interferon therapy in Japanese patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection: a retrospective study. Virol J 9:282-291
78. Newgard CB (2012) Interplay between lipids and branched-chain amino acids in development of insulin resistance. Cell Metab 15:606-614
79. Nicastro H, da Luz CR, Chaves DF, Bechara LR, Voltarelli VA, Rogero MM, Lancha AH Jr (2012) Does Branched-Chain Amino Acids Supplementation Modulate Skeletal Muscle Remodeling through Inflammation Modulation? Possible Mechanisms of Action. J Nutr Metab (in press)
80. Ochiai M, Hayashi T, Morita M, Ina K, Maeda M, Watanabe F, Morishita K (2012) Short-term effects of L-citrulline supplementation on arterial stiffness in middle-aged men. Int J Cardiol 155:257-261
81. Paddon-Jones D, Rasmussen BB (2009) Dietary protein recommendations and the prevention of sarcopenia. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 12:86-90
82. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Zhang XJ, Volpi E, Wolf SE, Aarsland A, Ferrando AA, Wolfe RR (2004) Amino acid ingestion improves muscle protein synthesis in the young and elderly. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 286:E321-E328
83. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Katsanos CS, Zhang XJ, Wolfe RR (2006) Differential stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in elderly humans following isocaloric ingestion of amino acids or whey protein. Exp Gerontol 41:215-219
84. Plaisance EP, Greenway FL, Boudreau A, Hill KL, Krajcik RA, Johnson WD, Perrone CE, Orentreich N, Cefalu WT, Gettys TW (2011) Dietary methionine restriction increases fat oxidation in obese adults with metabolic syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:E836-E840
85. Qin LQ, Xun P, Bujnowski D, Daviglus ML, Van HL, Stamler J, He K (2011) Higher branched-chain amino acid intake is associated with a lower prevalence of being overweight or obese in middle-aged East Asian and western adults. J Nutr 141:249-254
86. Rand WM, Pellett PL, Young VR (2003) Meta-analysis of nitrogen balance studies for estimating protein requirements in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr 77:109-127
87. Ripps H, Shen W (2012) Review taurine: a "very essential" amino acid. Mol Vis 18:2673-2686
88. Rondanelli M, Opizzi A, Antoniello N, Boschi F, Iadarola P, Pasini E, Aquilani R, Dioguardi FS (2011) Effect of essential amino acid supplementation on quality of life, amino acid profile and strength in institutionalized elderly patients. Clin Nutr 30:571-577
89. Rupsingh R, Borrie M, Smith M, Wells JL, Bartha R (2011) Reduced hippocampal glutamate in Alzheimer disease. Neurobiol Aging 32:802-810
90. Satoh H, Kang J (2009) Modulation by taurine of human arterial stiffness and wave reflection. Adv Exp Med Biol 643:47-55
91. Schutte AE, Schutte R, Huisman HW, van Rooyen JM, Fourie CM, Malan L, Malan NT, Schwedhelm E, Strimbeanu S, Anderssohn M, Boger RH (2010) Dimethylarginines: their vascular and metabolic roles in Africans and Caucasians. Eur J Endocrinol 162:525-533
92. Sekhar RV, Patel SG, Guthikonda AP, Reid M, Balasubramanyam A, Taffet GE, Jahoor F (2011) Deficient synthesis of glutathione underlies oxidative stress in aging and can be corrected by dietary cysteine and glycine supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr 94:847-853
93. Shao A, Hathcock JN (2008) Risk assessment for the amino acids taurine, l-glutamine and l-arginine. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 50:376-399
94. ShimomuraY YamamotoY, Bajotto G, Sato J, Murakami T, Shimomura N, Kobayashi H, Mawatari K (2006) Nutraceutical effects of branched-chain amino acids on skeletal muscle. J Nutrn 136:529S-553S
95. Shinnick FL, Harper AE (1977) Effects of branched-chain amino acid antagonism in the rat on tissue amino acid and keto acid concentrations. J Nutr 107:887-895
96. Solerte SB, Fioravanti M, Locatelli E, Bonacasa R, Zamboni M, Basso C, Mazzoleni A, Mansi V, Geroutis N, Gazzaruso C (2008a) Improvement of blood glucose control and insulin sensitivity during a long-term (60 weeks) randomized study with amino acid dietary supplements in elderly subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 101:82E-88E
97. Solerte SB, Gazzaruso C, Bonacasa R, Rondanelli M, Zamboni M, Basso C, Locatelli E, Schifino N, Giustina A, Fioravanti M (2008b) Nutritional supplements with oral amino acid mixtures increases whole-body lean mass and insulin sensitivity in elderly subjects with sarcopenia. Am J Cardiol 101:69E-77E
98. Stein TP, Blanc S (2011) Does protein supplementation prevent muscle disuse atrophy and loss of strength? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 51:828-834
99. Stipanuk MH, Ueki I (2011) Dealing with methionine/homocysteine sulfur: cysteine metabolism to taurine and inorganic sulfur. J Inherit Metab Dis 34:17-32
100. Symons TB, Sheffield-Moore M, Wolfe RR, Paddon-Jones D (2009) A moderate serving of high-quality protein maximally stimulates skeletal muscle protein synthesis in young and elderly subjects. J Am Diet Assoc 109:1582-1586
101. Symons TB, Sheffield-Moore M, Mamerow MM, Wolfe RR, Paddon-Jones D (2011) The anabolic response to resistance exercise and a protein-rich meal is not diminished by age. J Nutr Health Aging 15:376-381
102. Thibault R, Flet L, Vavasseur F, Lemerle M, Ferchaud-Roucher V, Picot D, Darmaun D (2011) Oral citrulline does not affect whole body protein metabolism in healthy human volunteers: results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind, cross-over study. Clin Nutr 30:807-811
103. Tome D (2012) Criteria and markers for protein quality assessment - a review. Br J Nutr 108:S222-S229
104. Valerio A, D'Antona G, Nisoli E (2011) Branched-chain amino acids, mitochondrial biogenesis, and healthspan: an evolutionary perspective. Aging 3:464-478
105. van Stijn MF, Vermeulen MA, Siroen MP, Wong LN, van den Tol MP, Ligthart-Melis GC, Houdijk AP, van Leeuwen PA (2012) Human taurine metabolism: fluxes and fractional extraction rates of the gut, liver, and kidneys. Metabolism 61:1036-1040
106. Verhoeven S, Vanschoonbeek K, Verdijk LB, Koopman R, Wodzig WK, Dendale P, van Loon LJ (2009) Long-term leucine supplementation does not increase muscle mass or strength in healthy elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr 89:1468-1475
107. Volpi E, Mittendorfer B, Wolf SE, Wolfe RR (1999) Oral amino acids stimulate muscle protein anabolism in the elderly despite higher first-pass splanchnic extraction. Am J Physiol 277:E513-E520
108. Volpi E, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe RR (2003) Essential amino acids are primarily responsible for the amino acid stimulation of muscle protein anabolism in healthy elderly adults. Am J Clin Nutr 78:250-258
109. Volpi E, Campbell WW, Dwyer JT, Johnson MA, Jensen GL, Morley JE, Wolfe RR (2012) Is the optimal level of protein intake for older adults greater than the recommended dietary allowance? J Gerontol A Biol. Sci Med. Sci (in press)
110. Wall BT, Hamer HM, Kiskini A, Groen BB, Senden JM, Gijsen AP, Verdijk LB, van Loon LJ (2013) Leucine co-ingestion improves post-prandial muscle protein accretion in elderly men. Clin Nutr. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2012.09.002
111. Walrand S, Short KR, Bigelow ML, Sweatt AJ, Hutson SM, Nair KS (2008) Functional impact of high protein intake on healthy elderly people. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 295:E921-E928
112. Watford M (2008) Glutamine metabolism and function in relation to proline synthesis and the safety of glutamine and proline supplementation. J Nutr 138:2003S-2007S
113. Wojcik OP, Koenig KL, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Costa M, Chen Y (2010) The potential protective effects of taurine on coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis 208:19-25
114. Wolfe RR (2012) The role of dietary protein in optimizing muscle mass, function and health outcomes in older individuals. Br J Nutr 108:S88-S93
115. World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization, and United Nations University (2007) Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition Report of a Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series no. 935, Geneva
116. Yang Y, Breen L, Burd NA, Hector AJ, Churchward-Venne TA, Josse AR, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM (2012a) Resistance exercise enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis with graded intakes of whey protein in older men. Br J Nutr 108:1780-1788
117. Yang Y, Churchward-Venne TA, Burd NA, Breen L, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM (2012b) Myofibrillar protein synthesis following ingestion of soy protein isolate at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. Nutr Metab (Lond) 9:57
118. Yavuz BB, Yavuz B, Sener DD, Cankurtaran M, Halil M, Ulger Z, Nazli N, Kabakci G, Aytemir K, Tokgozoglu L, Oto A, Ariogul S (2008) Advanced age is associated with endothelial dysfunction in healthy elderly subjects. Gerontology 54:153-156
119. Zahr NM, Mayer D, Rohlfing T, Chanraud S, Gu M, Sullivan EV, Pfefferbaum A (2013) In vivo glutamate measured with magnetic resonance spectroscopy: behavioral correlates in aging. Neurobiol Aging 34(4):1265-1276. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.09.014
120. Zanchi NE, Guimaraes-Ferreira L, Siqueira-Filho MA, Gabriel Camporez JP, Nicastro H, Seixas Chaves DF, Campos-Ferraz P, Lancha AH Jr, de Oliveira Carvalho CR (2012) The possible role of leucine in modulating glucose homeostasis under distinct catabolic conditions. Med Hypotheses 79:883-888