The effects of amiodarone on the thyroid

Endocrine Reviews

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 240-254

  Martino, Enio ^a   Bartalena, Luigi ^b   Bogazzi, Fausto ^a   Braverman, Lewis E ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF INSUBRIA   (Italy)

^c BOSTON MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; AUTOANTIBODY; GLUCOCORTICOID; IODINE; LIOTHYRONINE; POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE; THIONAMIDE; THYROID HORMONE; THYROXINE; THYROXINE DEIODINASE;

DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENZYME ACTIVITY; HASHIMOTO DISEASE; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; HYPOTHYROIDISM; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIOTHYRONINE BLOOD LEVEL; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SURGICAL RISK; TACHYCARDIA; THYROID FUNCTION; THYROIDECTOMY; THYROIDITIS; THYROTOXICOSIS; THYROXINE BLOOD LEVEL; TREATMENT PLANNING;

AMIODARONE; ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS; ANTITHYROID AGENTS; FEMALE; HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY; HUMANS; HYPOTHYROIDISM; PREGNANCY; THYROID DISEASES; THYROID GLAND; THYROIDECTOMY;

EID: 0006353759     PISSN: 0163769X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/er.22.2.240     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. 1. Reiffel JA, Estes III NA, Waldo AL, Prystowsky EN, Di Bianco R 1994 A consensus report on antiarrhythmic drug use. Clin Cardiol 17:103-116
2. 2. Doval HC, Nul DR, Grancelli HO, Perrone SV, Bortman GR, Curiel R 1994 Randomized trial of low-dose amiodarone in severe congestive heart failure. Lancet 344:493-498
3. 3. Ceremuzynski L, Kleczar E, Krzeminska-Pakula M, Kuch J, Nartowicz E, Smielak-Korombel J, Diduszynski A, Maciejewicz J, Zaleska T, Lazarczyk-Kedzia E 1992 Effect of amiodarone on mortality after myocardial infarction: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, pilot study. J Am Coll Cardiol 20:1056-1062
4. 4. Singh SN, Fletcher RD, Fisher RG, Singh BN, Lewis HD, Deedwania PC, Massie BM, Colling C, Lazzeri D 1995 Amiodarone in patients with congestive heart failure and asymptomatic ventricular arrhythmias. Survival trial of antiarrhythmic therapy in congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 333:77-82
5. 5. Daoud EG, Strickberger SA, Man KC, Goyal R, Deeb GM, Bolling SF, Pagani FD, Bitar C, Meissner MD, Morady F 1997 Preoperative amiodarone as prophylaxis against atrial fibrillation after heart surgery. N Engl J Med 337:1785-1791
6. 6. Roy D, Talajic M, Dorian P, Connolly S, Eisenberg MJ, Green M, Kus T, Lambert J, Dubuc M, Gagné P, Nattel S, Thibault B 2000 Amiodarone to prevent recurrence of atrial fibrillation. Canadian Trial of Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. N Engl J Med 342:913-920
7. 7. Kudenchuk PJ, Cobb LA, Copass MK, Cummins RO, Doherty AM, Fahrenbruch CE, Hallstrom AP, Muray WA, Olsufka M, Walsh T 1999 Amiodarone for resuscitation after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation. N Engl J Med 341: 871-878
8. 8. Anonymous 1987 Amiodarone and the thyroid: the Janus response. Lancet 2:24-25
9. 9. Wiersinga WM 1997 Amiodarone and the thyroid. In: Weetman AP, Grossman A (eds) Pharmacotherapeutics of the Thyroid Gland. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp 225-287
10. 10. Lombardi A, Martino E, Braverman LE 1990 Amiodarone and the thyroid. Thyroid Today 13:1-7
11. 11. Harjai KJ, Licata AA 1997 Effects of amiodarone on thyroid function. Ann Intern Med 126:63-73
12. 12. Iudica-Souza C, Burch HB 1999 Amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunction. The Endocrinologist 9:216-227
13. 13. Rao RH, McReady VR, Spathis GS 1986 Iodine kinetic studies during amiodarone treatment J Clin Endocrinol Metab 62: 563-567
14. 14. Delange FM, Ermans A-M 2000 Iodine deficiency. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD (eds) Werner and Ingbar's The Thyroid - A Clinical and Fundamental Text, ed 8. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp 295-315
15. 15. Holt DW, Tucker GT, Jackson PR, Storey GCA 1983 Amiodarone pharmacokinetics. Am Heart J 106:843-847
16. 16. Plomp TA, van Rossum JM, Robles de Medina EO, van Lier T, Macs RAA 1984 Pharmacokinetics and body distribution of amiodarone in man. Arzneimittelforschung/Drug Res 34:513-520
17. 17. Berger Y, Harris L 1986 Pharmacokinetics. In: Harris L, Roncucci R (eds) Amiodarone, Mèdicine et Sciences Internationales, Paris, pp 45-98
18. 18. Sogol PP, Hershman JM, Rees AW, Dillman WH 1983 The effects of amiodarone on serum thyroid hormones and hepatic 5′-deiodinase. Endocrinology 113:1464-1469
19. 19. Aanderaud S, Sundsfjord J, Aarbokke J 1984 Amiodarone inhibits the conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in isolated rat hepatocytes. Endocrinology 115:1605-1608
20. 20. Hershman JM, Nademanee K, Sugawara M 1986 Thyroxine and triiodothyronine kinetics in cardiac patients taking amiodarone. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 111:193-199
21. 21. Zaninovich AA, Bosco SC, Fernandez-Pol AJ 1990 Amiodarone does not affect the distribution and fractional turnover of triiodothyronine from the plasma pool, but only its generation from thyroxine in extrathyroidal tissues. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70:1721-1724
22. 4), 3,3′,5-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,3′,5′-triiodothyronine (rT3) into rat hepatocytes in primary culture due to a decrease of cellular ATP content and various drugs. FEBS Lett 140:229-233
23. 23. Amico JA, Richardson V, Alpert B, Klein I 1984 Clinical and chemical assessment of thyroid function during therapy with amiodarone. Arch Intern Med 144:487-490
24. 24. Burger A, Dinichert D, Nicod P, Jenny M, Lemarchand-Beraud T, Vallotton MB 1976 Effect of amiodarone on serum triiodothyronine, reverse triiodothyronine, thyroxin, and thyrotropin. J Clin Invest 58:255-259
25. 25. Melmed S, Nademanee K, Reed AW, Hendrickson JA, Singh BN, Hershman JM 1981 Hyperthyroxinemia with bradycardia and normal thyrotropin secretion after chronic amiodarone administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53:997-1001
26. 26. Nademanee K, Singh BN, Hendrickson JA, Hershman JM 1986 Amiodarone, thyroid hormone indexes, and altered thyroid function: long-term serial effects in patients with cardiac arrhythmias. Am J Cardiol 58:981-986
27. 27. Franklyn JA, Davis JR, Gammage MD, Littler WA, Ramsden DB, Sheppard MC 1985 Amiodarone and thyroid hormone function. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 22:257-264
28. 28. Safran M, Fang S-L, Bambini G, Pinchera A, Martino E, Braverman LE 1986 Effects of amiodarone and desethylamiodarone on pituitary deiodinase activity and thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Am J Med Sci 29:136-141
29. 29. Iervasi G, Clerico A, Bonini R, Manfredi C, Berti S, Ravani M, Palmieri C, Carpi A, Biagini A, Chopra IJ 1997 Acute effects of amiodarone administration on thyroid function in patients with cardiac arrhythmia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:275-280
30. 30. Chiovato L, Martino E, Tonacchera M, Santini F, Lapi P, Mammoli C, Braverman LE, Pinchera A 1994 Studies on the in vitro cytotoxic effect of amiodarone. Endocrinology 134:2277-2282
31. 31. Beddows SA, Page SR, Taylor AH, McNerney R, Whitley GSJ, Johnstone AP, Nussey SS 1989 Cytotoxic effects of amiodarone and desethylamiodarone on human thyrocytes. Biochem Pharmacol 38:4397-4403
32. 32. Vitale M, Di Matola T, D'Ascoli F, Salzano S, Bogazzi F, Fenzi G, Martino E, Rossi G 2000 Iodide excess induces apoptosis in thyroid cells through a p53-independent mechanism involving oxidative stress. Endocrinology 141:598-605
33. 33. Pitsiavas V, Smerdely P, Li M, Boyages SC 1997 Amiodarone induces a different pattern of ultrastructural change in the thyroid to iodine excess alone in both the BB/W rat and the Wistar rat 1997 Eur J Endocrinol 137: 89-98
34. 34. Wiersinga WM 1997 Towards an animal model of amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunction. Eur J Endocrinol 137:15-17
35. 35. Gross SA, Somani P 1986 Amiodarone-induced ultrastructural changes in canine myocardial fibers. Am Heart J 112:771-779
36. 36. McGregor AM, Weetman AP, Ratanachaiyavong S, Hall R 1985 Iodine: an influence on the development of autoimmune thyroid disease. In: Hall R, Kobberling J (eds) Thyroid Disorders Associated with Iodine Deficiency and Excess. Raven Press, New York, pp 209-216
37. 37. Bagchi N, Brown TR, Urdanivia E, Sundick RS 1985 Induction of autoimmune thyroiditis by dietary iodine. Science 230:325-328
38. 38. Allen EM, Appel MC, Braverman LE 1986 The effect of iodide ingestion on the development of spontaneous lymphocytic thyroiditis in the diabetes-prone BB/W rat. Endocrinology 118:1977-1981
39. 39. Monteiro E, Galvao-Teles A, Santos ML, Mourao L, Correia MJ, Lopo Tuna J, Ribeiro C 1986 Antithyroid antibodies as an early marker for thyroid disease induced by amiodarone. Br Med J Clinical Research Edition 292:227-228
40. 40. Safran M, Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Bartalena L, Balzano S, Pinchera A, Braverman LE 1988 Effect of amiodarone on circulating antithyroid antibodies. Br Med J 297:456-457
41. 41. Weetman AP, Bhandal SK, Burrin JM, Robinson K, McKenna W 1988 Amiodarone and thyroid autoimmunity in the United Kingdom. Br Med J 297:33-36
42. 42. Loviselli A, Bartalena L, Balzano S, Aghini-Lombardi F, Sica V, Pilosu R, Petrini L, Giannessi G, Buratti L, Martino E 1988 Absence of serum thyroid hormone autoantibodies in patients chronically treated with amiodarone. J Endocrinol Invest 11:323-325
43. 43. Foresti V, Pepe R, Parisio E, Scolari N, Zubani R, Bianco M 1989 Antithyroid antibodies during amiodarone treatment. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 121:203-206
44. 44. Trip MD, Wiersinga WM, Plomp TA 1991 Incidence, predictability, and pathogenesis of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism. Am J Med 91:507-511
45. 45. Rabinowe SL, Larsen PR, Antman EM, George KL, Friedman PL, Jackson RA, Eisenbarth GS 1986 Amiodarone therapy and autoimmune thyroid disease. Increase in a new monoclonal antibody-defined T cell subset. Am J Med 81:53-57
46. 46. Rani CS 1990 Amiodarone effects on thyrotropin receptors and responses stimulated by thyrotropin and carbachol in cultured dog thyroid cells. Endocrinology 127:2930-2937
47. 47. Disatnik MH, Shainberg A 1991 Regulation of beta-adrenoceptors by thyroid hormone and amiodarone in rat myocardiac cells in culture. Biochem Pharmacol 41:1039-1044
48. 3 on β-adrenergic receptor density in rat heart. Horm Metab Res 22:85-89
49. 49. Gotzsche LB 1993 β-adrenergic receptors, voltage-operated Ca2+ channels, nuclear triiodothyronine receptors and triiodothyronine concentration in pig myocardium after long-term low-dose amiodarone treatment. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 129:337-347
50. 50. Yin YL, Perret GY, Nicolas P, Vassy R, Uzzan B, Tod'M 1992 In vivo effects of amiodarone on cardiac β-adrenoceptor density and heart require thyroid hormones. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 19:541-545
51. 51. Adli H, Bazin R, Perret GY 1999 Interaction of amiodarone and triiodothyronine on the expression of β-adrenoceptors in brown adipose tissue of rat. Br J Pharmacol 126:1455-1461
52. 52. Hudig F, Bakker O, Wiersinga WM 1994 Amiodarone-induced hypercholesterolemia is associated with a decrease in liver LDL receptor mRNA. FEBS Lett 341:86-90
53. 53. Hudig F, Bakker O, Wiersinga WM 1998 Amiodarone decreases gene expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor at both the mRNA and the protein level. Metabolism 47:1052-1057
54. 54. Norman MF, Lavin TN 1989 Antagonism of thyroid hormone action by amiodarone in rat pituitary tumor cells. J Clin Invest 83:306-313
55. 55. Gotzsche LB, Orskov H 1994 Cardiac triiodothyronine nuclear receptor binding capacities in amiodarone-treated, hypo- and hyperthyroid rats. Eur J Endocrinol 130:281-290
56. 56. Shahrara S, Drvota V 1999 Thyroid hormone α1 and β1 receptor mRNA are downregulated by amiodarone in mouse myocardium. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 34:261-267
57. 57. Bakker O, van Beeren HC, Wiersinga WM 1994 Desethylamiodarone is a noncompetitive inhibitor of the binding of thyroid hormone to the thyroid hormone β1-receptor protein. Endocrinology 134:1665-1670
58. 58. Van Beeren HC, Bakker O, Wiersinga WM 1995 Desethylamiodarone Desethylamiodarone is a competitive inhibitor of the binding of thyroid hormone to the thyroid hormone α1-receptor protein. Mol Cell Endocrinol 112:15-19
59. 3 binding by desethylamiodarone. FEBS Lett 450: 35-38
60. 3 at the molecular level. J Endocrinol Invest 21 [Suppl]:93 (Abstract)
61. 61. Bakker O, Hudig F, Meijssen S, Wiersinga WM 1998 Effects of triiodothyronine and amiodarone on the promoter of the human LDL receptor gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 19:517-521
62. 62. Martino E, Safran M, Aghini-Lombardi F, Rajatanavin R, Lenziardi M, Fay M, Pacchiarotti A, Aronin A, Macchia E, Haffajee C, Baschieri L, Pinchera A, Braverman LE 1984 Environmental iodine intake and thyroid dysfunction during chronic amiodarone therapy. Ann Intern Med 101:28-34
63. 63. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Mariotti S, Bartalena L, Braverman L, Pinchera A 1987 Amiodarone: a common source of iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis. Horm Res 26:158-171
64. 64. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Mariotti S, Bartalena L, Lenziardi M, Ceccarelli C, Bambini G, Safran M, Braverman LE, Pinchera A 1987 Amiodarone iodine-induced hypothyroidism: risk factors and follow-up in 28 cases. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 26:227-237
65. 65. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Bartalena L, Grasso L, Loviselli A, Velluzzi F, Pinchera A, Braverman LE 1994 Enhanced susceptibility to amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism in patients with thyroid autoimmune disease. Arch Intern Med 154:2722-2726
66. 66. Mariotti S, Loviselli A, Murenu S, Sau F, Valentino L, Mandas A, Vacquer S, Martino E, Balestrieri A, Lai ME 1999 High prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in adult patients with β-thalassemia major submitted to amiodarone treatment. J Endocrinol Invest 22:55-63
67. 67. Albert SG, Alves LE, Rose EP 1987 Thyroid dysfunction during chronic amiodarone therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol 9:175-183
68. 68. Thorne SA, Barnes I, Cullinan P, Somerville J 1999 Amiodarone-associated thyroid dysfunction. Risk factors in adults with congenital heart disease. Circulation 100:149-154
69. 69. Newnham HH, Topliss DJ, Legrand BA, Chosich N, Harper RW, Stockigt JR 1988 Amiodarone-induced hyperthyroidism: assessment of the predictive value of biochemical testing and response to combined therapy with propylthiouracil and perchlorate. Aust NZ J Med 18:37-44
70. 70. Staubli M, Studer H 1985 Amiodarone-treated patients with suppressed TSH test are at risk of thyrotoxicosis. Klin Wochenschr 63:168-175
71. 71. Harjai KJ, Licata AA 1996 Amiodarone-induced hyperthyroidism: a case series and brief review of literature. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 19:1548-1554
72. 72. Brennan MD, van Heerden JA, Carney JA 1987 Amiodarone-associated thyrotoxicosis: experience with surgical management. Surgery 102:1062-1067
73. 73. Martino E, Macchia E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Antonelli A, Lenziardi M, Concetti R, Fenzi GF, Baschieri L, Pinchera A 1986 Is humoral thyroid autoimmunity relevant in amiodarone iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIIT)? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 24: 627-633
74. 74. Sato K, Yamazaki K, Kanaji Y, Ohnishi S, Kasanuki H, Demura H 1998 Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis associated with thyrotropin receptor antibody. Thyroid 8:1123-1126
75. 75. Fragu P, Schlumberger M, Davy JM, Slama M, Berdeaux A 1988 Effects of amiodarone therapy on thyroid iodine content as measured by X-ray fluorescence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66:762-769
76. 76. Wiersinga WM, Touber JL, Trip MD, van Royen EA 1986 uninhibited thyroidal uptake of radioiodine despite iodine excess in amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 63: 485-491
77. 77. Martino E, Bartalena L, Mariotti S, Aghini-Lombardi F, Ceccarelli C, Lippi F, Piga M, Loviselli A, Braverman L, Safran M, Pinchera A 1988 Radioactive iodine uptake in patients with amiodarone-iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 119:167-173
78. 78. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Lippi F, Baschieri L, Safran M, Braverman LE, Pinchera A 1985 Twenty-four hour radioactive iodine uptake in 35 patients with amiodarone associated thyrotoxicosis. J Nucl Med 26:1402-1407
79. 79. Bartalena L, Grasso L, Brogioni S, Aghini-Lombardi F, Braverman LE, Martino E 1994 Serum interleukin-6 in amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:423-427
80. 80. Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Grasso L, Rago T, Vitti P, Martino EM 1994 Interleukin-6: a marker of thyroid-destructive processes? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79: 1424-1427
81. 81. Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Grasso L, Martino E 1993 Increased serum interleukin-6 concentration in patients with subacute thyroiditis: relationship with concomitant changes in serum T4-binding globulin concentration. J Endocrinol Invest 16:213-218
82. 82. Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Mazzeo S, Vitti P, Burelli A, Bartolozzi C, Martino E 1997 Color flow doppler sonography rapidly differentiates type I and type II amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid 7:541-545
83. 83. Bogazzi F, Bartalena L, Martino E 2000 Color flow doppler sonography of the thyroid. In: Baskin HJ (ed) Thyroid Ultrasound and Ultrasound-Guided FNA Biopsy. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Boston, pp 215-238
84. 84. Brennan MD, Erickson DZ, Carney A, Bahn RS 1995 Nongoitrous/ type I) amiodarone-associated thyrotoxicosis: evidence of follicular disruption in vitro and in vivo. Thyroid 5:177-183
85. 85. Smyrk TC, Goellner JR, Brennan MD, Carney JA 1987 Pathology of the thyroid in amiodarone-associated thyrotoxicosis. Am J Surg Pathol 11:197-204
86. 86. Leung WH, Pun KK, Lau CP, Wong CK, Wang C 1989 Amiodarone-induced thyroiditis. Am Heart J 118:848-849
87. 87. Meurisse M, Hamoir E, D'Silva M, Joris J, Hennen G 1993 Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: is there a place for surgery? World J Surg 17: 622-627
88. 88. Mulligan DC, McHenry CR, Kinney W, Esselstyn CB 1993 Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: clinical presentation and expanded indications for thyroidectomy. Surgery 114:1114-1119
89. 89. Roti E, Minelli R, Gardini E, Bianconi L, Braverman LE 1993 Thyrotoxicosis followed by hypothyroidism in patients treated with amiodarone. A possible consequence of a destructive process in the thyroid. Arch Intern Med 153:886-892
90. 90. Roti E, Minelli R, Gardini E, Bianconi L, Gavaruzzi G, Ugolotti G, Neri TM, Braverman LE 1992 Iodine-induced subclinical hypothyroidism in euthyroid subjects with a previous episode of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75: 1273-1277
91. 91. Sato K, Miyakawa M, Eto M, Inaba T, Matsuda N, Shiga T, Ohnish S, Kasanuki H 1999 Clinical characteristics of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism in Japan. Endocr J 46:443-451
92. 92. Keidar S, Grenadier E, Palant A 1980 Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: four cases and a review of the literature. Postgrad J Med 56:356-358
93. 93. Balzano S, Sau F, Bartalena L, Ruscazio M, Balestrieri A, Cherchi A, Martino E 1987 Diagnosis of amiodarone-iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIIT) associated with severe nonthyroidal illness. J Endocrinol Invest 10:589-591
94. 94. Weissel M 1988 Suppression of thyroglobulin secretion in amiodarone iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis. J Endocrinol Invest 11:53-55
95. 95. Bambini G, Aghini-Lombardi F, Rosner W, Khan MS, Martino E, Pinchera A, Braverman LE, Safran M 1987 Serum sex hormone-binding globulin in amiodarone-treated patients: A marker for tissue thyrotoxicosis. Arch Intern Med 147:1781-1785
96. 96. Leger AF, Massin JP, Laurent MF, Vincens M, Auriol M, Helai OB, Chomette G, Savoie JC 1984 Iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis: analysis of eighty-five consecutive cases. Eur J Clin Invest 14:449-455
97. 97. Blossey HC, Peitsch W 1988 indication for subtotal thyroidectomy in patients with amiodarone-(iodine-)related hyperthyroidism. Wiener Med Wochenschr 18:444-447
98. 98. Farwell AP, Abend SL, Huang SKS, Patwardhan NA, Braverman LE 1990 Thyroidectomy for amiodarone induced thyrotoxicosis. JAMA 263:1526-1528
99. 99. Mehra A, Widerhorn J, Lopresti J, Rahimtoola S 1991 Amiodarone-induced hyperthyroidism: thyroidectomy under local anesthesia. Am Heart J 122:1160-1161
100. 100. Uzzan B, Pussard E, Leon A, Bekhechi D, Krivitzky A, Modigliani E, Perret G, Vassy R, Berdeaux A, Giudicelli JF 1991 The effects of plasmapheresis on thyroid hormone and plasma drug concentrations in amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 31:371-372
101. 101. Aghini-Lombardi F, Mariotti S, Fosella PV, Grasso L, Pinchera A, Braverman LE, Martino E 1993 Treatment of amiodarone iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis with plasmapheresis and methimazole. J Endocrinol Invest 16:823-826
102. 102. Samaras K, Marel GM 1996 Failure of plasmapheresis, corticosteroids and thionamides to ameliorate a case of protracted amiodarone-induced thyroiditis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 45:365-358
103. 103. Wolff J 1998 Perchlorate and the thyroid gland. Pharmacol Rev 50:89-105
104. 104. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Mariotti S, Lenziardi M, Baschieri L, Braverman LE, Pinchera A 1986 Treatment of amiodarone associated thyrotoxicosis by simultaneous administration of potassium perchlorate and methimazole. J Endocrinol Invest 9:201-207
105. 105. Reichert LJM, de Rooy HAM 1989 Treatment of amiodarone induced hyperthyroidism with potassium perchlorate and methimazole during amiodarone treatment. Br Med J 298:1547-1548
106. 106. Trotter WR 1962 The relative toxicity of antithyroid drugs. J New Drugs 2:333-343
107. 107. Wenzel KW, Lente JR 1984 Similar effects of thionamide drugs and perchlorate on thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins in Graves' disease: evidence against immunosuppressive action of thionamide drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 58:62-69
108. 4 withdrawal in a patient with amiodarone associated thyrotoxicosis. J Endocrinol Invest 10:529-531
109. 109. Dickstein G, Shechner C, Adawi F, Kaplan J, Baron E, Ish-Shalom S 1997 Lithium treatment in amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. Am J Med 102:454-458
110. 110. Bartalena L, Brogioni S, Grasso L, Bogazzi F, Burelli A, Martino E 1996 Treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis, a difficult challenge: results of a prospective study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:2930-2933
111. 111. Wimpfheimer C, Staubli M, Schadelin J, Studer H 1982 Prednisone in amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis. Br Med J 284:1835-1836
112. 112. Simon C, Schlienger JL, Chefran J, Studer H 1985 Efficacité de la dexamethasone dans le traitement de l'hyperthyroidie à l'amiodarone. Presse Med 13:2767-2770
113. 113. Broussolle C, Ducottet X, Martin C, Barbier Y, Bornet H, Noel G, Orgiazzi J 1989 Rapid effectiveness of prednisone and thionamides combined therapy in severe amiodarone iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis. Comparison of two groups of patients with apparently normal thyroid glands. J Endocrinol Invest 12:37-42
114. 114. Bonnyns M, Sterling I, Renard M, Bernard R, Demaret B, Bourdoux P 1989 dexamethasone treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT) with or without persistent administration of the drug. Acta Cardiol 44:235-243
115. 115. Donaghue KC, Clarke P, Hooper MJ 1985 Amiodarone. The dilemma of hyperthyroxinaemia and the treatment of thyrotoxicosis. Med J Aust 142:594-596
116. 116. Newman CM, Price A, Davies DW, Gray TA, Weetman AP 1998 Amiodarone and the thyroid: a practical guide to the management of thyroid dysfunction induced by amiodarone therapy. Heart 79:121-127
117. 117. Davies PH, Franklyn JA, Sheppard MC 1992 Treatment of amiodarone induced thyrotoxicosis with carbimazole alone and continuation of amiodarone Br Med J 305:224-225
118. 118. Trip MD, Duren DR, Wiersinga WM 1994 Two cases of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis successfully treated with a short course of antithyroid drugs while amiodarone was continued. Br Heart J 72:266-268
119. 119. Chevignè-Brancart M, Vandalem JL, Hennen F 1983 Etude prospective de l'incidence des dysthyroidies survenant chez des patients traites par amiodarone. Rev Med Liege 38:269-275
120. 120. Borowski GD, Garofano CD, Rose LI, Spielman SR, Rotmensch HR, Greenspan AM, Horowitz LN 1985 Effect of long-term amiodarone therapy on thyroid hormone levels and thyroid function. Am J Med 78:443-450
121. 121. Jonckheer MH 1981 Amiodarone and the thyroid gland: a review. Acta Cardiol 36:199-205
122. 122. Mazonson PD, Williams ML, Cantley LK, Daldorf LG, Utiger RD, Foster JR 1984 Myxedema coma during long-term amiodarone therapy. Am J Med 77:751-754
123. 123. Hawthorne GC, Campbell NPS, Geddes JS, Ferguson WR, Postlewhaite W, Sheridan B, Atkinson AB 1985 Amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism: a common complication of prolonged therapy. A report of eight cases. Arch Intern Med 145:1016-1019
124. 124. Braverman LE, Ingbar SH, Vagenakis AG, Adams L, Maaloof F 1971 Enhanced susceptibility to iodide myxedema in patients with Hashimoto's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 32:515-521
125. 125. Wolff J, Chaikoff IL, Goldberg RC, Meier JL 1949 The temporary nature of the inhibition action of excess iodide on organic iodine synthesis in the normal thyroid. Endocrinology 45:504-513
126. 126. Pitsiavas V, Smerdely P, Boyages SC 1999 Amiodarone compared with iodine exhibits a potent and persistent inhibitory effect on TSH-stimulated cAMP production in vitro: a possible mechanism to explain amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol 140:241-249
127. 127. Wemeau JL, Decoulx M, Grimbert I, Docloux G, Linquette M 1982 Amiodarone et fonction thyroidienne. Difficultes diagnostiques et therapeutiques. Therapie 37:95-102
128. 128. Sanmarti A, Permanyer-Miralda G, Castellanos JM, Foz-sala M, Galard RM, Soler-Soler J 1984 Chronic administration of amiodarone and thyroid function: a follow-up study. Am Heart J 108: 1262-1268
129. 129. Figge J, Dluhy RG 1990 Amiodarone-induced elevation of thyroid stimulating hormone in patients receiving levothyroxine for primary hypothyroidism. Ann Intern Med 113:553-555
130. 130. Martino E, Mariotti S, Aghini-Lombardi F, Lenziardi M, Morabito S, Baschieri L, Pinchera A, Barverman L, Safran M 1986 Short term administration of potassium perchlorate restores euthyroidism in amiodarone iodine-induced hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 63:1233-1236
131. 131. Widerhorn J, Bhandari AK, Bughi S, Rahimtoola SH, Elkayam U 1991 Fetal and neonatal adverse effects profile of amiodarone treatment during pregnancy. Am Heart J 122:1162-1166
132. 132. McKenna WJ, Harris L, Rowland E, Whitelaw A, Storey G, Holt D 1983 Amiodarone therapy during pregnancy. Am J Cardiol 51: 1231-1233
133. 133. Pitcher D, Leather HM, Storey GCA, Holt DW 1983 Amiodarone in pregnancy. Lancet 1:597-598
134. 134. Rey E, Duperron L, Gautheir R, Lemsy M, Grignon A, Le Lorier J 1985 Transplacental treatment of tachycardia-induced fetal heart failure with verapamil and amiodarone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 153: 311-312
135. 135. Rey E, Bachrach LK, Burrow GN 1987 Effects of amiodarone during pregnancy. Can Med Assoc J 136:959-960
136. 136. Robson DJ, Jeeva Raj MV, Storey GCA, Holt DW 1985 Use of amiodarone during pregnancy. Postgrad Med J 61:75-77
137. 137. Wladimiroff JW, Steward PA 1985 Treatment of fetal cardiac arrhythmias. Br J Hosp Med 34:134-140
138. 138. Foster CJ, Love HG 1988 Amiodarone in pregnancy. Case report and review of the literature. Int J Cardiol 20:307-316
139. 139. Penn IM, Barrett PA, Pannikote V, Barnaby PF, Campbell IB, Lyons NR 1985 Amiodarone in pregnancy. Am J Cardiol 56:196-197
140. 140. Arnoux P, Seyral P, Llurens M, Djiane P, Poitier A, Urral D, Cano JP, Serradimigni A, Rouault F 1987 Amiodarone and digoxin for refractory fetal tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 59:166-167
141. 141. Laurent M, Betremieux P, Biron Y, Lellelloco A 1987 Neonatal hypothyroidism after treatment by amiodarone during pregnancy. Am J Cardiol 60:142
142. 142. Strunge P, Frandsen J, Andreasen F 1988 Amiodarone during pregnancy. Eur Heart J 9:106-109
143. 143. de Wolf D, de Schepper J, Verhaaren H, Deneyer M, Smitz J, Sacre-Smits L 1988 Congenital hypothyroid goiter and amiodarone. Acta Paediatr Scand 77:616-618
144. 144. Gembruch U, Manz M, Bald R, Ruddel H, Redel DA, Schlebusch H, Nitsch J, Hansman M 1989 Repeated intravascular treatment with amiodarone in a fetus with refractory supraventricular tachycardia and hydrops fetalis. Am Heart J 118:1335-1338
145. 145. Matsumura LK, Born D, Kunii IS, Franco DB, Maciel RMB 1992 Outcome of thyroid function in newborns from mothers treated with amiodarone. Thyroid 2:279-281
146. 146. Plomp TA, Vulsma T, de Vijlder JJM 1992 Use of amiodarone during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 43:201-207
147. 147. Valensise H, Civitella C, Garzetti GG, Romanini C 1992 Amiodarone treatment in pregnancy for dilatative cardiomyopathy with ventricular malignant extrasystole and normal maternal and neonatal outcome. Prenat Diagn 12:705-708
148. 148. de Catte L, de Wolf D, Smitz J, Bougatef A, de Schepper J, Foulon W 1994 Fetal hypothyroidism as a complication of amiodarone treatment for persistent fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Prenat Diagn 14:762-765
149. 149. Magee LA, Downar E, Sermer M, Boulton BC, Allen LC, Koren G 1995 Pregnancy outcome after gestational exposure to amiodarone in Canada. Am J Obstet Gynecol 172:1307-1311
150. 150. Grosso S, Berardi R, Cioni M, Morgese G 1998 Transient neonatal hypothyroidism after gestational exposure to amiodarone: a follow-up of two cases. J Endocrinol Invest 21:699-702
151. 151. Magee LA, Nulman I, Rovet JF, Koren G 1999 Neurodevelopment after in utero amiodarone exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol 21:261-265
152. 152. Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Braverman LE, Martino E 2001 Effects of amiodarone administration during pregnancy on neonatal thyroid function and subsequent neurodevelopment. J Endocrinol Invest 24:275-283