Fish immune system and its nutritional modulation for preventive health care

Animal Feed Science and Technology

Volumn 173, Issue 1-2, 2012, Pages 111-133

  Kiron, Viswanath ^a  

^a NORD UNIVERSITY   (Norway)

Author keywords

Amino acids; Antioxidants; Fatty acids; Feeds; Fish; Glucans; Health; Immunomodulators; Nucleotides; Nutrition; Prebiotics; Probiotics; Vitamins

Indexed keywords

EID: 84858290668     PISSN: 03778401     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.12.015     Document Type: Article

References (245)

1. Adham K.G., Hashem H.O., Abu S., Kamel A.H. Vitamin C deficiency in the catfish Clarias gariepinus. Aquacult. Nutr. 2000, 6:129-139.
2. Agius C., Roberts R.J. Melano-macrophage centres and their role in fish pathology. J. Fish Dis. 2003, 26:499-509.
3. Ai Q., Mai K., Tan B., Xu W., Zhang W., Ma H., Liufu Z. Effects of dietary vitamin C on survival, growth, and immunity of large yellow croaker, Pseudosciaena crocea. Aquaculture 2006, 261:327-336.
4. Ai Q., Mai K., Zhang C., Xu W., Duan Q., Tan B., Liufu Z. Effects of dietary vitamin C on growth and immune response of Japanese seabass, Lateolabrax japonicus. Aquaculture 2004, 242:489-500.
5. Ai Q., Mai K., Zhang L., Tan B., Zhang W., Xu W., Li H. Effects of dietary [beta]-1,3 glucan on innate immune response of large yellow croaker, Pseudosciaena crocea. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2007, 22:394-402.
6. Albers R., Antoine J.-M., Bourdet-Sicard R., Calder P.C., Gleeson M., Lesourd B., Samartín S., Sanderson I.R., Van Loo J., Vas Dias F.W., Watzl B. Markers to measure immunomodulation in human nutrition intervention studies. Br. J. Nutr. 2005, 94:452-481.
7. Alexander J.B., Ingram G.A. Noncellular nonspecific defence mechanisms of fish. Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. 1992, 2:249-279.
8. Aly S.M., Abdel-Galil Ahmed Y., Abdel-Aziz Ghareeb A., Mohamed M.F. Studies on Bacillus subtilis and Lactobacillus acidophilus, as potential probiotics, on the immune response and resistance of Tilapia nilotica (Oreochromis niloticus) to challenge infections. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2008, 25:128-136.
9. Amar E.C., Kiron V., Satoh S., Watanabe T. Influence of various dietary synthetic carotenoids on bio-defence mechanisms in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). Aquacult. Res. 2001, 32:162-173.
10. Amar E.C., Kiron V., Satoh S., Watanabe T. Enhancement of innate immunity in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) associated with dietary intake of carotenoids from natural products. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2004, 16:527-537.
11. Anbarasu K., Chandran M.R. Effect of ascorbic acid on the immune response of the catfish, Mystus gulio (Hamilton), to different bacterins of Aeromonas hydrophila. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2001, 11:347-355.
12. Anderson J.S., Sunderland R. Effect of extruder moisture and dryer processing temperature on vitamin C and E and astaxanthin stability. Aquaculture 2002, 207:137-149.
13. Ashton I., Clements K., Barrow S.E., Secombes C.J., Rowley A.F. Effects of dietary fatty acids on eicosanoid generating capacity, fatty acid composition and chemotactic activity of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) leukocytes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1994, 1214:253-262.
14. Aubin J., Gatesoupe F.-J., Labbé L., Lebrun L. Trial of probiotics to prevent the vertebral column compression syndrome in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum). Aquacult. Res. 2005, 36:758-767.
15. Azad I.S., Dayal J.S., Poornima M., Ali S.A. Supra dietary levels of vitamins C and E enhance antibody production and immune memory in juvenile milkfish, Chanos chanos (Forsskal) to formalin-killed Vibrio vulnificus. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2007, 23:154-163.
16. Bagni M., Romano N., Finoia M.G., Abelli L., Scapigliati G., Tiscar P.G., Sarti M., Marino G. Short- and long-term effects of a dietary yeast [beta]-glucan (Macrogard) and alginic acid (Ergosan) preparation on immune response in sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2005, 18:311-325.
17. Bakke-McKellep A.M., Penn M.H., Salas P.M., Refstie S., Sperstad S., Landsverk T., Ringø E., Krogdahl å. Effects of dietary soyabean meal, inulin and oxytetracycline on intestinal microbiota and epithelial cell stress, apoptosis and proliferation in the teleost Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Br. J. Nutr. 2007, 97:699-713.
18. Balcázar J.L., Blas I.d.Ruiz-Zarzuela I., Cunningham D., Vendrell D., Múzquiz J.L. The role of probiotics in aquaculture. Vet. Microbiol. 2006, 114:173-186.
19. Balfry S.K., Higgs D.A. Influence of dietary lipid composition on the immune system and disease resistance of finfish. Nutrition and Fish Health 2001, 213-234. The Haworth Press, Inc., Binghamton, New York. C. Lim, C.D. Webster (Eds.).
20. Barros M.M., Lim C., Klesius P.H. Effect of soybean meal replacement by cottonseed meal and iron supplementation on growth, immune response and resistance of Channel Catfish (Ictalurus puctatus) to Edwardsiella ictaluri challenge. Aquaculture 2002, 207:263-279.
21. Bayne C.J., Gerwick L. The acute phase response and innate immunity of fish. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2001, 25:725-743.
22. Bell J.G., Ashton I., Secombes C.J., Weitzel B.R., Dick J.R., Sargent J.R. Dietary lipid affects phospholipid fatty acid compositions, eicosanoid production and immune function in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Prostaglandins, Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 1996, 54:173-182.
23. Belo M.A.A., Schalch S.H.C., Moraes F.R., Soares V.E., Otoboni A.M.M.B., Moraes J.E.R. Effect of dietary supplementation with vitamin E and stocking density on macrophage recruitment and giant cell formation in the teleost fish, Piaractus mesopotamicus. J. Comp. Pathol. 2005, 133:146-154.
24. Bjerkeng B. Carotenoids in aquaculture: fish and crustaceans. Carotenoids 2008, 237-254. Birkhäuser, Basel. G. Britton, S. Liaaen-Jensen, H. Pfander (Eds.).
25. Blazer V.S. Nutrition and disease resistance in fish. Annu. Rev. Fish Dis. 1992, 2:309-323.
26. Blazer V.S., Wolke R.E. The effects of α-tocopherol on the immune response and non-specific resistance factors of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson). Aquaculture 1984, 37:1-9.
27. Boshra H., Li J., Sunyer J.O. Recent advances on the complement system of teleost fish. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2006, 20:239-262.
28. Bransden M.P., Carter C.G., Nichols P.D. Replacement of fish oil with sunflower oil in feeds for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): effect on growth performance, tissue fatty acid composition and disease resistance. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B: Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2003, 135:611-625.
29. Bransden M.P., Carter C.G., Nowak B.F. Effects of dietary protein source on growth, immune function, blood chemistry and disease resistance of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) parr. Anim. Sci. 2001, 73:105-113.
30. Brattgjerd S., Evensen Ø. A sequential light microscopic and ultrastructural study on the uptake and handling of Vibrio salmonicida in phagocytes of the head kidney in experimentally infected Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Vet. Pathol. Online 1996, 33:55-65.
31. Bricknell I., Dalmo R.A. The use of immunostimulants in fish larval aquaculture. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2005, 19:457-472.
32. Bronte V., Zanovello P. Regulation of immune responses by l-arginine metabolism. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2005, 5:641-654.
33. Brunt J., Newaj-Fyzul A., Austin B. The development of probiotics for the control of multiple bacterial diseases of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). J. Fish Dis. 2007, 30:573-579.
34. Buentello J.A., Gatlin D.M. Nitric oxide production in activated macrophages from channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus): influence of dietary arginine and culture media. Aquaculture 1999, 179:513-521.
35. Buentello J.A., Gatlin D.M. Effects of elevated dietary arginine on resistance of channel catfish to exposure to Edwardsiella ictaluri. J. Aquat. Anim. Health 2001, 13:194-201.
36. ®-A and inulin on the intestinal microbiota of red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 2009, 40:440-449.
37. ®-A, inulin, mannanoligosaccharide, and galactooligosaccharide on the digestive microbiota and performance of hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops×Morone saxatilis). Microb. Ecol. 2010, 59:187-198.
38. Burrells C., Williams P.D., Forno P.F. Dietary nucleotides: a novel supplement in fish feeds: 1. Effects on resistance to disease in salmonids. Aquaculture 2001, 199:159-169.
39. Burrells C., Williams P.D., Southgate P.J., Crampton V.O. Immunological, physiological and pathological responses of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to increasing dietary concentrations of soybean proteins. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1999, 72:277-288.
40. Caipang C.M.A., Berg I., Brinchmann M.F., Kiron V. Short-term crowding stress in Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua L. modulates the humoral immune response. Aquaculture 2009, 295:110-115.
41. Caipang C.M.A., Brinchmann M.F., Berg I., Iversen M., Eliassen R., Kiron V. Changes in selected stress and immune-related genes in Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua, following overcrowding. Aquacult. Res. 2008, 39:1533-1540.
42. Carter C.G., Bransden M.P., Lewis T.E., Nichols P.D. Potential of thraustochytrids to partially replace fish oil in Atlantic salmon feeds. Mar. Biotechnol. 2003, 5:480-492.
43. Castell J.D., Sinnhuber R.O., Wales J.H., Lee D.J. Essential fatty acids in the diet of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri): growth, feed conversion and some gross deficiency symptoms. J. Nutr. 1972, 102:77-85.
44. Castex M., Lemaire P., Wabete N., Chim L. Effect of dietary probiotic Pediococcus acidilactici on antioxidant defences and oxidative stress status of shrimp Litopenaeus stylirostris. Aquaculture 2009, 294:306-313.
45. Castex M., Lemaire P., Wabete N., Chim L. Effect of probiotic Pediococcus acidilactici on antioxidant defences and oxidative stress of Litopenaeus stylirostris under Vibrio nigripulchritudo challenge. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2010, 28:622-631.
46. Castro R., Bernard D., Lefranc M.P., Six A., Benmansour A., Boudinot P. T cell diversity and TcR repertoires in teleost fish. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2011, 31:644-654.
47. Cerezuela R., Cuesta A., Meseguer J., ángeles Esteban M. Effects of inulin on gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) innate immune parameters. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2008, 24:663-668.
48. Chan G.C., Chan W.K., Sze D.M. The effects of beta-glucan on human immune and cancer cells. J. Hematol. Oncol. 2009, 10(2):25.
49. Chen R., Lochmann R., Goodwin A., Praveen K., Dabrowski K., Lee K.-J. Effects of dietary vitamins C and E on alternative complement activity, hematology, tissue composition, vitamin concentrations and response to heat stress in juvenile golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas). Aquaculture 2004, 242:553-569.
50. Cheng A.-C., Chen Y.-Y., Chen J.-C. Dietary administration of sodium alginate and [kappa]-carrageenan enhances the innate immune response of brown-marbled grouper Epinephelus fuscoguttatus and its resistance against Vibrio alginolyticus. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 2008, 121:206-215.
51. Chew B.P. Importance of antioxidant vitamins in immunity and health in animals. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 1996, 59:103-114.
52. Chew B.P., Park J.S. Carotenoid action on the immune response. J. Nutr. 2004, 134:257S-261S.
53. Clem L.W., Miller N.W., Bly J.E. Evolution of lymphocyte populations, their interactions, and temperature sensitivities. Phylogenesis of the Immune System 1991, 191-213. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. G.W. Warr, N. Cohen (Eds.).
54. Clerton P., Troutaud D., Verlhac V., Gabaudan J., Deschaux P. Dietary vitamin E and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) phagocyte functions: effect on gut and on head kidney leucocytes. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2001, 11:1-13.
55. Collado M.C. Role of probiotics in health and diseases. Handbook of Probiotics and Prebiotics 2009, 257-259. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Y.K. Lee, S. Salminen (Eds.).
56. Cook M.T., Hayball P.J., Hutchinson W., Nowak B.F., Hayball J.D. Administration of a commercial immunostimulant preparation, EcoActiva(TM) as a feed supplement enhances macrophage respiratory burst and the growth rate of snapper (Pagrus auratus, Sparidae (Bloch and Schneider)) in winter. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2003, 14:333-345.
57. Corbel M.J. The immune response in fish: a review. J. Fish Biol. 1975, 7:539-563.
58. Corr S.C., Hill C., Gahan C.G.M. Understanding the mechanisms by which probiotics inhibit gastrointestinal pathogens. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 2009, 1-15. Academic Press. L.T. Steve (Ed.).
59. Cosgrove M. Nucleotides. Nutrition 1998, 14:748-751.
60. Ascorbic Acid in Aquatic Organisms 2000, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. K. Dabrowski (Ed.).
61. Dalmo R., Ingebrigtsen K., Bøgwald J. Non-specific defence mechanisms in fish, with particular reference to the reticuloendothelial system (RES). J. Fish Dis. 1997, 20:241-273.
62. Dalmo R.A., Bøgwald J. β-glucans as conductors of immune symphonies. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2008, 25:384-396.
63. Danilova N., Bussmann J., Jekosch K., Steiner L.A. The immunoglobulin heavy-chain locus in zebrafish: identification and expression of a previously unknown isotype, immunoglobulin Z. Nat. Immunol. 2005, 6:295-302.
64. Dannevig B.H., Lauve A., Press C.M., Landsverk T. Receptor-mediated endocytosis and phagocytosis by rainbow trout head kidney sinusoidal cells. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 1994, 4:3-18.
65. Demers N.E., Bayne C.J. Plasma proteins of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): immediate response to acute stress. Models for Environmental Toxicology, Biomarkers, Immunostimulants 1994, 1-9. SOS Publications, Fair Haven, NJ. J.S. Stolen, T.C. Fletcher (Eds.).
66. Díaz-Rosales P., Salinas I., Rodríguez A., Cuesta A., Chabrillón M., Balebona M.C., Moriñigo M.á., Esteban M.á., Meseguer J. Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) innate immune response after dietary administration of heat-inactivated potential probiotics. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2006, 20:482-492.
67. Dimitroglou A., Merrifield D.L., Moate R., Davies S.J., Spring P., Sweetman J., Bradley G. Dietary mannan oligosaccharide supplementation modulates intestinal microbial ecology and improves gut morphology of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). J. Anim. Sci. 2009, 87:3226-3234.
68. Ellis A.E. The leucocytes of fish: a review. J. Fish Biol. 1977, 11:453-491.
69. Ellis A.E. Innate host defense mechanisms of fish against viruses and bacteria. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2001, 25:827-839.
70. Englard S., Seifter S. The biochemical functions of ascorbic acid. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1986, 6:365-406.
71. Erdal J.I., Evensen Ø., Kurstad O.K., Lillehaug A., Solbakken R., Thorud K. Relationship between diet and immune response in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) after feeding various levels of ascorbic acid and omega-3 fatty acids. Aquaculture 1991, 98:363-379.
72. European Food Safety Authority Scientific opinion of the panel on additives and products or substances used in animal feed on functional groups of additives as described in Annex 1 of Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003. EFSA J. 2008, 1-19. 920.
73. Eya J.C., Lovell R.T. Effects of dietary phosphorus on resistance of channel catfish to Edwardsiella ictaluri challenge. J. Aquat. Anim. Health 1998, 10:28-34.
74. FAO 2010. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010. FAO, Rome, pp. 1-197.
75. FAO/WHO Guidelines for the Evaluation of Probiotics in Food 2002, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations & World Health Organization, London, Ontario, Canada.
76. Fracalossi D.M., Lovell R.T. Dietary lipid sources influence responses of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) to challenge with the pathogen Edwardsiella ictaluri. Aquaculture 1994, 119:287-298.
77. Fujiki K., Matsuyama H., Yano T. Protective effect of sodium alginates against bacterial infection in common carp, Cyprinus carpio L. J. Fish Dis. 1994, 17:349-355.
78. Gabaudan J., Verlhac V. Critical review of the requirements of ascorbic acid in cold and cool water fishes (salmonids, percids, plecoglossids, and flatfishes). Ascorbic Acid in Aquatic Organisms 2001, 33-48. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. K. Dabrowski (Ed.).
79. Gabrielsen B.O., Austreng E. Growth, product quality and immune status of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fed wet feed with alginate. Aquacult. Res. 1998, 29:397-401.
80. Ganga R., Bell J.G., Montero D., Robaina L., Caballero M.J., Izquierdo M.S. Effect of dietary lipids on plasma fatty acid profiles and prostaglandin and leptin production in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B: Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2005, 142:410-418.
81. García de La Banda I., Lobo C., León-Rubio J.M., Tapia-Paniagua S., Balebona M.C., Moriñigo M.A., Moreno-Ventas X., Lucas L.M., Linares F., Arce F., Arijo S. Influence of two closely related probiotics on juvenile Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis, Kaup 1858) performance and protection against Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida. Aquaculture 2010, 306:281-288.
82. Gaylord H.R., Marsh M.C. Carcinoma of the Thyroid in the Salmonoid Fishes 1914, US Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, DC.
83. Gil A. Modulation of the immune response mediated by dietary nucleotides. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 56:S1-S4.
84. Gioacchini G., Lombardo F., Avella M.A., Olivotto I., Carnevali O. Welfare improvement using alginic acid in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles. Chem. Ecol. 2010, 26:111-121.
85. Gioacchini G., Smith P., Carnevali O. Effects of Ergosan on the expression of cytokine genes in the liver of juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to enteric red mouth vaccine. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 2008, 123:215-222.
86. Gjøen T., Obach A., Røsjø C., Helland B.G., Rosenlund G., Hvattum E., Ruyter B. Effect of dietary lipids on macrophage function, stress susceptibility and disease resistance in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 2004, 30:149-161.
87. Gobert A.P., McGee D.J., Akhtar M., Mendz G.L., Newton J.C., Cheng Y., Mobley H.L.T., Wilson K.T. Helicobacter pylori arginase inhibits nitric oxide production by eukaryotic cells: a strategy for bacterial survival. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001, 98:13844-13849.
88. Gombotz W.R., Wee S. Protein release from alginate matrices. Adv. Drug Del. Rev. 1998, 31:267-285.
89. Goodridge H.S., Wolf A.J., Underhill D.M. β-glucan recognition by the innate immune system. Immunol. Rev. 2009, 230:38-50.
90. Grimble G.K., Westwood O.M.R. Nucleotides. Nutrition and Immunology: Principles and Practice 2000, 135-144. Humana Press, New Jersey. M.E. Gershwin, J.B. German, C.L. Keen (Eds.).
91. Gupta S.K., Pal A.K., Sahu N.P., Dalvi R., Kumar V., Mukherjee S.C. Microbial levan in the diet of Labeo rohita Hamilton juveniles: effect on non-specific immunity and histopathological changes after challenge with Aeromonas hydrophila. J. Fish Dis. 2008, 31:649-657.
92. Gupta S.K., Pal A.K., Sahu N.P., Dalvi R.S., Akhtar M.S., Jha A.K., Baruah K. Dietary microbial levan enhances tolerance of Labeo rohita (Hamilton) juveniles to thermal stress. Aquaculture 2010, 306:398-402.
93. Gupta S.K., Pronob D., Singh S.K., Akhtar M.S., Meena D.K., Mandal S.C. Microbial levan, an ideal prebiotic and immunonutrient in aquaculture. World Aquacult. 2011, 42:61-66.
94. Halver J.E. The vitamins. Fish Nutrition 2002, 62-141. Academic Press, California, USA. J.E. Halver, R.W. Hardy (Eds.).
95. Fish Nutrition 2002, Academic Press, California, USA. J.E. Halver, R.W. Hardy (Eds.).
96. Han Y.W. Microbial levan. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 1990, 171-194. Academic Press. L.N. Saul, I.L. Allen (Eds.).
97. Hansen J.D., Landis E.D., Phillips R.B. Discovery of a unique Ig heavy-chain isotype (IgT) in rainbow trout: implications for a distinctive B cell developmental pathway in teleost fish. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005, 102:6919-6924.
98. Hardy R.W. Nutritional deficiencies in commercial aquaculture: likelihood, onset and identification. Nutrition and Fish Health 2001, 131-147. The Haworth Press, Inc., Binghamton, New York. C. Lim, C.D. Webster (Eds.).
99. Harikrishnan R., Balasundaram C., Heo M.-S. Effect of probiotics enriched diet on Paralichthys olivaceus infected with lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2010, 29:868-874.
100. Haugarvoll E., Bjerkås I., Nowak B.F., Hordvik I., Koppang E.O. Identification and characterization of a novel intraepithelial lymphoid tissue in the gills of Atlantic salmon. J. Anat. 2008, 213:202-209.
101. Herraez M.P., Zapata A.G. Structure and function of the melano-macrophage centres of the goldfish Carassius auratus. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1986, 12:117-126.
102. Hogstrand C., Balesaria S., Glover C.N. Application of genomics and proteomics for study of the integrated response to zinc exposure in a non-model fish species, the rainbow trout. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B: Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2002, 133:523-535.
103. Holland M.C.H., Lambris J.D. The complement system in teleosts. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2002, 12:399-420.
104. Ibrahem M.D., Fathi M., Mesalhy S., Abd El-Aty A.M. Effect of dietary supplementation of inulin and vitamin C on the growth, hematology, innate immunity, and resistance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2010, 29:241-246.
105. Inoue M., Satoh S., Maita M., Kiron V., Okamoto N. Recovery from derangement of natural killer-like activity of leucocytes due to Zn or Mn deficiency in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), by the oral administration of these elements. J. Fish Dis. 1998, 21:233-236.
106. Irianto A., Austin B. Use of probiotics to control furunculosis in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). J. Fish Dis. 2002, 25:333-342.
107. Ishibashi Y., Kato K., Ikeda S., Murata O., Nasu T., Kumai H. Effects of dietary AA on tolerance to intermittent hypoxic stress in Japanese parrot fish. Nippon Suisan Gakkai Shi 1992, 58:2147-2152.
108. Kaattari S., Evans D., Klemer J., Kieraer J. Varied redox forms of teleost IgM: an alternative to isotypic diversity?. Immunol. Rev. 1998, 166:133-142.
109. Kaattari S.L., Brown G., Kaattari I., Ye J., Haines A., Bromage A.E. The cellular and developmental biology of the teleost antibody response. Fish Defenses Vol. 1: Immunology 2009, 75-130. Science Publishers. G. Zaccone, J. Meseguer, B.G. Kapoor (Eds.).
110. Kaattari S.L., Piganelli J.D. The specific immune system: humoral defense. The Fish Immune System 1996, 207-254. Academic Press, New York. G. Iwama, T. Nakanishi (Eds.).
111. Kepka-Lenhart D., Mistry S.K., Wu G., Morris S.M. Arginase I: a limiting factor for nitric oxide and polyamine synthesis by activated macrophages?. Am. J. Physiol.: Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2000, 279:R2237-R2242.
112. Kesarcodi-Watson A., Kaspar H., Lategan M.J., Gibson L. Probiotics in aquaculture: the need, principles and mechanisms of action and screening processes. Aquaculture 2008, 274:1-14.
113. Kiron V., Fukuda H., Takeuchi T., Watanabe T. Essential fatty acid nutrition and defence mechanisms in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A: Mol. Integr. Physiol. 1995, 111:361-367.
114. Kiron V., Kusumi M., Puangkaew J., Panigrahi A., Biswas A.K., Satoh S. Temperature stress: does dietary vitamin C help to modulate physiological responses in rainbow trout? Lessons from the past to optimise the future. Aquaculture Europe 2005 2005, 276-277.
115. Kiron V., Puangkaew J., Ishizaka K., Satoh S., Watanabe T. Antioxidant status and nonspecific immune responses in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed two levels of vitamin E along with three lipid sources. Aquaculture 2004, 234:361-379.
116. Kiron V., Takeuchi T., Watanabe T. The osmotic fragility of erythrocytes in rainbow trout under different dietary fatty acid status. Fish. Sci. 1994, 60:93-95.
117. Kiron V., Thawonsuwan J., Panigrahi A., Scharsack J.P., Satoh S. Antioxidant and immune defenses of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) offered plant oils differing in fatty acid profiles from early stages. Aquacult. Nutr. 2011, 17:130-140.
118. Krogdahl A., Bakke-Mckellep A.M., Roed K.H., Baeverfjord G. Feeding Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. soybean products: effects on disease resistance (furunculosis), and lysozyme and IgM levels in the intestinal mucosa. Aquacult. Nutr. 2000, 6:77-84.
119. Kumari J., Sahoo P.K. Dietary immunostimulants influence specific immune response and resistance of healthy and immunocompromised Asian catfish Clarias batrachus to Aeromonas hydrophila infection. Dis. Aquat. Organ. 2006, 70:63-70.
120. Kumari J., Sahoo P.K. Non-specific immune response of healthy and immunocompromised Asian catfish (Clarias batrachus) to several immunostimulants. Aquaculture 2006, 255:133-141.
121. Lall S.P., Lewis-McCrea L.M. Role of nutrients in skeletal metabolism and pathology in fish - an overview. Aquaculture 2007, 267:3-19.
122. Lall S.P., Milley J.E., Higgs D.A., Balfry S.K. Dietary lipids, immune function and pathogenesis of disease in fish. Biochem. Physiol. Adv. Finfish Aquacult. 2002, 19:23.
123. Lall S.P., Oliver G. Role of micronutrients in immune response and disease resistance in fish. Fish Nutrition in Practice 1993, 101-118. Les Colloques, INRA, Paris, France. S.J. Kaushik, P. Luquet (Eds.).
124. Lanes C.F.C., Bolla S., Kiron V., Nicolaisen O., Fernandes J.M.O., Babiak I. Growth and stress tolerance of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) larvae reared on rotifers and artemia enriched with nucleotide products. Aquaculture Europe 2010 2010.
125. Lazado C.C., Caipang C.M., Gallage S., Brinchmann M.F., Kiron V. Responses of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua head kidney leukocytes to phytase produced by gastrointestinal-derived bacteria. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 2010, 36:883-891.
126. Lazado, C.C., Caipang, C.M.A., Kiron, V., in press. Enzymes from the gut bacteria of Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua and their influence on intestinal enzyme activity. Aquacult. Nutr.
127. Lee Y.K. Probiotic microorganisms. Handbook of Probiotics and Prebiotics 2009, 3-4. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Y.K. Lee, S. Salminen (Eds.).
128. Leonardi M., Sandino A.M., Klempau A. Effect of a nucleotide-enriched diet on the immune system, plasma cortisol levels and resistance to infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Bull. Eur. Assoc. Fish Pathol. 2003, 23:52-59.
129. Li J., Barreda D.R., Zhang Y.-A., Boshra H., Gelman A.E., LaPatra S., Tort L., Sunyer J.O. B lymphocytes from early vertebrates have potent phagocytic and microbicidal abilities. Nat. Immunol. 2006, 7:1116-1124.
130. Li M.H., Wise D.J., Johnson M.R., Robinson E.H. Dietary menhaden oil reduced resistance of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) to Edwardsiella ictaluri. Aquaculture 1994, 128:335-344.
131. Li P., Gatlin D.M. Dietary brewers yeast and the prebiotic Grobiotic(TM)AE influence growth performance, immune responses and resistance of hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops×M. saxatilis) to Streptococcus iniae infection. Aquaculture 2004, 231:445-456.
132. ®-A and brewers yeast as dietary supplements for sub-adult hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops×M. saxatilis) challenged in situ with Mycobacterium marinum. Aquaculture 2005, 248:197-205.
133. Li P., Gatlin D.M. Nucleotide nutrition in fish: current knowledge and future applications. Aquaculture 2006, 251:141-152.
134. Li P., Lewis D.H., Gatlin D.M. Dietary oligonucleotides from yeast RNA influence immune responses and resistance of hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops×Morone saxatilis) to Streptococcus iniae infection. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2004, 16:561-569.
135. Li P., Yin Y.-L., Li D., Woo Kim S., Wu G. Amino acids and immune function. Br. J. Nutr. 2007, 98:237-252.
136. Lie Ø., Evensen Ø., Sørensen A., Frøysadal E. Study on lysozyme activity in some fish species. Dis. Aquat. Org 1989, 6:1-5.
137. Lim C., Klesius P.H., Shoemaker C.A. Dietary iron and fish health. Nutrition and Fish Health 2001, 189-199. The Haworth Press, Inc, Binghamton, New York. C. Lim, C.D. Webster (Eds.).
138. Lim C., Klesius P.H., Webster C.D. The role of dietary phosphorus, zinc, and selenium in fish health. Nutrition and Fish Health 2001, 201-212. The Haworth Press, Inc, Binghamton, New York. C. Lim, C.D. Webster (Eds.).
139. Lim C., Shoemaker C.A., Klesius P.H. The effect of ascorbic acid on the immune response in fish. Ascorbic Acid in Aquatic Organisms 2001, 149-166. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. K. Dabrowski (Ed.).
140. Nutrition and Fish Health 2001, The Haworth Press, Inc, Binghamton, New York. C. Lim, C.D. Webster (Eds.).
141. Lim C., Yildirim-Aksoy M., Li M.H., Welker T.L., Klesius P.H. Influence of dietary levels of lipid and vitamin E on growth and resistance of Nile tilapia to Streptococcus iniae challenge. Aquaculture 2009, 298:76-82.
142. Lin M.-F., Shiau S.-Y. Dietary l-ascorbic acid affects growth, nonspecific immune responses and disease resistance in juvenile grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus. Aquaculture 2005, 244:215-221.
143. Lin M.F., Shiau S.Y. Requirements of vitamin C (l-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate-Mg and l-ascorbyl-2-monophosphate-Na) and its effects on immune responses of grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus. Aquacult. Nutr. 2004, 10:327-333.
144. Lochmann R.T., Sink T.D., Phillips H. Effects of dietary lipid concentration, a dairy-yeast prebiotic, and fish and nonfish protein sources on growth, survival, and nonspecific immune response of golden shiners in indoor tanks and outdoor pools. N. Am. J. Aquacult. 2009, 71:16-23.
145. Low C., Wadsworth S., Burrells C., Secombes C.J. Expression of immune genes in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) fed a nucleotide-supplemented diet. Aquaculture 2003, 221:23-40.
146. Løvoll M., Dalmo R.A., Bøgwald J. Extrahepatic synthesis of complement components in the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2007, 23:721-731.
147. Macfarlane G., Steed H., Macfarlane S. Bacterial metabolism and health-related effects of galacto-oligosaccharides and other prebiotics. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2008, 104:305-344.
148. Makol A., Torrecillas S., Fernández-Vaquero A., Robaina L., Montero D., Caballero M.J., Tort L., Izquierdo M. Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on dietary lipids utilization, liver morphology and selected immune parameters in sea bass juveniles (Dicentrarchus labrax). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B: Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2009, 154:179-187.
149. Manning M.J., Nakanishi T. The specific immune system: cellular defenses. The Fish Immune System 1996, 159-205. Academic Press, New York. G. Iwama, T. Nakanishi (Eds.).
150. Merrifield D., Bradley G., Baker R., Davies S. Probiotic applications for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) II. Effects on growth performance, feed utilization, intestinal microbiota and related health criteria postantibiotic treatment. Aquacult. Nutr. 2009, 16:496-503.
151. Merrifield D.L., Dimitroglou A., Foey A., Davies S.J., Baker R.T.M., Bøgwald J., Castex M., Ringø E. The current status and future focus of probiotic and prebiotic applications for salmonids. Aquaculture 2010, 302:1-18.
152. Misra C., Das B., Mukherjee S., Pradhan J. Effects of dietary vitamin C on immunity, growth and survival of Indian major carp Labeo rohita, fingerlings. Aquacult. Nutr. 2007, 13:35-44.
153. Misra C.K., Das B.K., Mukherjee S.C., Pattnaik P. Effect of long term administration of dietary [beta]-glucan on immunity, growth and survival of Labeo rohita fingerlings. Aquaculture 2006, 255:82-94.
154. Montalto M., D'Onofrio F., Gallo A., Cazzato A., Gasbarrini G. Intestinal microbiota and its functions. Dig. Liver Dis. Suppl. 2009, 3:30-34.
155. Montero D., Grasso V., Izquierdo M.S., Ganga R., Real E., Tort L., Caballero M.J., Acosta E. Total substitution of fish oil by vegetable oils in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) diets: effects on hepatifc Mx expression and some immune parameters. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2008, 24:147-155.
156. Montero D., Tort L., Robaina L., Vergara J.M., Izquierdo M.S. Low vitamin E in diet reduces stress resistance of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) juveniles. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2001, 11:473-490.
157. Morgan B.P., Marchbank K.J., Longhi M.P., Harris C.L., Gallimore A.M. Complement: central to innate immunity and bridging to adaptive responses. Immunol. Lett. 2005, 97:171-179.
158. Mourente G., Good J., Bell J. Partial substitution of fish oil with rapeseed, linseed and olive oils in diets for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.): effects on flesh fatty acid composition, plasma prostaglandins E2 and F2α, immune function and effectiveness of a fish oil finishing diet. Aquacult. Nutr. 2005, 11:25-40.
159. Dietary Supplements for the Health and Quality of Cultured Fish 2007, CABI Publishing, Oxfordshire, UK. H. Nakagawa, M. Sato, D.M. Gatlin (Eds.).
160. Nakanishi T., Fischer U., Dijkstra J.M., Hasegawa S., Somamoto T., Okamoto N., Ototake M. Cytotoxic T cell function in fish. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2002, 26:131-139.
161. Nayak S.K. Probiotics and immunity: a fish perspective. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2010, 29:2-14.
162. Nayak S.K., Swain P., Mukherjee S.C. Effect of dietary supplementation of probiotic and vitamin C on the immune response of Indian major carp, Labeo rohita (Ham.). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2007, 23:892-896.
163. Niness K.R. Inulin and oligofructose: what are they?. J. Nutr. 1999, 129. 1402
164. Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries and Coastal Affairs, 2009. Strategy for an environmentally sustainable Norwegian aquaculture industry, Oslo, p. 34.
165. Olsen R.E., Myklebust R., Kryvi H., Mayhew T.M., Ringø E. Damaging effect of dietary inulin on intestinal enterocytes in Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus L.). Aquacult. Res. 2001, 32:931-934.
166. Ortuño J., Cuesta A., Angeles Esteban M., Meseguer J. Effect of oral administration of high vitamin C and E dosages on the gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) innate immune system. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 2001, 79:167-180.
167. Ortuño J., Esteban M.A., Meseguer J. High dietary intake of α-tocopherol acetate enhances the non-specific immune response of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2000, 10:293-307.
168. Ortuño J., Esteban M.A., Meseguer J. The effect of dietary intake of vitamins C and E on the stress response of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2003, 14:145-156.
169. Panigrahi A., Kiron V., Puangkaew J., Kobayashi T., Satoh S., Sugita H. The viability of probiotic bacteria as a factor influencing the immune response in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture 2005, 243:241-254.
170. Panserat S., Kaushik S.J. Regulation of gene expression by nutritional factors in fish. Aquacult. Res. 2010, 41:751-762.
171. Plouffe D.A., Hanington P.C., Walsh J.G., Wilson E.C., Belosevic M. Comparison of select innate immune mechanisms of fish and mammals. Xenotransplantation 2005, 12:266-277.
172. +-ATPase activity in the gills of the freshwater teleost Oreochromis mossambicus at normal and high calcium levels in the ambient water. Aquat. Toxicol. 1993, 26:133-149.
173. Press C.M., Evensen Ø. The morphology of the immune system in teleost fishes. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 1999, 9:309-318.
174. Puangkaew J., Kiron V., Satoh S., Watanabe T. Antioxidant defense of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in relation to dietary n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E contents. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C: Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2005, 140:187-196.
175. Puangkaew J., Kiron V., Somamoto T., Okamoto N., Satoh S., Takeuchi T., Watanabe T. Nonspecific immune response of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum) in relation to different status of vitamin E and highly unsaturated fatty acids. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2004, 16:25-39.
176. Puertollano M.A., Puertollano E., álvarez De Cienfuegos G., De Pablo M.A. Dietary lipids, modulation of immune functions, and susceptibility to infection. Nutr. Ther. Metab. 2008, 26:97-108.
177. Qi Z., Zhang X.-H., Boon N., Bossier P. Probiotics in aquaculture of China - current state, problems and prospect. Aquaculture 2009, 290:15-21.
178. Rairakhwada D., Pal A.K., Bhathena Z.P., Sahu N.P., Jha A., Mukherjee S.C. Dietary microbial levan enhances cellular non-specific immunity and survival of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) juveniles. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2007, 22:477-486.
179. Ramadan A., Afifi N.A., Moustafa M.M., Samy A.M. The effect of ascogen on the immune response of tilapia fish to Aeromonas hydrophila vaccine. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 1994, 4:159-165.
180. Rayman M.P. The importance of selenium to human health. Lancet 2000, 356:233-241.
181. Reite O.B., Evensen Ø. Inflammatory cells of teleostean fish: a review focusing on mast cells/eosinophilic granule cells and rodlet cells. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2006, 20:192-208.
182. Riaz M.N. Extruders in Food Applications 2000, Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA.
183. Ringø E., Olsen R., Gifstad T., Dalmo R., Amlund H., Hemre G.I., Bakke A. Prebiotics in aquaculture: a review. Aquacult. Nutr. 2010, 16:117-136.
184. Ringø E., Sperstad S., Myklebust R., Mayhew T.M., Olsen R.E. The effect of dietary inulin on aerobic bacteria associated with hindgut of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus L.). Aquacult. Res. 2006, 37:891-897.
185. Rink L. Zinc and the immune system. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2000, 59:541-552.
186. Roberfroid M. Prebiotics: the concept revisited. J. Nutr. 2007, 137:830S-837S.
187. Rombout J.H.W.M., Abelli L., Picchietti S., Scapigliati G., Kiron V. Teleost intestinal immunology. Fish Shellfish Immunol 2011, 31:616-626.
188. Ruangsri J., Fernandes J.M.O., Brinchmann M., Kiron V. Antimicrobial activity in the tissues of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2010, 28:879-886.
189. Sahoo P.K., Mukherjee S.C. Effect of dietary [beta]-1,3 glucan on immune responses and disease resistance of healthy and aflatoxin B1-induced immunocompromised rohu (Labeo rohita Hamilton). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2001, 11:683-695.
190. Sahoo P.K., Mukherjee S.C. The effect of dietary immunomodulation upon Edwardsiella tarda vaccination in healthy and immunocompromised Indian major carp (Labeo rohita). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2002, 12:1-16.
191. Sahoo P.K., Mukherjee S.C. Immunomodulation by dietary vitamin C in healthy and aflatoxin B1-induced immunocompromised rohu (Labeo rohita). Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2003, 26:65-76.
192. Sakai M. Current research status of fish immunostimulants. Aquaculture 1999, 172:63-92.
193. Sakai M., Taniguchi K., Mamoto K., Ogawa H., Tabata M. Immunostimulant effects of nucleotide isolated from yeast RNA on carp, Cyprinus carpio L. J. Fish Dis. 2001, 24:433-438.
194. Salinas I., Cuesta A., Esteban M.á., Meseguer J. Dietary administration of Lactobacillus delbrüeckii and Bacillus subtilis, single or combined, on gilthead seabream cellular innate immune responses. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2005, 19:67-77.
195. Sanchez-Dardon J., Voccia I., Hontela A., Chilmonczyk S., Dunier M., Boermans H., Blakley B., Fournier M. Immunomodulation by heavy metals tested individually or in mixtures in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed in vivo. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 1999, 18:1492-1497.
196. Saurabh S., Sahoo P.K. Lysozyme: an important defence molecule of fish innate immune system. Aquacult. Res. 2008, 39:223-239.
197. Savolainen L.C., Gatlin D.M. Evaluation of dairy-yeast prebiotic supplementation in the diet of juvenile goldfish in the presence or absence of phytoplankton and zooplankton. J. Aquat. Anim. Health 2009, 21:156-163.
198. Schrøder M.B., Ellingsen T., Mikkelsen H., Norderhus E.A., Lund V. Comparison of antibody responses in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) to Vibrio anguillarum, Aeromonas salmonicida and Francisella sp. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2009, 27:112-119.
199. Sealey W.M., Barrows F.T., Hang A., Johansen K.A., Overturf K., LaPatra S.E., Hardy R.W. Evaluation of the ability of barley genotypes containing different amounts of [beta]-glucan to alter growth and disease resistance of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2008, 141:115-128.
200. Secombes C.J. The nonspecific immune system: cellular defenses. The Fish Immune System 1996, 63-103. Academic Press, New York. G. Iwama, T. Nakanishi (Eds.).
201. Seierstad S.L., Haugland Ø., Larsen S., Waagbø R., Evensen Ø. Pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and respiratory burst activity following replacement of fish oil with rapeseed oil in the feed for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture 2009, 289:212-218.
202. Selvaraj V., Sampath K., Sekar V. Adjuvant and immunostimulatory effects of [beta]-glucan administration in combination with lipopolysaccharide enhances survival and some immune parameters in carp challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 2006, 114:15-24.
203. Sharifuzzaman S.M., Austin B. Influence of probiotic feeding duration on disease resistance and immune parameters in rainbow trout. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2009, 27:440-445.
204. Sheldon J.W.M., Blazer V.S. Influence of dietary lipid and temperature and bactericidal activity of channel catfish macrophages. J. Aquat. Anim. Health 1991, 3:87-93.
205. Shoaf K., Mulvey G.L., Armstrong G.D., Hutkins R.W. Prebiotic galactooligosaccharides reduce adherence of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli to tissue culture cells. Infect. Immun. 2006, 74:6920-6928.
206. Sitjà-Bobadilla A., Peña-Llopis S., Gómez-Requeni P., Médale F., Kaushik S., Pérez-Sánchez J. Effect of fish meal replacement by plant protein sources on non-specific defence mechanisms and oxidative stress in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Aquaculture 2005, 249:387-400.
207. Skjermo J., Bergh Ø. High-M alginate immunostimulation of Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.) larvae using Artemia for delivery, increases resistance against vibriosis. Aquaculture 2004, 238:107-113.
208. Skjermo J., Størseth T.R., Hansen K., Handå A., Øie G. Evaluation of [beta]-(1→3,1→6)-glucans and High-M alginate used as immunostimulatory dietary supplement during first feeding and weaning of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.). Aquaculture 2006, 261:1088-1101.
209. Sobhana K.S., Mohan C.V., Shankar K.M. Effect of dietary vitamin C on the disease susceptibility and inflammatory response of mrigal, Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton) to experimental infection of Aeromonas hydrophila. Aquaculture 2002, 207:225-238.
210. Sohn K.S., Kim M.K., Kim J.D., Han I.K. The role of immunostimulants in monogastric animal and fist - review. Asian Austral. J. Anim. Sci. 2000, 13:1178-1187.
211. Subasinghe R. Fish health and quarantine. Review of the State of World Aquaculture 1997, FAO Fisheries Department, Rome.
212. Sugiura S.H., Hardy R.W., Roberts R.J. The pathology of phosphorus deficiency in fish - a review. J. Fish Dis. 2004, 27:255-265.
213. Tachibana K., Yagi M., Hara K., Mishima T., Tsuchimoto M. Effects of feeding of β-carotene-supplemented rotifers on survival and lymphocyte proliferation reaction of fish larvae (Japanese parrotfish (Oplegnathus fasciatus) and Spotted parrotfish (Oplegnathus punctatus)): preliminary trials. Hydrobiologia 1997, 358:313-316.
214. Tacon A.G.J. Fishmeal replacers: review of antinutrients within oilseeds and pulses - a limiting factor for the aquafeed green revolution. Feed Ingredients Asia'95 Conference 1995, 23-48.
215. Takeuchi T., Watanabe T. Requirement of carp for essential fatty acids. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 1977, 43:541-551.
216. Thompson I., Choubert G., Houlihan D.F., Secombes C.J. The effect of dietary vitamin A and astaxanthin on the immunocompetence of rainbow trout. Aquaculture 1995, 133:91-102.
217. Thompson I., White A., Fletcher T.C., Houlihan D.F., Secombes C.J. The effect of stress on the immune response of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed diets containing different amounts of vitamin C. Aquaculture 1993, 114:1-18.
218. Thompson K.D., Tatner M.F., Henderson R.J. Effects of dietary (n-3) and (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio on the immune response of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Aquacult. Nutr. 1996, 2:21-31.
219. Torrecillas S., Makol A., Caballero M., Montero D., Giné.S.R., Sweetman J., Izquierdo M. Improved feed utilization, intestinal mucus production and immune parameters in sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) fed mannan oligosaccharides (MOS). Aquacult. Nutr. 2011, 17:223-233.
220. Tort L., Balasch J.C., Mackenzie S. Fish immune system. A crossroads between innate and adaptive responses. Inmunologia 2003, 22:277-286.
221. Trenzado C.E., de la Higuera M., Morales A.E. Influence of dietary vitamins E and C and HUFA on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) performance under crowding conditions. Aquaculture 2007, 263:249-258.
222. Trichet V.V. Nutrition and immunity: an update. Aquacult. Res. 2010, 41:356-372.
223. Urán P.A., Schrama J.W., Rombout J.H.W.M., Taverne-Thiele J.J., Obach A., Koppe W., Verreth J.A.J. Time-related changes of the intestinal morphology of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., at two different soybean meal inclusion levels. J. Fish Dis. 2009, 32:733-744.
224. van der Sar A.M., Appelmelk B.J., Vandenbroucke-Grauls C.M.J.E., Bitter W. A star with stripes: zebrafish as an infection model. Trends Microbiol. 2004, 12:451-457.
225. Verlhac V., Gabaudan J. Influence of vitamin C on the immune system of salmonids. Aquacult. Res. 1994, 25:21-36.
226. Verlhac V., Gabaudan J. The Effect of Vitamin C on Fish Health 1997, F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG 4070, Basel, Switzerland.
227. Verlhac V., Gabaudan J., Schüep W. Immunomodulation in fish: II. Effect of dietary vitamin C. Proceedings of the 2nd Roche Aquaculture Center Conference on Nutrition and Disease 1995, K. Kurmaly (Ed.).
228. Verlhac V., Obach A., Gabaudan J., Schüep W., Hole R. Immunomodulation by dietary vitamin C and glucan in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish Shellfish Immunol. 1998, 8:409-424.
229. Verschuere L., Rombaut G., Sorgeloos P., Verstraete W. Probiotic bacteria as biological control agents in aquaculture. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2000, 64:655-671.
230. Vollstad D., Bøgwald J., Gåserød O., Dalmo R.A. Influence of high-M alginate on the growth and survival of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) and spotted wolffish (Anarhichas minor Olafsen) fry. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2006, 20:548-561.
231. Wang C., Lovell R.T., Klesius P.H. Response to Edwardsiella ictaluri challenge by channel catfish red organic and inorganic sources of selenium. J. Aquat. Anim. Health 1997, 9:172-179.
232. Wang Y.-B., Li J.-R., Lin J. Probiotics in aquaculture: challenges and outlook. Aquaculture 2008, 281:1-4.
233. Warr G.W. The immunoglobulin genes of fish. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 1995, 19:1-12.
234. Watson R.R. Vitamin E and the immune system. Encyclopedia of Immunology 1998, 2500-2501. Elsevier, Oxford. J.D. Peter (Ed.).
235. Welker T.L., Lim C., Yildirim-Aksoy M., Shelby R., Klesius P.H. Immune response and resistance to stress and Edwardsiella ictaluri challenge in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, ded diets containing commercial whole-cell yeast or yeast subcomponents. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 2007, 38:24-35.
236. Whittington R., Lim C., Klesius P.H. Effect of dietary [beta]-glucan levels on the growth response and efficacy of Streptococcus iniae vaccine in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture 2005, 248:217-225.
237. Wiegertjes G.F., Voorthuis P., Groeneveld A., Van Muiswinkel W.B., Stet R.J.M., Bongers A.B.J., Doulabi B.Z. Characterization of isogenic carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) lines with a genetically determined high or low antibody production. Anim. Genet. 1996, 27:313-319.
238. Yeh S.-P., Chang C.-A., Chang C.-Y., Liu C.-H., Cheng W. Dietary sodium alginate administration affects fingerling growth and resistance to Streptococcus sp. and iridovirus, and juvenile non-specific immune responses of the orange-spotted grouper, Epinephelus coioides. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2008, 25:19-27.
239. Yoder J.A., Nielsen M.E., Amemiya C.T., Litman G.W. Zebrafish as an immunological model system. Microbes Infect. 2002, 4:1469-1478.
240. Young V.R. Protein and amino acids. Nutrition and Immunology: Principles and Practice 2000, 49-64. Humana Press, New Jersey. M.E. Gershwin, J.B. German, C.L. Keen (Eds.).
241. Zapata A., Amemiya C.T. Phylogeny of lower vertebrates and their immunological structures. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2000, 248:67-107.
242. Zapata A.G., Chibá A., Varas A. Cells and tissues of the immune system of fish. The Fish Immune System 1996, 1-62. Organism, Pathogen and Environment, Academic Press. G. Iwama, T. Nakanishi (Eds.).
243. Zelikoff J.T. Biomarkers of immunotoxicity in fish and other non-mammalian sentinel species: predictive value for mammals?. Toxicology 1998, 129:63-71.
244. Zhang Y.-A., Salinas I., Li J., Parra D., Bjork S., Xu Z., LaPatra S.E., Bartholomew J., Sunyer J.O. IgT, a primitive immunoglobulin class specialized in mucosal immunity. Nat. Immunol. 2010, 11:827-835.
245. Ziboh V.A. Nutritional modulation of inflammation by polyunsaturated fatty acids/eicosanoids. Nutrition and Immunology: Principles and Practice 2000, 157-167. Humana Press, New Jersey. M.E. Gershwin, J.B. German, C.L. Keen (Eds.).