Complex biochemistry and biotechnological production of betalains

Food Technology and Biotechnology

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 145-155

  Pavokovi, Dubravko ^a   Krsnik Rasol, Marijana ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB   (Croatia)

Author keywords

Antioxidants; Betacyanins; Betaxanthins; Food colourants; Pigments; Reactors; Red beet

Indexed keywords

AMARANTHACEAE; BETA VULGARIS SUBSP. VULGARIS; CACTACEAE;

EID: 79959922938     PISSN: 13309862     EISSN: 13342606     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. H. Meggos, Food colours: An international perspective, Manuf. Confect. 75 (1995) 59-65.
2. A. Downham, P. Collins, Colouring our foods in the last and next millennium, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 35 (2000) 5-22.
3. Y. Tanaka, N. Sasaki, A. Ohmiya, Biosynthesis of plant pigments: Anthocyanins, betalains and carotenoids, Plant J. 54 (2008) 733-749.
4. T. Vogt, M. Ibdah, J. Schmidt, V. Wray, M. Nimtz, D. Strack, Light-induced betacyanin and flavonol accumulation in bladder cells of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, Phytochemistry, 52 (1999) 583-592.
5. V. Sosnová, Reproduction of sugar beet mosaic and tobacco mosaic viruses in anthocyanized beet plants, Biol. Plantarum, 12 (1970) 424-427.
6. A. Gliszczyńska-Świglø, H. Szymusiak, P. Malinowska, Betanin, the main pigment of red beet: Molecular origin of its exceptionally high free radical-scavenging activity, Food. Addit. Contam. 23 (2006) 1079-1087.
7. J. Paluszczak, V. Krajka-Kuzbniak, W. Baer-Dubowska, The effect of dietary polyphenols on the epigenetic regulation of gene expression in MCF7 breast cancer cells, Toxicol. Lett. 192 (2010) 119-125.
8. F.C. Stintzing, R. Carle, Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalains in plants, food, and in human nutrition, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 15 (2004) 19-38.
9. J.H. von Elbe, I.Y. Maing, Betalains as possible food colorants of meat substitutes, Cereal Sci. Today, 18 (1973) 263-265.
10. F.C. Stintzing, R. Carle, Betalains - Emerging prospects for food scientists, Trends Food. Sci. Technol. 18 (2007) 514-525.
11. V. Georgiev, M. Ilieva, T. Bley, A. Pavlov, Betalain production in plant in vitro systems, Acta Physiol. Plant. 30 (2008) 581-593.
12. J.S. Clement, T.J. Mabry, Pigment evolution in the Caryophyllales: A systematic overview, Bot. Acta, 109 (1996) 360-367.
13. M. Gill, Pigments of fungi (Macromycetes), Nat. Prod. Rep. 11 (1994) 67-90.
14. S. Shimada, K. Takahashi, Y. Sato, M. Sakuta, Dihydroflavonol 4-reductase cDNA from non-anthocyanin-producing species in the Caryophyllales, Plant Cell Physiol. 45 (2004) 1290-1298.
15. S. Shimada, H. Otsuki, M. Sakuta, Transcriptional control of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in the Caryophyllales, J. Exp. Bot. 58 (2007) 957-967.
16. D. Strack, T. Vogt, W. Schliemann, Recent advances in betalain research, Phytochemistry, 62 (2003) 247-269.
17. B.S. Henry, Natural Food Colours. In: Natural Food Colorants, G.A.F. Hendry, J.D. Houghton (Eds.), Blackie, Glasgow, UK (1992) pp. 40-79.
18. D.A. Moreno, C. García-Viguera, J.I. Gil, A. Gil-Izquierdo, Betalains in the era of global agri-food science, technology and nutritional health, Phytochem. Rev. 7 (2008) 261-280.
19. F. Constabel, H. Nassif-Makki, Formation of betalain in callus cultures of Beta sp., Ber. Deut. Bot. Ges. 84 (1971) 629-636 (in German).
20. P.A. Girod, J.P. Zryd, Isolation and culture of betaxanthins and betacyanins producing cells of red beet (Beta vulgaris L.), Experientia, 43 (1987) 660-661.
21. M. Bokern, S. Heuer, V. Wray, L. Witte, T. Macek, T. Vanek, D. Strack, Ferulic acid conjugates and betacyanins from cell cultures of Beta vulgaris, Phytochemistry, 30 (1991) 3261-3265.
22. T. Kujala, J. Loponen, K. Pihlaja, Betalains and phenolics in red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) peel extracts: Extraction and characterisation, Z. Naturforsch. C, 56 (2001) 343-348.
23. F. Kugler, F.C. Stintzing, R. Carle, Identification of betalains from petioles of differently colored Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla [L.] Alef. Cv. Bright lights) by high--performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, J. Agric. Food. Chem. 52 (2004) 2975-2981.
24. J. Berlin, S. Sieg, D. Strack, M. Bokern, H. Harms, Production of betalains by suspension cultures of Chenopodium rubrum L., Plant Cell Tissue Organ. Cult. 5 (1986) 163-174.
25. M. Bokern, V. Wray, D. Strack, Accumulation of phenolic acid conjugates and betacyanins, and changes in the activities of enzymes involved in feruloylglucose metabolism in cell-suspension cultures of Chenopodium rubrum L., Planta, 184 (1991) 261-270.
26. D. Strack, U. Engel, H. Reznik, High performance liquid chromatography of betalains and its application to pigment analysis in Aizoaceae and Cactaceae, Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 101 (1981) 215-222.
27. S. Wybraniec, I. Platzner, S. Geresh, H.E. Gottlieb, M. Haimberg, M. Mogilnitzki, Y. Mizrahi, Betacyanins from vine cactus Hylocereus polyrhizus, Phytochemistry, 58 (2001) 1209-1212.
28. S. Wybraniec, P. Stalica, G. Jerz, B. Klose, N. Gebers, P. Winterhalter, A. Spórna et al., Separation of polar betalain pigments from cacti fruits of Hylocereus polyrhizus by ion--pair high-speed countercurrent chromatography, J. Chromatogr. A, 1216 (2009) 6890-6899.
29. M. Piattelli, L. Minale, Pigments of centrospermae. 1. Betacyanins from Phyllocactus hybridus Hort. and Opuntia ficus indica Mill., Phytochemistry, 3 (1964) 307-311.
30. J.A. Fernández-López, R. Castellar, J.M. Obón, L. Almela, Screening and mass-spectral confirmation of betalains in cactus pears, Chromatographia, 56 (2002) 591-595.
31. J. Bianco-Colomas, Qualitative and quantitative aspects of betalains biosynthesis in Amaranthus caudatus L. var. pendula seedlings, Planta, 149 (1980) 176-180.
32. Y. Cai, M. Sun, H. Wu, R. Huang, H. Corke, Characterization and quantification of betacyanin pigments from diverse Amaranthus species, J. Agric. Food Chem. 46 (1998) 2063-2070.
33. T. Adachi, M. Nakatsukasa, High-performance liquid-chromatographic separation of betalains and their distribution in Portulaca grandiflora and related species, Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 109 (1983) 155-162.
34. G.F. Trezzini, J.P. Zrÿd, Two betalains from Portulaca grandiflora, Phytochemistry, 30 (1991) 1897-1899.
35. S. Heuer, S. Richter, J.W. Metzger, V. Wray, M. Nimtz, D. Strack, Betacyanins from bracts of Bougainvillea glabra, Phytochemistry, 37 (1994) 761-767.
36. n, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 387 (2007) 637-648.
37. S. Wybraniec, G. Jerz, N. Gebers, P. Winterhalter, Ion-pair high-speed countercurrent chromatography in fractionation of a high-molecular weight variation of acyl-oligosaccharide linked betacyanins from purple bracts of Bougainvillea glabra, J. Chromatogr. B, 878 (2010) 538-550.
38. X.H. Han, Z.J. Gao, X.G. Xiao, Enzymes and genes involved in the betalain biosynthesis in higher plants, Afr. J. Biotechnol. 8 (2009) 6735-6744.
39. F. Gandia-Herrero, J. Escribano, F. Garcia-Carmona, Characterization of the monophenolase activity of tyrosinase on betaxanthins: The tyramine-betaxanthin/dopamine-betaxanthin pair, Planta, 222 (2005) 307-318.
40. P.A. Girod, J.P. Zrÿd, Biogenesis of betalains: Purification and partial characterization of DOPA 4,5-dioxygenase from Amanita muscaria, Phytochemistry, 30 (1991) 169-174.
41. U.G. Hinz, J. Fivaz, P.A. Girod, J.P. Zrÿd, The gene coding for the DOPA dioxygenase involved in betalain biosynthesis in Amanita muscaria and its regulation, Mol. Gen. Genet. 256 (1997) 1-6.
42. L.A. Mueller, U. Hinz, J.P. Zryd, The formation of betalamic acid and muscaflavin by recombinant dopa-dioxygenase from Amanita, Phytochemistry, 44 (1997) 567-569.
43. L. Christinet, F.X. Burdet, M. Zaiko, U. Hinz, J.P. Zrÿd, Characterization and functional identification of a novel plant 4,5-extradiol dioxygenase involved in betalain pigment biosynthesis in Portulaca grandiflora, Plant Physiol. 134 (2004) 265-274.
44. P. Felker, F.C. Stintzing, E. Müssig, M. Leitenberger, R. Carle, T. Vogt, R. Bunch, Colour inheritance in cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) fruits, Ann. Appl. Biol. 152 (2008) 307-318.
45. N. Sasaki, Y. Abe, Y. Goda, T. Adachi, K. Kasahara, Y. Ozeki, Detection of DOPA 4,5-dioxygenase (DOD) activity using recombinant protein prepared from Escherichia coli cells harboring cDNA encoding DOD from Mirabilis jalapa, Plant Cell Physiol. 50 (2009) 1012-1016.
46. K. Takahashi, E. Takamura, M. Sakuta, Isolation and expression analysis of two DOPA dioxygenases in Phytolacca americana, Z. Naturforsch. C, 64 (2009) 564-573.
47. N. Sasaki, T. Adachi, T. Koda, Y. Ozeki, Detection of UDP--glucose:cyclo-DOPA 5-O-glucosyltransferase activity in four o'clocks (Mirabilis jalapa L.), Febs Lett. 568 (2004) 159-162.
48. N. Sasaki, K. Wada, T. Koda, K. Kasahara, T. Adachi, Y. Ozeki, Isolation and characterization of cDNAs encoding an enzyme with glucosyltransferase activity for cyclo-DOPA from four o'clocks and feather cockscombs, Plant Cell Physiol. 46 (2005) 666-670.
49. W. Schliemann, U. Steiner, D. Strack, Betanidin formation from dihydroxyphenylalanine in a model assay system, Phytochemistry, 49 (1998) 1593-1598.
50. N. Kobayashi, J. Schmidt, V. Wray, W. Schliemann, Formation and occurrence of dopamine-derived betacyanins, Phytochemistry, 56 (2001) 429-436.
51. F. Gandia-Herrero, J. Escribano, F. García-Carmona, Characterization of the activity of tyrosinase on betaxanthins derived from (R)-amino acids, J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (2005) 9207-9212.
52. D. Michelot, L.M. Melendez-Howell, Amanita muscaria: Chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology, Mycol. Res. 107 (2003) 131-146.
53. W. Schliemann, Y. Cai, T. Degenkolb, J. Schmidt, H. Corke, Betalains of Celosia argentea, Phytochemistry, 58 (2001) 159-165.
54. F. Gandía-Herrero, J. Escribano, F. García-Carmona, Betaxanthins as pigments responsible for visible fluorescence in flowers, Planta, 222 (2005) 586-593.
55. E.M. El-Tantawy, G.S.A. Eisa, Growth, yield, anatomical traits and betanine pigment content of table beet plants asaffected by nitrogen sources and spraying of some nutrients, J. Appl. Sci. Res. 5 (2009) 1173-1184.
56. Y.Z. Cai, M. Sun, H. Corke, Characterization and application of betalain pigments from plants of the Amaranthaceae, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 16 (2005) 370-376.
57. Y. Cai, H. Corke, Production and properties of spray-dried Amaranthus betacyanin pigments, J. Food Sci. 65 (2000) 1248-1252.
58. W. Oleszek, M. Junkuszew, A. Stochmal, Determination and toxicity of saponins from Amaranthus cruentus seeds, J. Agric. Food Chem. 47 (1999) 3685-3687.
59. D. Butera, L. Tesoriere, F. Di Gaudio, A. Bongiorno, M. Allegra, A.M. Pintaudi et al., Antioxidant activities of Sicilian prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) fruit extracts and reducing properties of its betalains: Betanin and indicaxanthin, J. Agric. Food Chem. 50 (2002) 6895-6901.
60. A. Piga, Cactus pear: A fruit of nutraceutical and functional importance, J. Prof. Assoc. Cactus. Develop. 6 (2004) 9-22.
61. F.C. Stintzing, K.M. Herbach, M.R. Mosshammer, R. Carle, W. Yi, S. Sellappan et al. Color, betalain pattern, and antioxidant properties of cactus pear (Opuntia spp.) clones, J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (2005) 442-451.
62. J.M. Obón, M.R. Castellar, M. Alacid, J.A. Fernández-López, Production of a red-purple food colorant from Opuntia stricta fruits by spray drying and its application in food model systems, J. Food Eng. 90 (2009) 471-479.
63. J. Seidemann, Pokewood (Phytolacca americana L.) a potential dye and vegetable plant today?, Deut. Lebensm.-Rundsch. 92 (1996) 251-254 (in German).
64. S. Ramachandra Rao, G.A. Ravishankar, Plant cell cultures: Chemical factories of secondary metabolites, Biotechnol. Adv. 20 (2002) 101-153.
65. M. Hancock, Potential for Colourants from Plant Sources in England and Wales, ST0106 Arable Crops and Horticulture Division, ADAS Boxworth, Cambridge, UK (1997) pp. 4- 52.
66. J. Colomas, C. Bulard, Behaviour of Myrtillocactus geometrizans (Mart) Cons (T) stem tissues cultivated in vitro and biosynthesis of betalains, Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. 124 (1977) 385-393 (in French).
67. J. Colomas, P. Barthe, C. Bulard, Separation and characterization of some betalains synthetized by Myrtillocactus geometrizans stem tissues cultivated in vitro, Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 87 (1978) 341-346 (in French).
68. P.A. Girod, J.P. Zryd, Regulation of the synthesis of betalains in red beet (Beta vulgaris ssp.) cells in culture, Experientia, 41 (1985) 782.
69. H. Hirano, M. Sakuta, A. Komamine, Inhibition by cytokinin of the accumulation of betacyanin in suspension-cultures of Phytolacca americana, Z. Naturforsch. C 47 (1992) 705-710.
70. J.D. Hamill, A.J. Parr, R.J. Robins, M.J.C. Rhodes, Secondary product formation by cultures of Beta vulgaris and Nicotiana rustica transformed with Agrobacterium rhizogenes, Plant Cell Rep. 5 (1986) 111-114.
71. T. Akita, Y. Hina, T. Nishi, New medium composition for high betacyanin production by a cell suspension culture of table beet (Beta vulgaris L.), Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 66 (2002) 902-905.
72. B.C. Savitha, R. Thimmaraju, N. Bhagyalakshmi, G.A. Ravishankar, Different biotic and abiotic elicitors influence betalain production in hairy root cultures of Beta vulgaris in shake-flask and bioreactor, Process. Biochem. 41 (2006) 50-60.
73. P.A. Girod, J.P. Zryd, Secondary metabolism in cultured red beet (Beta vulgaris L.) cells - Differential regulation of betaxanthin and betacyanin biosynthesis, Plant Cell Tissue Organ. Cult. 25 (1991) 1-12.
74. D. Pavoković, G. Rusak, V. Besendorfer, M. Krsnik-Rasol, Light-dependent betanin production by transformed cells of sugar beet, Food Technol. Biotechnol. 47 (2009) 153-158.
75. H. Böhm, L. Böhm, E. Rink, Establishment and characterization of a betaxanthin-producing cell-culture from Portulaca grandiflora, Plant Cell Tissue Organ. Cult. 26 (1991) 75-82.
76. M.N.H. Bhuiyan, T. Adachi, Stimulation of betacyanin synthesis through exogenous methyl jasmonate and other elicitors in suspension-cultured cells of Portulaca, J. Plant Physiol. 160 (2003) 1117-1124.
77. M.S. Santos-Diaz, Y. Velasquez-Garcia, M.M. Gonzalez-Chavez, Pigment production by callus of Mammillaria candida Scheidweiler (Cactaceae), Agrociencia, 39 (2005) 619-626.
78. F. Gandía-Herrero, F. García-Carmona, J. Escribano, Development of a protocol for the semi-synthesis and purification of betaxanthins, Phytochem. Anal. 17 (2006) 262-269.
79. F.A. Zeid, Effect of growth regulators benzyladenine and chlorcholinchloride on pure protein, carbohydrates and the two pigments (chlorophyll and betanin) of Beta vulgaris, Bodenkultur, 36 (1985) 45-52 (in German).
80. T. Akita, Y. Hina, T. Nishi, Production of betacyanins by a cell suspension culture of table beet (Beta vulgaris L.), Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. 64 (2000) 1807-1812.
81. J. Weber, V. Georgiev, C. Haas, T. Bley, A. Pavlov, Ploidy levels in Beta vulgaris (red beet) plant organs and in vitro systems, Eng. Life. Sci. 10 (2010) 139-147.
82. H.H. Hwang, M.H. Wang, Y.L. Lee, Y.L. Tsai, Y.H. Li, F.J. Yang et al. Agrobacterium produced and exogenous cytokinin-modulated Agrobacterium mediated plant transformation, Mol. Plant Pathol. 11 (2010) 677-690.
83. N. Bhagyalakshmi, R. Thimmaraju, M.S. Narayan, Various hexoses and di-hexoses differently influence growth, morphology and pigment synthesis in transformed root cultures of red beet (Beta vulgaris), Plant Cell Tissue Organ. Cult. 78 (2004) 183-195.
84. G. Trejo-Tapia, A. Jimenez-Aparicio, M. Rodriguez, G. Sepulveda, G. Salcedo, B. Martinez et al. Influence of medium constituents on growth and betalain production in cell suspension cultures of Beta vulgaris, Asia-Pacific J. Mol. Biol. Biotechnol. 7 (1999) 167-172.
85. G. Trejo-Tapia, A. Jimenez-Aparicio, M. Rodriguez-Monroy, A. De Jesus-Sanchez, G. Gutierrez-Lopez, Influence of cobalt and other microelements on the production of betalains and the growth of suspension cultures of Beta vulgaris, Plant Cell Tissue Organ. Cult. 67 (2001) 19-23.
86. R.Y.K. Yang, O. Bayraktar, H.T. Pu, Plant-cell bioreactors with simultaneous electropermeabilization and electrophoresis, J. Biotechnol. 100 (2003) 13-22.
87. M. Kino-oka, Y. Hongo, M. Taya, S. Tone, Culture of red beet hairy root in bioreactor and recovery of pigment released from the cells by repeated treatment of oxygen starvation, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 25 (1992) 490-495.
88. A.A. Dilorio, P.J. Weathers, R.D. Cheetham, Non-lethal secondary product release from transformed root cultures of Beta vulgaris, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 39 (1993) 174-180.
89. U. Mukundan, V. Bhagwat, G. Singh, W. Curtis, Integrated recovery of pigments released from red beet hairy roots exposed to acidic medium, J. Plant Biochem. Biotechnol. 10 (2001) 67-69.
90. R. Thimmaraju, N. Bhagyalakshmi, M.S. Narayan, G.A. Ravishankar, Kinetics of pigment release from hairy root cultures of Beta vulgaris under the influence of pH, sonication, temperature and oxygen stress, Process Biochem. 38 (2003) 1069-1076.
91. B. Neelwarne, R. Thimmaraju, Bioreactor for cultivation of red beet hairy roots and in situ recovery of primary and secondary metabolites, Eng. Life Sci. 9 (2009) 227-238.
92. A. Khlebnikov, B. Dubuis, O.M. Kut, J.E. Prenosil, Growth and productivity of Beta vulgaris cell culture in fluidized bed reactors, Bioprocess. Eng. 14 (1995) 51-56.
93. M.J. Sánchez, A. Jiménez-Aparicio, G.G. López, G.Trejo--Tapia, M. Rodríguez-Monroy, Broth rheology of Beta vulgaris cultures growing in an air lift bioreactor, Biochem. Eng. J. 12 (2002) 37-41.
94. A. Pavlov, T. Bley, Betalains biosynthesis by Beta vulgaris L. hairy root culture in a temporary immersion cultivation system, Process. Biochem. 41 (2006) 848-852.
95. J.H. von Elbe, I.Y. Maing, Betalains as possible food colorants of meat substitutes, Cereal Sci. Today, 18 (1973) 263-264.
96. W.H. Grajek, D. Walkowiak-Tomczak, Factors influencing the denitrification rate of red beet juice by the bacteria Paracoccus denitrificans, J. Agric. Food Chem. 45 (1997) 1963-1966.
97. F. Delgado-Vargas, O. Paredes-López, Anthocyanins and Betalains. In: Natural Colorants for Food and Nutraceutical Uses, F. Delgado-Vargas, O. Paredes-López (Eds.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA (2002) pp. 167-220.
98. Y. Cai, H. Corke, Amaranthus betacyanin pigments applied in model food systems, J. Food Sci. 64 (1999) 869-873.
99. M.R. Mosshammer, F.C. Stintzing, R. Carle, Cactus pear fruits (Opuntia spp.): A review of processing technologies and current uses, J. Prof. Assoc. Cactus Develop. 8 (2006) 1-25.
100. M.R. Mosshammer, M. Rohe, F.C. Stintzing, R. Carle, Stability of yellow-orange cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica [L.] Mill. cv. 'Gialla') betalains as affected by the juice matrix and selected food additives, Eur. Food Res. Technol. 225 (2007) 21-32.
101. J. Escribano, M. Angeles Pedreño, F. Garcia-Carmona, R. Muñoz, Characterization of the antiradical activity of betalains from Beta vulgaris L. roots, Phytochem. Anal. 9 (1998) 124-127.
102. L. Tesoriere, M. Allegra, D. Butera, M.A. Livrea, Absorption, excretion, and distribution of dietary antioxidant betalains in LDLs: Potential health effects of betalains in humans, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80 (2004) 941-945.
103. Y. Cai, M. Sun, H. Corke, Antioxidant activity of betalains from plants of the Amaranthaceae, J. Agric. Food Chem. 51 (2003) 2288-2294.
104. V.G. Georgiev, J. Weber, E.M. Kneschke, P.N. Denev, T. Bley, A.I. Pavlov, Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of betalain extracts from intact plants and hairy root cultures of the red beetroot Beta vulgaris cv. Detroit dark red, Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 65 (2010) 105-111.
105. G.J. Kapadia, H. Tokuda, T. Konoshima, H. Nishino, Chemoprevention of lung and skin cancer by Beta vulgaris (beet) root extract, Cancer Lett. 100 (1996) 211-214.
106. J. Kanner, S. Harel, R. Granit, Betalains - A new class of dietary cationized antioxidants, J. Agric. Food Chem. 49 (2001) 5178-5185.
107. M. Zielinbska-Przyjemska, A. Olejnik, A. Dobrowolska--Zachwieja, W. Grajek, In vitro effects of beetroot juice and chips on oxidative metabolism and apoptosis neutrophils from obese individuals, Phytother. Res. 23 (2009) 49-55.
108. D. Sreekanth, M.K. Arunasree, K.R. Roy, T. Chandramohan Reddy, G.V. Reddy, P. Reddanna, Betanin, a betacyanin pigment purified from fruits of Opuntia ficus-indica induces apoptosis in human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line-K562, Phytomedicine, 14 (2007) 739-746.
109. S.F. Chang, C.L. Hsieh, G.C. Yen, The protective effect of Opuntia dillenii Haw. fruit against low-density lipoprotein peroxidation and its active compounds, Food Chem. 106 (2008) 569-575.
110. D. Steinberg, S. Parthasarathy, T.E. Carew, J.C. Khoo, J.L. Witztum, Beyond cholesterol. Modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity, N. Engl. J. Med. 320 (1989) 915-924.
111. M. Wettasinghe, B. Bolling, L. Plhak, H. Xiao, K. Parkin, Phase II enzyme-inducing and antioxidant activities of beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extracts from phenotypes of different pigmentation, J. Agric. Food Chem. 50 (2002) 6704-6709.
112. C.S. Lee, M. Wettasinghe, B.W. Bolling, L.L. Ji, K.L. Parkin, Betalains, phase II enzyme-inducing components from red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extracts, Nutr. Cancer, 53 (2005) 91-103.
113. M. Kujawska, E. Ignatowicz, M. Murias, M. Ewertowska, K. Miko3ajczyk, J. Jodynis-Liebert, Protective effect of red beetroot against carbon tetrachloride- and N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced oxidative stress in rats, J. Agric. Food. Chem. 57 (2009) 2570-2575.
114. T. Frank, F.C. Stintzing, R. Carle, I. Bitsch, D. Quaas, G. Strass et al. Urinary pharmacokinetics of betalains following consumption of red beet juice in healthy humans, Pharmacol. Res. 52 (2005) 290-297.
115. L. Tesoriere, M. Fazzari, F. Angileri, C. Gentile, M.A. Livrea, In vitro digestion of betalainic foods. Stability and bioaccessibility of betaxanthins and betacyanins and antioxidative potential of food digesta, J. Agric. Food Chem. 56 (2008) 10487-10492.
116. L. Tesoriere, D. Butera, M. Allegra, M. Fazzari, M.A. Livrea, Distribution of betalain pigments in red blood cells after consumption of cactus pear fruits and increased resistance of the cells to ex vivo induced oxidative hemolysis in humans, J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (2005) 1266-1270.
117. D. Zhang, S.M. Lanier, J.A. Downing, J.L. Avent, J. Lum, J.L. McHale, Betalain pigments for dye-sensitized solar cells, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A 195 (2008) 72-80.
118. G. Calogero, G. Di Marco, S. Cazzanti, S. Caramori, R. Argazzi, A. Di Carlo, C.A. Bignozzi, Efficient dye-sensitized solar cells using red turnip and purple wild Sicilian prickly pear fruits, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 11 (2010) 254-267.
119. D. Vasiljević, B. Murić, D. Pantelić, B. Panić, Aberrations of betanin sensitized gelatin microlenses, Acta Phys. Pol. A, 116 (2009) 592-594.
120. H. Ashassi-Sorkhabi, M. Es'haghi, Corrosion inhibition of mild steel in hydrochloric acid by betanin as a green inhibitor, J. Solid State Electrochem. 13 (2009) 1297-1301.