Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: Cosponsored by the American Association of clinical endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association

Thyroid

Volumn 22, Issue 12, 2012, Pages 1200-1235

  Garber, Jeffrey R ^a,b   Cobin, Rhoda H ^c   Gharib, Hossein ^d   Hennessey, James V ^b   Klein, Irwin ^e   Mechanick, Jeffrey I ^f   Pessah Pollack, Rachel ^f,g   Singer, Peter A ^h   Woeber, Kenneth A ⁱ  

^a HARVARD VANGUARD MEDICAL ASSOCIATES   (United States)

^b BETH ISRAEL DEACONESS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c New Jersey Endocrine and Diabetes Associates   (United States)

^d MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^e NORTH SHORE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United States)

^f MOUNT SINAI HOSPITAL   (United States)

^g Division of Rheumatology   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CREATINE KINASE; IODINE; LEVOTHYROXINE; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; THYROID ANTIBODY; THYROMIMETIC AGENT; THYROTROPIN; TIRATRICOL;

ACHILLES REFLEX; ADDISON DISEASE; ANTIBODY TITER; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS; BASAL METABOLIC RATE; CASE FINDING; CELIAC DISEASE; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; COLD SENSITIVITY; CONSTIPATION; CONSULTATION; CREATINE KINASE BLOOD LEVEL; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRY SKIN; DYSPHONIA; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FATIGUE; HEART RATE; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOTHYROIDISM; INFERTILITY; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; IODINE DEFICIENCY; LYMPHOMA; MEDICAL EXPERT; MUSCLE CRAMP; MYASTHENIA GRAVIS; OBESITY; PERNICIOUS ANEMIA; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SCREENING; SLEEP; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; THYROTROPIN BLOOD LEVEL; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED STATES;

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE; HUMANS; HYPOTHYROIDISM; THYROXINE; TRIIODOTHYRONINE;

EID: 84870784432     PISSN: 10507256     EISSN: 15579077     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/thy.2012.0205     Document Type: Article

References (311)

1. Singer PA, Cooper DS, Levy EG, Ladenson PW, Braverman LE, Daniels G, Greenspan FS, McDougall IR, Nikolai TF 1995 Treatment guidelines for patients with hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Standards of Care Committee, American Thyroid Association. JAMA 273:808-812.
2. BaskinHJ, Cobin RH, DuickDS,GharibH,Guttler RB, Kaplan MM, Segal RL 2002 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract 8:457-469.
3. Garcia M, Baskin HJ, Feld S, Cobin RH, Daniels GH, Davidson ET, Dickey RA, Janick JJ, Jellinger PS, Price WF, Rodbard HW 1995 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists clinical practice guidelines for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract 1:54-62.
4. Torres MS, Emerson CH 2011 Myxedema coma. In: Irwin RS, Rippe JM (eds) Irwin & Rippe's Intensive Care Medicine, 7th edition. Wolters Kluwer Health, Lippencott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 1055-1058.
5. Mechanick JI, Camacho PM, Cobin RH, Garber AJ, Garber JR, Gharib H, Petak SM, Rodbard HW, Trence DL 2010 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists protocol for standardized production of clinical practice guidelines-2010 update. Endocr Pract 16:270-283.
6. Johnson N 1998 New approaches to the development and use of treatment guidelines. Formulary. Available at www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-32493644.html (accessed August 19, 2012).
7. Mechanick JI, Kushner RF, Sugerman HJ, Gonzalez-Campoy JM, Collazo-Clavell ML, Guven S, Spitz AF, Apovian CM, Livingston EH, Brolin R, Sarwer DB, Anderson WA, Dixon J 2008 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, The Obesity Society, and American Society for Metabolic & Bariatric Surgery Medical guidelines for clinical practice for the perioperative nutritional, metabolic, and nonsurgical support of the bariatric surgery patient. Endocr Pract 14(Suppl 1): 1-83.
8. Bahn Chair RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, Garber JR, Greenlee MC, Klein I, Laurberg P, McDougall IR, Montori VM, Rivkees SA, Ross DS, Sosa JA, Stan MN 2011 Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotox-icosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid 21:593-646.
9. Bahn RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, Garber JR, Greenlee MC, Klein I, Laurberg P, McDougall IR, Montori VM, Rivkees SA, Ross DS, Sosa JA, Stan MN 2011 Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Endocr Pract 17:456-520.
10. Stagnaro-Green A, Abalovich M, Alexander E, Azizi F, Mestman J, Negro R, Nixon A, Pearce EN, Soldin OP, Sullivan S, Wiersinga W 2011 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid 21:1081-1125.
11. Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, Hannon WH, Gunter EW, Spencer CA, Braverman LE 2002 Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:489-499.
12. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC 2000 The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med 160:526-534.
13. Sawin CT, Castelli WP, Hershman JM, McNamara P, Bacharach P 1985 The aging thyroid. Thyroid deficiency in the Framingham Study. Arch Intern Med 145:1386-1388.
14. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM, French JM, Appleton D, Bates D, Clark F, Grimley Evans J, Hasan DM, Rodgers H, Tunbridge F, Young ET 1995 The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham Survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:55-68.
15. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM 2002 Epidemiology and prevention of clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid 12:839-847.
16. Andersson M, de Benoist B, Delange F, Zupan J 2007 Prevention and control of iodine deficiency in pregnant and lactating women and in children less than 2-years-old: conclusions and recommendations of the Technical Consultation. Public Health Nutr 10:1606-1611.
17. Nerup J 1974 Addison's disease-clinical studies. A report of 108 cases. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 76:127-141.
18. Nerup J 1974 Addison's disease-serological studies. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 76:142-158.
19. Heward J, Gough SC 1997 Genetic susceptibility to the development of autoimmune disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 93:479-491.
20. Payami H, Joe S, Thomson G 1989 Autoimmune thyroid disease in type I diabetic families. Genet Epidemiol 6:137-141.
21. Torfs CP, King MC, Huey B, Malmgren J, Grumet FC 1986 Genetic interrelationship between insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, the autoimmune thyroid diseases, and rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Hum Genet 38:170-187.
22. Walker DJ, Griffiths M, Griffiths ID 1986 Occurrence of autoimmune diseases and autoantibodies in multicase rheumatoid arthritis families. Ann Rheum Dis 45:323-326.
23. Grennan DM, Dyer PA, Clague R, Dodds W, Smeaton I, Harris R 1983 Family studies in RA-the importance of HLA-DR4 and of genes for autoimmune thyroid disease. J Rheumatol 10:584-589.
24. Dittmar M, Kahaly GJ 2003 Polyglandular autoimmune syndromes: immunogenetics and long-term follow-up. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2983-2992.
25. Broadley SA, Deans J, Sawcer SJ, Clayton D, Compston DA 2000 Autoimmune disease in firstdegree relatives of patients with multiple sclerosis. A UK survey. Brain 123:1102-1111.
26. Menconi F, Monti MC, Greenberg DA, Oashi T, Osman R, Davies TF, Ban Y, Jacobson EM, Concepcion ES, Li CW, Tomer Y 2008 Molecular amino acid signatures in the MHC class II peptide-binding pocket predispose to autoimmune thyroiditis in humans and in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:14034-14039.
27. Ban Y, Greenberg DA, Davies TF, Jacobson E, Concepcion E, Tomer Y 2008 Linkage analysis of thyroid antibody production: evidence for shared susceptibility to clinical autoimmune thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:3589-3596.
28. Huber G, Staub JJ, Meier C, Mitrache C, Guglielmetti M, Huber P, Braverman LE 2002 Prospective study of the spontaneous course of subclinical hypothyroidism: prognostic value of thyrotropin, thyroid reserve, and thyroid antibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:3221-3226.
29. Kubota S, Fujiwara M, Hagiwara H, Tsujimoto N, Takata K, Kudo T, Nishihara E, Ito M, Amino N, Miyauchi A 2010 Multiple thyroid cysts may be a cause of hypothyroidism in patients with relatively high iodine intake. Thyroid 20:205-208.
30. Murdoch JC, Ratcliffe WA, McLarty DG, Rodger JC, Ratcliffe JG 1977 Thyroid function in adults with Down's syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 44:453-458.
31. Radetti G, Mazzanti L, Paganini C, Bernasconi S, Russo G, Rigon F, Cacciari E 1995 Frequency, clinical and laboratory features of thyroiditis in girls with Turner's syndrome. The Italian Study Group for Turner's Syndrome. Acta Paediatr 84:909-912.
32. Burrow GN, Burke WR, Himmelhoch JM, Spencer RP, Hershman JM 1971 Effect of lithium on thyroid function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 32:647-652.
33. Bennie EH, Lazarus JH 1972 Lithium-induced thyroid dysfunction. Lancet 2:44-45.
34. Emerson CH, Dysno WL, Utiger RD 1973 Serum thyrotropin and thyroxine concentrations in patients receiving lithium carbonate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 36:338-346.
35. Fentiman IS, Thomas BS, Balkwill FR, Rubens RD, Hayward JL 1985 Primary hypothyroidism associated with interferon therapy of breast cancer. Lancet 1:1166.
36. Preziati D, La Rosa L, Covini G, Marcelli R, Rescalli S, Persani L, Del Ninno E, Meroni PL, Colombo M, Beck-Peccoz P 1995 Autoimmunity and thyroid function in patients with chronic active hepatitis treated with recombinant interferon alpha-2a. Eur J Endocrinol 132:587-593.
37. Martino E, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Braverman LE 2001 The effects of amiodarone on the thyroid. Endocr Rev 22:240-254.
38. Clark CD, Bassett B, Burge MR 2003 Effects of kelp supplementation on thyroid function in euthyroid subjects. Endocr Pract 9:363-369.
39. Braverman LE, Ingbar SH, Vagenakis AG, Adams L, Maloof F 1971 Enhanced susceptibility to iodide myxedema in patients with Hashimoto's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 32:515-521.
40. Braverman LE, Vagenakis AG, Wang CA, Maloof F, Ingbar SH 1971 Studies on the pathogenesis of iodide myxedema. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 84:130-138.
41. Morshed SA, Latif R, Davies TF 2009 Characterization of thyrotropin receptor antibody-induced signaling cascades. Endocrinology 150:519-529.
42. Fu J, Jiang Y, Liang L, Zhu H 2005 Risk factors of primary thyroid dysfunction in early infants born to mothers with autoimmune thyroid disease. Acta Paediatr 94:1043-1048.
43. Laurberg P, Nygaard B, Glinoer D, Grussendorf M, Orgiazzi J 1998 Guidelines for TSH-receptor antibody measurements in pregnancy: results of an evidencebased symposium organized by the European Thyroid Association. Eur J Endocrinol 139:584-586.
44. Kappers MH, van Esch JH, Smedts FM, de Krijger RR, Eechoute K, Mathijssen RH, Sleijfer S, Leijten F, Danser AH, van den Meiracker AH, Visser TJ 2011 Sunitinib-induced hypothyroidism is due to induction of type 3 deiodinase activity and thyroidal capillary regression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:3087-3094.
45. Desai J, Yassa L, Marqusee E, George S, Frates MC, Chen MH, Morgan JA, Dychter SS, Larsen PR, Demetri GD, Alexander EK 2006 Hypothyroidism after sunitinib treatment for patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Ann Intern Med 145:660-664.
46. Utiger RD 1965 Radioimmunoassay of human plasma thyrotropin. J Clin Invest 44:1277-1286.
47. Beck-Peccoz P, Amr S, Menezes-Ferreira MM, Faglia G, Weintraub BD 1985 Decreased receptor binding of biologically inactive thyrotropin in central hypothyroidism. Effect of treatment with thyrotropin-releasing hormone. N Engl J Med 312:1085-1090.
48. Huang SA, Fish SA, Dorfman DM, Salvatore D, Kozakewich HP, Mandel SJ, Larsen PR 2002 A 21-year-old woman with consumptive hypothyroidism due to a vascular tumor expressing type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:4457-4461.
49. Mouat F, Evans HM, Cutfield WS, Hofman PL, Jefferies C 2008 Massive hepatic hemangioendothelioma and consumptive hypothyroidism. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 21:701-703.
50. Matsuzuka F, Miyauchi A, Katayama S, Narabayashi I, Ikeda H, Kuma K, Sugawara M 1993 Clinical aspects of primary thyroid lymphoma: diagnosis and treatment based on our experience of 119 cases. Thyroid 3:93-99.
51. Bjorses P, Aaltonen J, Horelli-Kuitunen N, Yaspo ML, Peltonen L 1998 Gene defect behind APECED: a new clue to autoimmunity. Hum Mol Genet 7:1547-1553.
52. Meloni A, Furcas M, Cetani F, Marcocci C, Falorni A, Perniola R, Pura M, Boe Wolff AS, Husebye ES, Lilic D, Ryan KR, Gennery AR, Cant AJ, Abinun M, Spickett GP, Arkwright PD, Denning D, Costigan C, Dominguez M, McConnell V, Willcox N, Meager A 2008 Autoantibodies against type I interferons as an additional diagnostic criterion for autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:4389-4397.
53. Huber A, Menconi F, Corathers S, Jacobson EM, Tomer Y 2008 Joint genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes and autoimmune thyroiditis: from epidemiology to mechanisms. Endocr Rev 29:697-725.
54. Stryker TD, Molitch ME 1985 Reversible hyperthyrotropinemia, hyperthyroxinemia, and hyperprolactinemia due to adrenal insufficiency. Am J Med 79:271-276.
55. Abdullatif HD, Ashraf AP 2006 Reversible subclinical hypothyroidism in the presence of adrenal insufficiency. Endocr Pract 12:572.
56. Canaris GJ, Steiner JF, Ridgway EC 1997 Do traditional symptoms of hypothyroidism correlate with biochemical disease? J Gen Intern Med 12:544-550.
57. Birkent H, Karacalioglu O, Merati AL, Akcam T, Gerek M 2008 Prospective study of the impact of thyroid hormone replacement on objective voice parameters. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 117:523-527.
58. Billewicz WZ, Chapman RS, Crooks J, Day ME, Gossage J, Wayne E, Young JA 1969 Statistical methods applied to the diagnosis of hypothyroidism. Q J Med 38:255-266.
59. Zulewski H, Muller B, Exer P, Miserez AR, Staub JJ 1997 Estimation of tissue hypothyroidism by a new clinical score: evaluation of patients with various grades of hypothyroidism and controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:771-776.
60. Lambert EH, Underdahl LO, Beckett S, Mederos LO 1951 A study of the ankle jerk in myxedema. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 11:1186-1205.
61. Bell GM, Todd WT, Forfar JC, Martyn C, Wathen CG, Gow S, Riemersma R, Toft AD 1985 End-organ responses to thyroxine therapy in subclinical hypothyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 22:83-89.
62. Mason RL, Hunt HM, Hurxthal, LM 1930 Blood cholesterol values in hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism: their significance. N Engl J Med 203:1273-1278.
63. Haines AL, Mussey RD 1935 Certain menstrual disturbances associated with low basal metabolic rates without myxedema. JAMA 105:557-560.
64. Foster RC, Thornton, MJ 1939 Thyroid in the treatment of menstrual irregularities. Endocrinology 24.383-388.
65. Goldsmith RE, Sturgis SH, Lerman J, Stanbury JB 1952 The menstrual pattern in thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 12:846-855.
66. Klein I, Mantell P, Parker M, Levey GS 1980 Resolution of abnormal muscle enzyme studies in hypothyroidism. Am J Med Sci 279:159-162.
67. Tajiri J, Shimada T, Naomi S, Umeda T, Sato T 1984 Hepatic dysfunction in primary hypothyroidism. Endocrinol Jpn 31:83-91.
68. Surks MI, Sievert R 1995 Drugs and thyroid function. N Engl J Med 333:1688-1694.
69. Oppenheimer JH, Squef R, Surks MI, Hauer H 1963 Binding of thyroxine by serum proteins evaluated by equilibrium dialysis and electrophoretic techniques. Alterations in nonthyroidal illness. J Clin Invest 42:1769-1782.
70. Mendel CM 1989 The free hormone hypothesis: a physiologically based mathematical model. Endocr Rev 10:232-274.
71. Stockigt JR 2001 Free thyroid hormone measurement. A critical appraisal. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 30:265-289.
72. Ain KB, Pucino F, Shiver TM, Banks SM 1993 Thyroid hormone levels affected by time of blood sampling in thyroxine-treated patients. Thyroid 3:81-85.
73. Lee RH, Spencer CA, Mestman JH, Miller EA, Petrovic I, Braverman LE, Goodwin TM 2009 Free T4 immunoassays are flawed during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 200:260 e261-266.
74. Mandel SJ, Spencer CA, Hollowell JG 2005 Are detection and treatment of thyroid insufficiency in pregnancy feasible? Thyroid 15:44-53.
75. Lum SM, Nicoloff JT, Spencer CA, Kaptein EM 1984 Peripheral tissue mechanism for maintenance of serum triiodothyronine values in a thyroxine-deficient state in man. J Clin Invest 73:570-575.
76. Kaplan MM, Larsen PR, Crantz FR, Dzau VJ, Rossing TH, Haddow JE 1982 Prevalence of abnormal thyroid function test results in patients with acute medical illnesses. Am J Med 72:9-16.
77. Peeters RP, Wouters PJ, Kaptein E, van Toor H, Visser TJ, Van den Berghe G 2003 Reduced activation and increased inactivation of thyroid hormone in tissues of critically ill patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:3202-3211.
78. Caron PJ, Nieman LK, Rose SR, Nisula BC 1986 Deficient nocturnal surge of thyrotropin in central hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 62:960-964.
79. Karmisholt J, Andersen S, Laurberg P 2008 Variation in thyroid function tests in patients with stable untreated subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid 18:303-308.
80. Spencer CA, LoPresti JS, Patel A, Guttler RB, Eigen A, Shen D, Gray D, Nicoloff JT 1990 Applications of a new chemiluminometric thyrotropin assay to subnormal measurement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70:453-460.
81. Hamilton TE, Davis S, Onstad L, Kopecky KJ 2008 Thyrotropin levels in a population with no clinical, autoantibody, or ultrasonographic evidence of thyroid disease: implications for the diagnosis of subclinical hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:1224-1230.
82. Volzke H, Alte D, Kohlmann T, Ludemann J, Nauck M, John U, Meng W 2005 Reference intervals of serum thyroid function tests in a previously iodinedeficient area. Thyroid 15:279-285.
83. Volzke H, Schmidt CO, John U, Wallaschofski H, Dorr M, Nauck M 2010 Reference levels for serum thyroid function tests of diagnostic and prognostic significance. Horm Metab Res 42:809-814.
84. Boucai L, Hollowell JG, Surks MI 2011 An approach for development of age-, gender-, and ethnicityspecific thyrotropin reference limits. Thyroid 21: 5-11.
85. Baloch Z, Carayon P, Conte-Devolx B, Demers LM, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Henry JF, LiVosli VA, Niccoli-Sire P, John R, Ruf J, Smyth PP, Spencer CA, Stockigt JR 2003 Laboratory medicine practice guidelines. Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Thyroid 13:3-126.
86. Wartofsky L, Dickey RA 2005 The evidence for a narrower thyrotropin reference range is compelling. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:5483-5488.
87. Surks MI, Goswami G, Daniels GH 2005 The thyrotropin reference range should remain unchanged. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:5489-5496.
88. Surks MI, Hollowell JG 2007 Age-specific distribution of serum thyrotropin and antithyroid antibodies in the US population: implications for the prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:4575-4582.
89. Kaptein EM, Spencer CA, Kamiel MB, Nicoloff JT 1980 Prolonged dopamine administration and thyroid hormone economy in normal and critically ill subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 51:387-393.
90. Sowers JR, Carlson HE, Brautbar N, Hershman JM 1977 Effect of dexamethasone on prolactin and TSH responses to TRH and metoclopramide in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 44:237-241.
91. Wong ET, Bradley SG, Schultz AL 1981 Elevations of thyroid-stimulating hormone during acute nonthyroidal illness. Arch Intern Med 141:873-875.
92. Lightman SL, Fox P, Dunne MJ 1986 The effect of SMS 201-995, a long-acting somatostatin analogue, on anterior pituitary function in healthy male volunteers. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 119:84-95.
93. Sherman SI, Gopal J, Haugen BR, Chiu AC, Whaley K, Nowlakha P, Duvic M 1999 Central hypothyroidism associated with retinoid X receptor-selective ligands. N Engl J Med 340:1075-1079.
94. Lawson EA, Klibanski A 2008 Endocrine abnormalities in anorexia nervosa. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 4:407-414.
95. Gershengorn MC, Weintraub BD 1975 Thyrotropininduced hyperthyroidism caused by selective pituitary resistance to thyroid hormone. A new syndrome of "inappropriate secretion of TSH". J Clin Invest 56:633-642.
96. Halsall DJ, English E, Chatterjee VK 2009 Interference from heterophilic antibodies in TSH assays. Ann Clin Biochem 46:345-346.
97. Boothby WM, Sandiford I 1929 Normal values of basal or standard metabolism. A modification of the Dubois standards. Am J Physiol 90:290-291.
98. Werner SC 1955 Basal metabolism. In: Werner SC (ed) The Thyroid: A Fundamental and Clinical Text. First edition. Harper & Brothers, New York, pp 125-136.
99. Tunbridge WM, Evered DC, Hall R, Appleton D, Brewis M, Clark F, Evans JG, Young E, Bird T, Smith PA 1977 The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: the Whickham survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 7:481-493.
100. de Bruin TW, van Barlingen H, van Linde-Sibenius Trip M, van Vuurst de Vries AR, Akveld MJ, Erkelens DW 1993 Lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein B plasma concentrations in hypothyroid, euthyroid, and hyperthyroid subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76:121-126.
101. Danese MD, Ladenson PW, Meinert CL, Powe NR 2000 Clinical review 115: effect of thyroxine therapy on serum lipoproteins in patients with mild thyroid failure: a quantitative review of the literature. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:2993-3001.
102. Ness-Abramof R, Nabriski DA, Shapiro MS, Tripto-Shkolnik L, Katz B, Weiss E, Shenkman L 2009 Cardiac troponin T is not increased in patients with hypothyroidism. Intern Med J 39:117-120.
103. Ladenson PW, Singer PA, Ain KB, Bagchi N, Bigos ST, Levy EG, Smith SA, Daniels GH, Cohen HD 2000 American Thyroid Association guidelines for detection of thyroid dysfunction.Arch InternMed160:1573-1575.
104. American Academy of Family Physicians 2002 Summary of policy recommendations for periodic health examinations. American Academy of Family Physicians.
105. Helfand M, Redfern CC 1998 Clinical guideline, part 2. Screening for thyroid disease: an update. American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 129:144-158.
106. Surks MI, Ortiz E, Daniels GH, Sawin CT, Col NF, Cobin RH, Franklyn JA, Hershman JM, Burman KD, Denke MA, Gorman C, Cooper RS, Weissman NJ 2004 Subclinical thyroid disease: scientific review and guidelines for diagnosis and management. JAMA 291:228-238.
107. Vanderpump MP, Ahlquist JA, Franklyn JA, Clayton RN 1996 Consensus statement for good practice and audit measures in the management of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. The Research Unit of the Royal College of Physicians of London, the Endocrinology and Diabetes Committee of the Royal College of Physicians of London, and the Society for Endocrinology. BMJ 313:539-544.
108. Helfand M 2004 Screening for subclinical thyroid dysfunction in nonpregnant adults: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 140:128-141.
109. Tudhope GR, Wilson GM 1962 Deficiency of vitamin B12 in hypothyroidism. Lancet 1:703-706.
110. Carmel R, Spencer CA 1982 Clinical and subclinical thyroid disorders associated with pernicious anemia. Observations on abnormal thyroid-stimulating hormone levels and on a possible association of blood group O with hyperthyroidism. Arch Intern Med 142:1465-1469.
111. Glatstein E, McHardy-Young S, Brast N, Eltringham JR, Kriss JP 1971 Alterations in serum thyrotropin (TSH) and thyroid function following radiotherapy in patients with malignant lymphoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 32:833-841.
112. Constine LS, Donaldson SS, McDougall IR, Cox RS, Link MP, Kaplan HS 1984 Thyroid dysfunction after radiotherapy in children with Hodgkin's disease. Cancer 53:878-883.
113. Liening DA, Duncan NO, Blakeslee DB, Smith DB 1990 Hypothyroidism following radiotherapy for head and neck cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 103:10-13.
114. Hennessey JV, Jackson IMD. 1996 The interface between thyroid hormones and psychiatry. Endocrinologist 6:214-223.
115. Rodondi N, den Elzen WP, Bauer DC, Cappola AR, Razvi S, Walsh JP, Asvold BO, Iervasi G, Imaizumi M, Collet TH, Bremner A, Maisonneuve P, Sgarbi JA, Khaw KT, Vanderpump MP, Newman AB, Cornuz J, Franklyn JA, Westendorp RG, Vittinghoff E, Gus-sekloo J 2010 Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease and mortality. JAMA 304:1365-1374.
116. Razvi S, Weaver JU, Vanderpump MP, Pearce SH 2010 The incidence of ischemic heart disease and mortality in people with subclinical hypothyroidism: reanalysis of the Whickham Survey cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:1734-1740.
117. Gencer B, Collet TH, Virgini V, Bauer DC, Gussekloo J, Cappola AR, Nanchen D, den Elzen WP, Balmer P, Luben RN, Iacoviello M, Triggiani V, Cornuz J, Newman AB, Khaw KT, Jukema JW, Westendorp RG, Vittinghoff E, Aujesky D, Rodondi N 2012 Subclinical thyroid dysfunction and the risk of heart failure events: an individual participant data analysis from six prospective cohorts. Circulation 126:1040-1049.
118. McQuade C, Skugor M, Brennan DM, Hoar B, Stevenson C, Hoogwerf BJ 2011 Hypothyroidism and moderate subclinical hypothyroidism are associated with increased all-cause mortality independent of coronary heart disease risk factors: a PreCIS database study. Thyroid 21:837-843.
119. Ochs N, Auer R, Bauer DC, Nanchen D, Gussekloo J, Cornuz J, Rodondi N 2008 Meta-analysis: subclinical thyroid dysfunction and the risk for coronary heart disease and mortality. Ann Intern Med 148:832-845.
120. Dessein PH, Joffe BI, Stanwix AE 2004 Subclinical hypothyroidism is associated with insulin resistance in rheumatoid arthritis. Thyroid 14:443-446.
121. Serter R, Demirbas B, Korukluoglu B, Culha C, Cakal E, Aral Y 2004 The effect of L-thyroxine replacement therapy on lipid based cardiovascular risk in subclinical hypothyroidism. J Endocrinol Invest 27:897-903.
122. Iqbal A, Jorde R, Figenschau Y 2006 Serum lipid levels in relation to serum thyroid-stimulating hormone and the effect of thyroxine treatment on serum lipid levels in subjects with subclinical hypothyroidism: the Tromso Study. J Intern Med 260:53-61.
123. Caraccio N, Ferrannini E, Monzani F 2002 Lipoprotein profile in subclinical hypothyroidism: response to levothyroxine replacement, a randomized placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87: 1533-1538.
124. Taddei S, Caraccio N, Virdis A, Dardano A, Versari D, Ghiadoni L, Salvetti A, Ferrannini E, Monzani F 2003 Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in subclinical hypothyroidism: beneficial effect of levothyroxine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:3731-3737.
125. Dardano A, Caraccio N, Monzani F 2006 Evaluation of endothelial function in subclinical thyroid dysfunction. Thyroid 16:200-201.
126. Dardano A, Monzani F 2007 Thyroid function and carotid artery intima-media thickness. Circ J 71:993.
127. Negro R, Schwartz A, Gismondi R, Tinelli A, Mangieri T, Stagnaro-Green A 2010 Increased pregnancy loss rate in thyroid antibody negative women with TSH levels between 2.5 and 5.0 in the first trimester of pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:E44-48.
128. Braverman LE, Ingbar SH, Sterling K 1970 Conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3) in athyreotic human subjects. J Clin Invest 49:855-864.
129. Petersen K, Bengtsson C, Lapidus L, Lindstedt G, Nystrom E 1990 Morbidity, mortality, and quality of life for patients treated with levothyroxine. Arch Intern Med 150:2077-2081.
130. Jonklaas J, Davidson B, Bhagat S, Soldin SJ 2008 Triiodothyronine levels in athyreotic individuals during levothyroxine therapy. JAMA 299:769-777.
131. Saravanan P, Chau WF, Roberts N, Vedhara K, Greenwood R, Dayan CM 2002 Psychological wellbeing in patients on 'adequate' doses of l-thyroxine: results of a large, controlled community-based questionnaire study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 57:577-585.
132. Bunevicius R, Kazanavicius G, Zalinkevicius R, Prange AJ Jr 1999 Effects of thyroxine as compared with thyroxine plus triiodothyronine in patients with hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 340:424-429.
133. Escobar-Morreale HF, Botella-Carretero JI, Escobar del Rey F, Morreale de Escobar G 2005 REVIEW: Treatment of hypothyroidism with combinations of levothyroxine plus liothyronine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:4946-4954.
134. Grozinsky-Glasberg S, Fraser A, Nahshoni E, Weizman A, Leibovici L 2006 Thyroxine-triiodothyronine combination therapy versus thyroxine monotherapy for clinical hypothyroidism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:2592-2599.
135. Celi FS, Zemskova M, Linderman JD, Babar NI, Skarulis MC, Csako G, Wesley R, Costello R, Penzak SR, Pucino F 2010 The pharmacodynamic equivalence of levothyroxine and liothyronine: a randomized, double blind, cross-over study in thyroidectomized patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 72:709-715.
136. Panicker V, Saravanan P, Vaidya B, Evans J, Hattersley AT, Frayling TM, Dayan CM 2009 Common variation in the DIO2 gene predicts baseline psychological well-being and response to combination thyroxine plus triiodothyronine therapy in hypothyroid patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:1623-1629.
137. Appelhof BC, Peeters RP, Wiersinga WM, Visser TJ, Wekking EM, Huyser J, Schene AH, Tijssen JG, Hoogendijk WJ, Fliers E 2005 Polymorphisms in type 2 deiodinase are not associated with well-being, neurocognitive functioning, and preference for combined thyroxine/3,5,3¢-triiodothyronine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:6296-6299.
138. Hennessey JV, Malabanan AO, Haugen BR, Levy EG 2010 Adverse event reporting in patients treated with levothyroxine: results of the pharmacovigilance task force survey of the American Thyroid Association, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, and the Endocrine Society. Endocr Pract 16:357-370.
139. AACE, TES and ATA Joint position statement on the use and interchangeability of thyroxine products. Available at https://www.aace.com/ files/position-statements/aace-tes-ata-thyroxineproducts.pdf (accessed August 19, 2012).
140. Centanni M, Gargano L, Canettieri G, Viceconti N, Franchi A, Delle Fave G, Annibale B 2006 Thyroxine in goiter, Helicobacter pylori infection, and chronic gastritis. N Engl J Med 354:1787-1795.
141. Sachmechi I, Reich DM, Aninyei M, Wibowo F, Gupta G, Kim PJ 2007 Effect of proton pump in-hibitors on serum thyroid-stimulating hormone level in euthyroid patients treated with levothyroxine for hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract 13:345-349.
142. Pabla D, Akhlaghi F, Zia H 2009 A comparative pHdissolution profile study of selected commercial levothyroxine products using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 72:105-110.
143. U.S. Food and Drug Administration 2008 Tirosint (Levothyroxine Sodium) Capsules. Available at www .accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda-docs/nda/2006/ 021924s000TOC.cfm (accessed August 19, 2012).
144. Ananthakrishnan S, Braverman LE, Levin RM, Magnani B, Pearce EN 2008 The effect of famotidine, esomeprazole, and ezetimibe on levothyroxine absorption. Thyroid 18:493-498.
145. LeBoff MS, Kaplan MM, Silva JE, Larsen PR 1982 Bioavailability of thyroid hormones from oral replacement preparations. Metabolism 31:900-905.
146. Rosenbaum RL, Barzel US 1982 Levothyroxine replacement dose for primary hypothyroidism decreases with age. Ann Intern Med 96:53-55.
147. Roti E, Minelli R, Gardini E, Braverman LE 1993 The use and misuse of thyroid hormone. Endocr Rev 14:401-423.
148. Mandel SJ, Brent GA, Larsen PR 1993 Levothyroxine therapy in patients with thyroid disease. Ann Intern Med 119:492-502.
149. Toft AD 1994 Thyroxine therapy. N Engl J Med 331:174-180.
150. Woeber KA 2002 Levothyroxine therapy and serum free thyroxine and free triiodothyronine concentrations. J Endocrinol Invest 25:106-109.
151. Sawin CT, Herman T, Molitch ME, London MH, Kramer SM 1983 Aging and the thyroid. Decreased requirement for thyroid hormone in older hypothyroid patients. Am J Med 75:206-209.
152. Cunningham JJ, Barzel US 1984 Lean body mass is a predictor of the daily requirement for thyroid hormone in older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc 32:204-207.
153. Santini F, Pinchera A, Marsili A, Ceccarini G, Castagna MG, Valeriano R, Giannetti M, Taddei D, Centoni R, Scartabelli G, Rago T, Mammoli C, Elisei R, Vitti P 2005 Lean body mass is a major determinant of levothyroxine dosage in the treatment of thyroid diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:124-127.
154. Devdhar M, Drooger R, Pehlivanova M, Singh G, Jonklaas J 2011 Levothyroxine replacement doses are affected by gender and weight, but not age. Thyroid 21:821-827.
155. Hennessey JV, Evaul JE, Tseng YC, Burman KD, Wartofsky L 1986 L-thyroxine dosage: a reevaluation of therapy with contemporary preparations. Ann Intern Med 105:11-15.
156. Fish LH, Schwartz HL, Cavanaugh J, Steffes MW, Bantle JP, Oppenheimer JH 1987 Replacement dose, metabolism, and bioavailability of levothyroxine in the treatment of hypothyroidism. Role of triiodothyronine in pituitary feedback in humans. N Engl J Med 316:764-770.
157. Kabadi UM, Jackson T 1995 Serum thyrotropin in primary hypothyroidism. A possible predictor of optimal daily levothyroxine dose in primary hypothyroidism. Arch Intern Med 155:1046-1048.
158. Gordon MB, Gordon MS 1999 Variations in adequate levothyroxine replacement therapy in patients with different causes of hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract 5:233-238.
159. Rosenbaum RL, Barzel US 1981 Clinical hypothyroidism in the elderly-a preventable disorder? J Am Geriatr Soc 29:221-223.
160. Miller MJ, Pan C, Barzel US 1990 The prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism in adults with low-normal blood thyroxine levels. NY State J Med 90:541-544.
161. Meier C, Staub JJ, Roth CB, Guglielmetti M, Kunz M, Miserez AR, Drewe J, Huber P, Herzog R, Muller B 2001 TSH-controlled L-thyroxine therapy reduces cholesterol levels and clinical symptoms in subclinical hypothyroidism: a double blind, placebo-controlled trial (Basel Thyroid Study). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4860-4866.
162. Teixeira PF, Reuters VS, Ferreira MM, Almeida CP, Reis FA, Melo BA, Buescu A, Costa AJ, Vaisman M 2008 Treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism reduces atherogenic lipid levels in a placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial. Horm Metab Res 40: 50-55.
163. Bearcroft CP, Toms GC, Williams SJ, Noonan K, Monson JP 1991 Thyroxine replacement in postradioiodine hypothyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 34:115-118.
164. Roos A, Linn-Rasker SP, van Domburg RT, Tijssen JP, Berghout A 2005 The starting dose of levothyroxine in primary hypothyroidism treatment: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Arch Intern Med 165:1714-1720.
165. Bolk N, Visser TJ, Nijman J, Jongste IJ, Tijssen JG, Berghout A 2010 Effects of evening vs morning levothyroxine intake: a randomized double-blind crossover trial. Arch Intern Med 170:1996-2003.
166. Bach-Huynh TG, Nayak B, Loh J, Soldin S, Jonklaas J 2009 Timing of levothyroxine administration affects serum thyrotropin concentration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:3905-3912.
167. Hays MT 1988 Thyroid hormone and the gut. Endocr Res 14:203-224.
168. Hays MT, Nielsen KR 1994 Human thyroxine absorption: age effects and methodological analyses. Thyroid 4:55-64.
169. Wenzel KW, Kirschsieper HE 1977 Aspects of the absorption of oral L-thyroxine in normal man. Metabolism 26:1-8.
170. Maeda M, Kuzuya N, Masuyama Y, Imai Y, Ikeda H 1976 Changes in serum triiodothyronine, thyroxine, and thyrotropin during treatment with thyroxine in severe primary hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 43:10-17.
171. Wiersinga WM 2010 Hypothyroidism and myxedema coma. In: Jameson JL, DeGroot LJ (eds) Endocrinology: Adult and Pediatric, 6th edition. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, pp 1607-1622.
172. Brajkovich IE, Mashiter K, Joplin GF, Cassar J 1983 Serum T4, T3, and TSH levels in primary hypothyroidism during replacement therapy with thyroxine. Metabolism 32:745-747.
173. Slawik M, Klawitter B, Meiser E, Schories M, Zwermann O, Borm K, Peper M, Lubrich B, Hug MJ, Nauck M, Olschewski M, Beuschlein F, Reincke M 2007 Thyroid hormone replacement for central hypothyroidism: a randomized controlled trial comparing two doses of thyroxine (T4) with a combination of T4 and triiodothyronine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:4115-4122.
174. Iverson JF, Mariash CN 2008 Optimal free thyroxine levels for thyroid hormone replacement in hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract 14:550-555.
175. Koulouri O, Auldin MA, Agarwal R, Kieffer V, Robertson C, Falconer Smith J, Levy MJ, Howlett TA 2011 Diagnosis and treatment of hypothyroidism in TSH deficiency compared to primary thyroid disease: pituitary patients are at risk of under-replacement with levothyroxine. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 74:744-749.
176. Gabrilove JL, Ludwig AW 1957 The histogenesis of myxedema. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 17:925-932.
177. Alexander EK, Marqusee E, Lawrence J, Jarolim P, Fischer GA, Larsen PR 2004 Timing and magnitude of increases in levothyroxine requirements during pregnancy in women with hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 351:241-249.
178. Keating FR Jr, Parkin TW, Selby JB, Dickinson LS 1961 Treatment of heart disease associated with myxedema. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 3:364-381.
179. Ladenson PW, Levin AA, Ridgway EC, Daniels GH 1984 Complications of surgery in hypothyroid patients. Am J Med 77:261-266.
180. Drucker DJ, Burrow GN 1985 Cardiovascular surgery in the hypothyroid patient. Arch Intern Med 145:1585-1587.
181. Means JH, Hertz S, Lerman J. 1940 The pituitary type of myxedema or Simmond's disease masquerading as myxedema. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 55:32.
182. Peterson RE 1958 The influence of the thyroid on adrenal cortical function. J Clin Invest 37:736-743.
183. Peterson RE, Wyngaarden JB 1956 The miscible pool and turnover rate of hydrocortisone in man. J Clin Invest 35:552-561.
184. Ain KB, Refetoff S, Fein HG, Weintraub BD 1991 Pseudomalabsorption of levothyroxine. JAMA 266: 2118-2120.
185. Grebe SK, Cooke RR, Ford HC, Fagerstrom JN, Cordwell DP, Lever NA, Purdie GL, Feek CM 1997 Treatment of hypothyroidism with once weekly thyroxine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:870-875.
186. Lamson MJ, Pamplin CL, Rolleri RL, Klein I 2004 Quantitation of a substantial reduction in levothyroxine (T4) reduction by food. Thyroid 14:876 (abstract).
187. Sawin CT, Geller A, Wolf PA, Belanger AJ, Baker E, Bacharach P, Wilson PW, Benjamin EJ, D'Agostino RB 1994 Low serum thyrotropin concentrations as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation in older persons. N Engl J Med 331:1249-1252.
188. Shapiro LE, Sievert R, Ong L, Ocampo EL, Chance RA, Lee M, Nanna M, Ferrick K, Surks MI 1997 Minimal cardiac effects in asymptomatic athyreotic patients chronically treated with thyrotropin-suppressive doses of L-thyroxine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:2592-2595.
189. Biondi B, Fazio S, Cuocolo A, Sabatini D, Nicolai E, Lombardi G, Salvatore M, Sacca L 1996 Impaired cardiac reserve and exercise capacity in patients receiving long-term thyrotropin suppressive therapy with levothyroxine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81: 4224-4228.
190. Abdulrahman RM, Delgado V, Hoftijzer HC, Ng AC, Ewe SH, Marsan NA, Holman ER, Hovens GC, Corssmit EP, Romijn JA, Bax JJ, Smit JW 2011 Both exogenous subclinical hyperthyroidism and shortterm overt hypothyroidism affect myocardial strain in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 21:471-476.
191. Stall GM, Harris S, Sokoll LJ, Dawson-Hughes B 1990 Accelerated bone loss in hypothyroid patients overtreated with L-thyroxine. Ann Intern Med 113:265-269.
192. Faber J, Galloe AM 1994 Changes in bone mass during prolonged subclinical hyperthyroidism due to L-thyroxine treatment: a meta-analysis. Eur J Endocrinol 130:350-356.
193. Uzzan B, Campos J, Cucherat M, Nony P, Boissel JP, Perret GY 1996 Effects on bone mass of long term treatment with thyroid hormones: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:4278-4289.
194. Bauer DC, Ettinger B, Nevitt MC, Stone KL 2001 Risk for fracture in women with low serum levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone. Ann Intern Med 134:561-568.
195. Biondi B, Fazio S, Carella C, Sabatini D, Amato G, Cittadini A, Bellastella A, Lombardi G, Sacca L 1994 Control of adrenergic overactivity by beta-blockade improves the quality of life in patients receiving long term suppressive therapy with levothyroxine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:1028-1033.
196. Botella-Carretero JI, Galan JM, Caballero C, Sancho J, Escobar-Morreale HF 2003 Quality of life and psychometric functionality in patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Endocr Relat Cancer 10:601-610.
197. Samuels MH 2008 Cognitive function in untreated hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 15:429-433.
198. Walsh JP, Ward LC, Burke V, Bhagat CI, Shiels L, Henley D, Gillett MJ, Gilbert R, Tanner M, Stuckey BG 2006 Small changes in thyroxine dosage do not produce measurable changes in hypothyroid symptoms, well-being, or quality of life: results of a double-blind, randomized clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:2624-2630.
199. Boeving A, Paz-Filho G, Radominski RB, Graf H, Amaral de Carvalho G 2011 Low-normal or highnormal thyrotropin target levels during treatment of hypothyroidism: a prospective, comparative study. Thyroid 21:355-360.
200. Stricker R, Echenard M, Eberhart R, Chevailler MC, Perez V, Quinn FA 2007 Evaluation of maternal thyroid function during pregnancy: the importance of using gestational age-specific reference intervals. Eur J Endocrinol 157:509-514.
201. Gilbert RM, Hadlow NC, Walsh JP, Fletcher SJ, Brown SJ, Stuckey BG, Lim EM 2008 Assessment of thyroid function during pregnancy: first-trimester (weeks 9-13) reference intervals derived from Western Australian women. Med J Aust 189:250-253.
202. Bocos-Terraz JP, Izquierdo-Alvarez S, Bancalero-Flores JL, Alvarez-Lahuerta R, Aznar-Sauca A, Real-Lopez E, Ibanez-Marco R, Bocanegra-Garcia V, Rivera-Sanchez G 2009 Thyroid hormones according to gestational age in pregnant Spanish women. BMC Res Notes 2:237.
203. Haddow JE, Knight GJ, Palomaki GE, McClain MR, Pulkkinen AJ 2004 The reference range and withinperson variability of thyroid stimulating hormone during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. J Med Screen 11:170-174.
204. Mannisto T, Surcel HM, Ruokonen A, Vaarasmaki M, Pouta A, Bloigu A, Jarvelin MR, Hartikainen AL, Suvanto E 2011 Early pregnancy reference intervals of thyroid hormone concentrations in a thyroid antibody-negative pregnant population. Thyroid 21: 291-298.
205. Marwaha RK, Chopra S, Gopalakrishnan S, Sharma B, Kanwar RS, Sastry A, Singh S 2008 Establishment of reference range for thyroid hormones in normal pregnant Indian women. BJOG 115:602-606.
206. Panesar NS, Li CY, Rogers MS 2001 Reference intervals for thyroid hormones in pregnant Chinese women. Ann Clin Biochem 38:329-332.
207. Soldin OP, Soldin D, Sastoque M 2007 Gestationspecific thyroxine and thyroid stimulating hormone levels in the United States and worldwide. Ther Drug Monit 29:553-559.
208. Sosa JA, Bowman HM, Tielsch JM, Powe NR, Gordon TA, Udelsman R 1998 The importance of surgeon experience for clinical and economic outcomes from thyroidectomy. Ann Surg 228:320-330.
209. Ortiz R, Hupart KH, DeFesi CR, Surks MI 1998 Effect of early referral to an endocrinologist on efficiency and cost of evaluation and development of treatment plan in patients with thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:3803-3807.
210. Kumar H, Daykin J, Holder R, Watkinson JC, Sheppard MC, Franklyn JA 2001 An audit of management of differentiated thyroid cancer in specialist and non-specialist clinic settings. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 54:719-723.
211. Rinaldi MD, Stagnaro-Green AS 2007 Thyroid disease and pregnancy: degrees of knowledge. Thyroid 17:747-753.
212. Davis LE, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG 1988 Hypothyroidism complicating pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 72:108-112.
213. Leung AS, Millar LK, Koonings PP, Montoro M, Mestman JH 1993 Perinatal outcome in hypothyroid pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 81:349-353.
214. Casey BM, Dashe JS, Wells CE, McIntire DD, Byrd W, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG 2005 Subclinical hypothyroidism and pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 105:239-245.
215. Teng W, Shan Z 2011 Pregnancy and thyroid diseases in China. Thyroid 21:1053-1055.
216. Li Y, Shan Z, Teng W, Yu X, Fan C, Teng X, Guo R, Wang H, Li J, Chen Y, Wang W, Chawinga M, Zhang L, Yang L, Zhao Y, Hua T 2010 Abnormalities of maternal thyroid function during pregnancy affect neuropsychological development of their children at 25-30 months. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 72: 825-829.
217. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Allan WC, Williams JR, Knight GJ, Gagnon J, O'Heir CE, Mitchell ML, Hermos RJ, Waisbren SE, Faix JD, Klein RZ 1999 Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N Engl J Med 341:549-555.
218. Yu X, Shan Z, Teng W, Xue H, Li YB, Wang W, Li J, Chen Y, Li J, Fan C, Wang H, Zhang H, Guo R 2010 A prospective study on impact of subclinical hypothyroidism during pregnancy receiving levothyroxine treatment or not on neuropsychological development of the offspring. ITC 2010-1037. 14th International Thyroid Conference, Paris, France, September 11-16.
219. Lazarus JH, Bestwick JP, Channon S, Paradice R, Maina A, Rees R, Chiusano E, John R, Guaraldo V, George LM, Perona M, Dall'Amico D, Parkes AB, Joomun M, Wald NJ 2012 Antenatal thyroid screening and childhood cognitive function. N Engl J Med 366:493-501.
220. Stagnaro-Green A, Roman SH, Cobin RH, el-Harazy E, Alvarez-Marfany M, Davies TF 1990 Detection of at-risk pregnancy by means of highly sensitive assays for thyroid autoantibodies. JAMA 264:1422-1425.
221. Negro R, Schwartz A, Gismondi R, Tinelli A, Mangieri T, Stagnaro-Green A 2011 Thyroid antibody positivity in the first trimester of pregnancy is associated with negative pregnancy outcomes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:E920-924.
222. Pop VJ, de Vries E, van Baar AL, Waelkens JJ, de Rooy HA, Horsten M, Donkers MM, Komproe IH, van Son MM, Vader HL 1995 Maternal thyroid peroxidase antibodies during pregnancy: a marker of impaired child development? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:3561-3566.
223. Glinoer D, Riahi M, Grun JP, Kinthaert J 1994 Risk of subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnant women with asymptomatic autoimmune thyroid disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:197-204.
224. Negro R, Formoso G, Mangieri T, Pezzarossa A, Dazzi D, Hassan H 2006 Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease: effects on obstetrical complications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:2587-2591.
225. Kim CH, Ahn JW, Kang SP, Kim SH, Chae HD, Kang BM 2011 Effect of levothyroxine treatment on in vitro fertilization and pregnancy outcome in infertile women with subclinical hypothyroidism undergoing in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Fertil Steril 95:1650-1654.
226. Morreale de Escobar G, Obregon MJ, Escobar del Rey F 2000 Is neuropsychological development related to maternal hypothyroidism or to maternal hypothyroxinemia? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 3975-3987.
227. Morreale de Escobar G 2001 The role of thyroid hormone in fetal neurodevelopment. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 14 Suppl 6:1453-1462.
228. Pop VJ, Kuijpens JL, van Baar AL, Verkerk G, van Son MM, de Vijlder JJ, Vulsma T, Wiersinga WM, Drexhage HA, Vader HL 1999 Low maternal free thyroxine concentrations during early pregnancy are associated with impaired psychomotor development in infancy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 50:149-155.
229. Pop VJ, Brouwers EP, Vader HL, Vulsma T, van Baar AL, de Vijlder JJ 2003 Maternal hypothyroxinaemia during early pregnancy and subsequent child development: a 3-year follow-up study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 59:282-288.
230. Kooistra L, Crawford S, van Baar AL, Brouwers EP, Pop VJ 2006 Neonatal effects of maternal hypothyroxinemia during early pregnancy. Pediatrics 117:161-167.
231. Henrichs J, Bongers-Schokking JJ, Schenk JJ, Ghassabian A, Schmidt HG, Visser TJ, Hooijkaas H, de Muinck Keizer-Schrama SM, Hofman A, Jaddoe VV, Visser W, Steegers EA, Verhulst FC, de Rijke YB, Tiemeier H 2010 Maternal thyroid function during early pregnancy and cognitive functioning in early childhood: the generation R study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:4227-4234.
232. Oken E, Braverman LE, Platek D, Mitchell ML, Lee SL, Pearce EN 2009 Neonatal thyroxine, maternal thyroid function, and child cognition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:497-503.
233. Yassa L, Marqusee E, Fawcett R, Alexander EK 2010 Thyroid hormone early adjustment in pregnancy (the THERAPY) trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:3234-3241.
234. Mandel SJ, Larsen PR, Seely EW, Brent GA 1990 Increased need for thyroxine during pregnancy in women with primary hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 323:91-96.
235. Tamaki H, Amino N, Takeoka K, Mitsuda N, Miyai K, Tanizawa O 1990 Thyroxine requirement during pregnancy for replacement therapy of hypothyroidism. Obstet Gynecol 76:230-233.
236. Kaplan MM 1992 Monitoring thyroxine treatment during pregnancy. Thyroid 2:147-152.
237. Kaplan MM, Meier DA 1998 Thyroid diseases in pregnancy. In: Gleicher N (ed) Principles and Practice of Medical Therapy in Pregnancy, 3rd edition. Appleton & Lange, Stamford, CT, pp 432-448.
238. Verga U, Bergamaschi S, Cortelazzi D, Ronzoni S, Marconi AM, Beck-Peccoz P 2009 Adjustment of LT4 substitutive therapy in pregnant women with subclinical, overt or post-ablative hypothyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 70:798-802.
239. Alvarez-Marfany M, Roman SH, Drexler AJ, Robertson C, Stagnaro-Green A 1994 Long-term prospective study of postpartum thyroid dysfunction in women with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:10-16.
240. Glass AR, Kushner, J. 1996 Obesity, nutrition, and the thyroid. Endocrinologist 6:392-404.
241. Plummer WA 1940 Body weight in spontaneous myxedema. Transactions of the American Association for the Study of Goiter, pp 88-98.
242. Karmisholt J, Andersen S, Laurberg P 2011 Weight loss after therapy of hypothyroidism is mainly caused by excretion of excess body water associated with myxoedema. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:E99-103.
243. Knudsen N, Laurberg P, Rasmussen LB, Bulow I, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Jorgensen T 2005 Small differences in thyroid function may be important for body mass index and the occurrence of obesity in the population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:4019-4024.
244. Nyrnes A, Jorde R, Sundsfjord J 2006 Serum TSH is positively associated with BMI. Int J Obes (Lond) 30:100-105.
245. Fox CS, Pencina MJ, D'Agostino RB, Murabito JM, Seely EW, Pearce EN, Vasan RS 2008 Relations of thyroid function to body weight: cross-sectional and longitudinal observations in a community-based sample. Arch Intern Med 168:587-592.
246. Manji N, Boelaert K, Sheppard MC, Holder RL, Gough SC, Franklyn JA 2006 Lack of association between serum TSH or free T4 and body mass index in euthyroid subjects. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 64:125-128.
247. Michalaki MA, Vagenakis AG, Leonardou AS, Argentou MN, Habeos IG, Makri MG, Psyrogiannis AI, Kalfarentzos FE, Kyriazopoulou VE 2006 Thyroid function in humans with morbid obesity. Thyroid 16:73-78.
248. Radetti G, Kleon W, Buzi F, Crivellaro C, Pappalardo L, di Iorgi N, Maghnie M 2008 Thyroid function and structure are affected in childhood obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:4749-4754.
249. Rotondi M, Magri F, Chiovato L 2011 Thyroid and obesity: not a one-way interaction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:344-346.
250. Razvi S, Ingoe L, Keeka G, Oates C, McMillan C, Weaver JU 2007 The beneficial effect of L-thyroxine on cardiovascular risk factors, endothelial function, and quality of life in subclinical hypothyroidism: randomized, crossover trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:1715-1723.
251. al-Adsani H, Hoffer LJ, Silva JE 1997 Resting energy expenditure is sensitive to small dose changes in patients on chronic thyroid hormone replacement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:1118-1125.
252. Gwinup G, Poucher R 1967 A controlled study of thyroid analogs in the therapy of obesity. Am J Med Sci 254:416-420.
253. Rivlin RS 1975 Therapy of obesity with hormones. N Engl J Med 292:26-29.
254. Kaptein EM, Beale E, Chan LS 2009 Thyroid hormone therapy for obesity and nonthyroidal illnesses: a systematic review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94: 3663-3675.
255. Jonklaas J, Nsouli-Maktabi H 2011 Weight changes in euthyroid patients undergoing thyroidectomy. Thyroid 21:1343-1351.
256. Weinreb JT, Yang Y, Braunstein GD 2011 Do patients gain weight after thyroidectomy for thyroid cancer? Thyroid 21:1339-1342.
257. Pollock MA, Sturrock A, Marshall K, Davidson KM, Kelly CJ, McMahon AD, McLaren EH 2001 Thyroxine treatment in patients with symptoms of hypothyroidism but thyroid function tests within the reference range: randomised double blind placebo controlled crossover trial. BMJ 323:891-895.
258. Pop VJ, Maartens LH, Leusink G, van Son MJ, Knottnerus AA, Ward AM, Metcalfe R, Weetman AP 1998 Are autoimmune thyroid dysfunction and depression related? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:3194-3197.
259. Harris B, Oretti R, Lazarus J, Parkes A, John R, Richards C, Newcombe R, Hall R 2002 Randomised trial of thyroxine to prevent postnatal depression in thyroid-antibody-positive women. Br J Psychiatry 180:327-330.
260. Cooper-Kazaz R, Apter JT, Cohen R, Karagichev L, Muhammed-Moussa S, Grupper D, Drori T, Newman ME, Sackeim HA, Glaser B, Lerer B 2007 Combined treatment with sertraline and liothyronine in major depression: a randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64:679-688.
261. Posternak M, Novak S, Stern R, Hennessey J, Joffe R, Prange A Jr, Zimmerman M 2008 A pilot effectiveness study: placebo-controlled trial of adjunctive L-triiodothyronine (T3) used to accelerate and potentiate the antidepressant response. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 11:15-25.
262. Slag MF, Morley JE, Elson MK, Crowson TW, Nuttall FQ, Shafer RB 1981 Hypothyroxinemia in critically ill patients as a predictor of high mortality. JAMA 245:43-45.
263. Kaptein EM, Weiner JM, Robinson WJ, Wheeler WS, Nicoloff JT 1982 Relationship of altered thyroid hormone indices to survival in nonthyroidal illnesses. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 16:565-574.
264. Brent GA, Hershman JM 1986 Thyroxine therapy in patients with severe nonthyroidal illnesses and low serum thyroxine concentration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 63:1-8.
265. Becker RA, Vaughan GM, Ziegler MG, Seraile LG, Goldfarb IW, Mansour EH, McManus WF, Pruitt BA Jr, Mason AD Jr 1982 Hypermetabolic low triiodothyronine syndrome of burn injury. Crit Care Med 10:870-875.
266. Portman MA, Slee A, Olson AK, Cohen G, Karl T, Tong E, Hastings L, Patel H, Reinhartz O, Mott AR, Mainwaring R, Linam J, Danzi S 2010 Triiodothyronine Supplementation in Infants and Children Undergoing Cardiopulmonary Bypass (TRICC): a multicenter placebo-controlled randomized trial: age analysis. Circulation 122:S224-233.
267. PingitoreA,Galli E, BarisonA, Iervasi A, ScarlattiniM, Nucci D, L'Abbate A,Mariotti R, Iervasi G 2008 Acute effects of triiodothyronine (T3) replacement therapy in patients with chronic heart failure and low-T3 syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:1351-1358.
268. Zeisel SH 1999 Regulation of "nutraceuticals". Science 285:1853-1855.
269. Mechanick JI, Brett EM, Chausmer AB, Dickey RA, Wallach S 2003 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for the clinical use of dietary supplements and nutraceuticals. Endocr Pract 9:417-470.
270. Scally MC, Hodge A 2000 Health supplement regulations and consumer protection rights. South Med J 93:1230-1232.
271. Ott J, Promberger R, Kober F, Neuhold N, Tea M, Huber JC, Hermann M 2011 Hashimoto's thyroiditis affects symptom load and quality of life unrelated to hypothyroidism: a prospective case-control study in women undergoing thyroidectomy for benign goiter. Thyroid 21:161-167.
272. Zimmermann M, Delange F 2004 Iodine supplementation of pregnant women in Europe: a review and recommendations. Eur J Clin Nutr 58:979-984.
273. Fumarola A, Calvanese A, D'Armiento M 2009 Iodine intake in pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 104:147-148.
274. Clarke N, Kabadi UM 2004 Optimizing treatment of hypothyroidism. Treat Endocrinol 3:217-221.
275. Sherman SI, Ringel MD, Smith MJ, Kopelen HA, Zoghbi WA, Ladenson PW 1997 Augmented hepatic and skeletal thyromimetic effects of tiratricol in comparison with levothyroxine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:2153-2158.
276. Chan WB, Chow CC, Cockram CS 2004 A patient with low free T4 and low thyroid-stimulating hormone without hypopituitarism. Int J Clin Pract 58:983-984.
277. Scally MC, Hodge A 2003 A report of hypothyroidism induced by an over-the-counter fat loss supplement (Tiratricol). Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 13:112-116.
278. Bauer BA, Elkin PL, Erickson D, Klee GG, Brennan MD 2002 Symptomatic hyperthyroidism in a patient taking the dietary supplement tiratricol. Mayo Clin Proc 77:587-590.
279. Messier N, Laflamme L, Hamann G, Langlois MF 2001 In vitro effect of Triac on resistance to thyroid hormone receptor mutants: potential basis for therapy. Mol Cell Endocrinol 174:59-69.
280. Ueda S, Takamatsu J, Fukata S, Tanaka K, Shimizu N, Sakata S, Yamaji T, Kuma K, Ohsawa N 1996 Differences in response of thyrotropin to 3,5,3¢-triiodothyronine and 3,5,3¢-triiodothyroacetic acid in patients with resistance to thyroid hormone. Thyroid 6:563-570.
281. Kang GY, Parks J, Fileta BB, Chang AS, Abdel-Rahm M, Burch HB, Bernet V 2011 Thyroxine and triiodothyronine content in commercially available thyroid health supplements. American Thyroid Association 81st Annual Meeting, Indian Wells, CA, October 26-30.
282. Dai X, Zhou Y, Yu X 1999 [Effect of ginseng injection in treating congestive heart failure and its influence on thyroid hormones]. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi 19:209-211.
283. Skibola CF 2004 The effect of Fucus vesiculosus, an edible brown seaweed, upon menstrual cycle length and hormonal status in three pre-menopausal women: a case report. BMC Complement Altern Med 4:10.
284. Masuda Y, Haramizu S, Oki K, Ohnuki K, Watanabe T, Yazawa S, Kawada T, Hashizume S, Fushiki T 2003 Upregulation of uncoupling proteins by oral administration of capsiate, a nonpungent capsaicin analog. J Appl Physiol 95:2408-2415.
285. Barnes J, Anderson LA, Gibbons S, Phillipson JD 2005 Echinacea species (Echinacea angustifolia (DC.) Hell., Echinacea pallida (Nutt.) Nutt., Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench): a review of their chemistry, pharmacology and clinical properties. J Pharm Pharmacol 57:929-954.
286. Venkateswaran A, Marsee DK, Green SH, Jhiang SM 2004 Forskolin, 8-Br-3¢,5¢-cyclic adenosine 5¢-monophosphate, and catalytic protein kinase A expression in the nucleus increase radioiodide uptake and sodium/iodide symporter protein levels in RET/PTC1-expressing cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:6168-6172.
287. Stranges S, Marshall JR, Natarajan R, Donahue RP, Trevisan M, Combs GF, Cappuccio FP, Ceriello A, Reid ME 2007 Effects of long-term selenium supplementation on the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 147:217-223.
288. Negro R, Greco G, Mangieri T, Pezzarossa A, Dazzi D, Hassan H 2007 The influence of selenium supplementation on postpartum thyroid status in pregnant women with thyroid peroxidase autoantibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:1263-1268.
289. Rayman MP, Thompson AJ, Bekaert B, Catterick J, Galassini R, Hall E, Warren-Perry M, Beckett GJ 2008 Randomized controlled trial of the effect of selenium supplementation on thyroid function in the elderly in the United Kingdom. Am J Clin Nutr 87:370-378.
290. Toulis KA, Anastasilakis AD, Tzellos TG, Goulis DG, Kouvelas D 2010 Selenium supplementation in the treatment of Hashimoto's thyroiditis: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Thyroid 20:1163-1173.
291. Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, Altea MA, Nardi M, Pitz S, Boboridis K, Sivelli P, von Arx G, Mourits MP, Baldeschi L, Bencivelli W, Wiersinga W 2011 Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. N Engl J Med 364:1920-1931.
292. Razvi S, Shakoor A, Vanderpump M, Weaver JU, Pearce SH 2008 The influence of age on the relationship between subclinical hypothyroidism and ischemic heart disease: a metaanalysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:2998-3007.
293. Razvi S, Weaver JU, Butler TJ, Pearce SH 2012 Levothyroxine treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism, fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events, and mortality. Arch Intern Med. [EPub ahead of print].
294. Rodondi N, Bauer DC, Cappola AR, Cornuz J, Robbins J, Fried LP, Ladenson PW, Vittinghoff E, Gottdiener JS, Newman AB 2008 Subclinical thyroid dysfunction, cardiac function, and the risk of heart failure. The Cardiovascular Health study. J Am Coll Cardiol 52:1152-1159.
295. Correia N, Mullally S, Cooke G, Tun TK, Phelan N, Feeney J, Fitzgibbon M, Boran G, O'Mara S, Gibney J 2009 Evidence for a specific defect in hippocampal memory in overt and subclinical hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:3789-3797.
296. Jorde R, Waterloo K, Storhaug H, Nyrnes A, Sundsfjord J, Jenssen TG 2006 Neuropsychological function and symptoms in subjects with subclinical hypothyroidism and the effect of thyroxine treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:145-153.
297. Parle J, Roberts L, Wilson S, Pattison H, Roalfe A, Haque MS, Heath C, Sheppard M, Franklyn J, Hobbs FD 2010 A randomized controlled trial of the effect of thyroxine replacement on cognitive function in community-living elderly subjects with subclinical hypothyroidism: the Birmingham Elderly Thyroid study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:3623-3632.
298. Celi FS, Zemskova M, Linderman JD, Smith S, Drinkard B, Sachdev V, Skarulis MC, Kozlosky M, Csako G, Costello R, Pucino F 2011 Metabolic effects of liothyronine therapy in hypothyroidism: a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial of liothyronine versus levothyroxine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:3466-3474.
299. Strisower EH, Strisower B 1964 The separate hypolipoproteinemic effects of dextrothyroxine and ethyl chlorophenoxyisobutyrate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 24:139-144.
300. Ladenson PW, Kristensen JD, Ridgway EC, Olsson AG, Carlsson B, Klein I, Baxter JD, Angelin B 2010 Use of the thyroid hormone analogue eprotirome in statin-treated dyslipidemia. N Engl J Med 362:906-916.
301. Berkenstam A, Kristensen J, Mellstrom K, Carlsson B, Malm J, Rehnmark S, Garg N, Andersson CM, Rudling M, Sjoberg F, Angelin B, Baxter JD 2008 The thyroid hormone mimetic compound KB2115 lowers plasma LDL cholesterol and stimulates bile acid synthesis without cardiac effects in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:663-667.
302. Ladenson PW, McCarren M, Morkin E, Edson RG, Shih MC, Warren SR, Barnhill JG, Churby L, Thai H, O'Brien T, Anand I, Warner A, Hattler B, Dunlap M, Erikson J, Goldman S 2010 Effects of the thyromimetic agent diiodothyropropionic acid on body weight, body mass index, and serum lipoproteins: a pilot prospective, randomized, controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:1349-1354.
303. Abalovich M, Amino N, Barbour LA, Cobin RH, De Groot LJ, Glinoer D, Mandel SJ, Stagnaro-Green A 2007 Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:S1-47.
304. Gharib HC, Cobin RH, Dickey RA 1999 Subclinical hypothyroidism during pregnancy: position statement from the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Endocr Pract 5:367-368.
305. Gharib H, Tuttle RM, Baskin HJ, Fish LH, Singer PA, McDermott MT 2005 Subclinical thyroid dysfunc-tion: a joint statement on management from the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, the American Thyroid Association, and the Endocrine Society. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:581-585.
306. Vaidya B, Anthony S, Bilous M, Shields B, Drury J, Hutchison S, Bilous R 2007 Detection of thyroid dysfunction in early pregnancy: universal screening or targeted high-risk case finding? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:203-207.
307. Negro R, Schwartz A, Gismondi R, Tinelli A, Mangieri T, Stagnaro-Green A 2010 Universal screening versus case finding for detection and treatment of thyroid hormonal dysfunction during pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:1699-1707.
308. Thung SF, Funai EF, Grobman WA 2009 The costeffectiveness of universal screening in pregnancy for subclinical hypothyroidism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 200:267 e261-267.
309. Weiss RE, Refetoff S 2010 Thyroid function testing. In: Jameson JL, DeGroot LJ (eds) Endocrinology: Adult and Pediatric, 6th edition. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, pp 1444-1492.
310. Barbesino G 2010 Drugs affecting thyroid function. Thyroid 20:763-770.
311. Hamnvik OP, Larsen PR, Marqusee E 2011 Thyroid dysfunction from antineoplastic agents. J Natl Cancer Inst 103:1572-1578.