The Neurobiology of Schizophrenia

Psychiatry: Third Edition

Volumn 1, Issue , 2008, Pages 301-316

  Bobo, William V ^a   Rapoport, Judith L ^b   Abi Dargham, Anissa ^c   Fatemi, Hossein ^d   Meltzer, Herbert Y ^a   Kandel, Eric R ^c,e   Polan, H Jonathan ^c  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

^c Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons ^*  (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^e Kavli Institute for Brain Science   (United States)

Author keywords

Cognitive functioning deficit in schizophrenia; Cortico striato pallido thalamo cortical (CSPTC) pathways; Developmental brain imaging studies; electrophysiological abnormalities and functional MRI (fMRI) studies; Neurobiology of schizophrenia; Neurodevelopmental hypothesis evidence; Obstetric complications (OCs) and onset schizophrenia; Premorbid psychopathology; Schizophrenia and genetics and endophenotypic markers; Schizophrenic brain cytoarchitectural abnormalities

Indexed keywords

EID: 78049465450     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470515167.ch19     Document Type: Chapter

References (204)

1. Abbott C and Bustillo J (2006) What have we learned from proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy about schizophrenia? A critical update. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 19, 135-139.
2. Abi-Dargham A (2004) Do we still believe in the dopamine hypothesis? New data bring new evidence. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 7 (suppl 1), S1-S5.
3. Abi-Dargham A, Mawlawi O, Lombardo I, et al. (2002) Prefrontal dopamine D1 receptors and working memory in schizophrenia. Journal of Neuroscience 22, 3708-3719.
4. Abi-Dargham A and Moore H (2003) Prefrontal DA transmission at D1 receptors and the pathology of schizophrenia. Neuroscientist 9, 404-416.
5. Abi-Dargham A, Rodenhiser J, Printz D, et al. (2000) Increased baseline occupancy of D2 receptors by dopamine in schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97, 8104-8109.
6. Addington J, Addinton D, and Maricka-Tyndale E (1991) Cognitive functioning and positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 5, 123-134.
7. Adler CM and Strakowski SM (2003) Boundaries of schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 26, 1-23.
8. Akbarian S, Bunney WE, Potkin SG, et al. (1993) Altered distribution of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase cells in frontal lobe of schizophrenics implies disturbances of cortical development. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 169-177.
9. Akbarian S and Huang HS (2006) Molecular and cellular mechanisms of altered GAD1/GAD67 expression in schizophrenia and related disorders. Brain Research-Brain Research Reviews 52, 293-304.
10. Akil M, Pierri JN, Whitehead RE, et al. (1999) Lamina-specific alterations in the dopamine innervation of the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenic subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 1580-1589.
11. Alexander GE, DeLong MR, and Strick PL (1986) Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience 9, 357-381.
12. Arnold SE (1999) Neurodevelopmental abnormalities in schizohprenia: Insights from neuropathology. Development and Psychopathology 11. 439-456.
13. Arnold SE, Talbot K, and Hahn CG (2005) Neurodevelopment, neuroplasticity, and new genes for schizophrenia. Progress in Brain Research 147, 319-345.
14. Aronica E, Gorter JA, Ijlst-Keizers H, et al. (2003) Expression and functional role of mGluR3 and mGluR5 in human astrocytes and glioma cells: Opposite regulation of glutamate transporter proteins. European Journal of Neuroscience 17, 2106-2118.
15. Ashdown H, Dumont Y, Ng M, et al. (2006) The role of cytokines in mediating effects of prenatal infection on the fetus: Implications for schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry 11, 47-55.
16. Baldeweg T, Klugman A, Gruzelier J, et al. (2004) Mismatch negativity potentials and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 69, 203-217.
17. Benes FM, Vincent SL, and Todienkopf M (2001) The density of pyramidal and nonpyramidal neurons in anterior cingulate cortex of schizophrenic and bipolar subjects. Biological Psychiatry 50, 395-406.
18. Berger GE, Smesny S, and Amminger GP (2006) Bioactive lipids in schizophrenia. International Review of Psychiatry 18, 85-98.
19. Bowie CR and Harvey PD (2005) Cognition in schizophrenia: Impairments, determinants, and functional importance. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 28, 613-633.
20. Bramon E, Rabe-Hesketh S, Sham P, et al. (2004) Meta-analysis of the P300 and P50 waveforms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 70, 315-329.
21. Brickman AM, Buchsbaum MS, Bloom R, et al. (2004) Neuropsychological functioning in first-break, never-medicated adolescents with psychosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 192, 615-622.
22. Brown AS and Susser ES (2002) In utero infection and adult schizophrenia. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 8, 51-57.
23. Buchanan RW, Strauss ME, Kirkpatrick B, et al. (1994) Neuropsychological impairments in deficits vs. nondeficit forms of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 804-811.
24. Bunney WE and Bunney BG (2000) Evidence for a compromised dorsolateral prefrontal cortical parallel circuit in schizophrenia. Brain Research Reviews 31, 138-146.
25. Calkins ME, Curtis CE, Iacono WG, et al. (2004) Antisaccade performance is impaired in medically and psychiatrically healthy biological relatives of schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Research 71, 167-178.
26. Cannon M, Jones PB, and Murray RM (2002a) Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: Historical and meta-analytic review. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 1080-1092.
27. Cannon M, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, et al. (2002b) Evidence for early-child-hood, pan-developmental impairment specific to schizophreniform disorder: Results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 449-456.
28. Cannon TD, Huttunen MO, Lonnqvist J, et al. (2000) The inheritance of neuropsychological dysfunction in twins discordant for schizophrenia. American Journal of Human Genetics 67, 369-382.
29. Cardno AG, Marshall EJ, Coid B, et al. (1999) Heritability estimates for psychotic disorders: The Maudsley twin psychosis series. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 162-168.
30. Carlsson A and Lindqvist M (1963) Effect of chlorpromazine of haloperi-dol on formation of 3-methoxytyramine and normetanephrine in mouse brain. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 20, 140-144.
31. Cho RY, Konecky RO, and Carter CS (2006) Impairments in frontal cortical gamma synchrony and cognitive control in schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Scienceof the United States of America 103(52), 19878-19883.
32. Chung UC, Li Z, Dai J, et al. (2004) Clozapine increases both acetylcholine and dopamine release is rat ventral hippocampus: Role of 5-HT1A receptor agonism. Brain Research 1023, 54-63.
33. Clinton SM and Meador-Woodruff JH (2004) Thalamic dysfunction in schizophrenia: Neurochemical, neuropathological, and in vivo imaging abnormalities. Schizophrenia Research 69, 237-253.
34. Corfas G, Roy K, and Buxbaum JD (2004) Neuregulin 1-erbB signaling and the molecular/cellular basis of schizophrenia. Nature Neuroscience 7, 575-580.
35. Coyle JT (2006) Glutamate and schizophrenia: Beyond the dopamine hypothesis. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 26, 365-384.
36. Creese I, Burt DR, and Snyder SH (1976) Dopamine receptor binding predicts clinical and pharmacological potencies of antischizophrenic drugs. Science 192, 481-483.
37. Crook JM, Tomaskovic-Crook E, Copolov DL, et al. (2001) Low muscarinic receptor binding in prefrontal cortex from subjects with schizophrenia: A study of Brodmann's areas 8, 9, 10, and 46 and the effects of neuroleptic drug treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 918-925.
38. Davidson LL and Heinrichs RW (2003) Quantification of frontal and temporal lobe brain-imaging findings in schizophrneia: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research 122, 69-87.
39. Davis KL, Kahn RS, Ko G, et al. (1991) Dopamine in schizophrenia: A review and reconceptualization. American Journal of Psychiatry 148, 1474-1486.
40. Dean B (2000) Signal transmission, rather than reception, is the underlying neurochemical abnormality in schizophrenia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34, 560-569.
41. DeLisi LE (1999) Defining the course of brain structural change and plasticity in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 92(1), 1-9.
42. Dolan RJ, Fletcher PC, McKenna P, et al. (1999) Abnormal neural integration related to cognition in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 395(Suppl), 58-67.
43. Du Bois TM, Deng C, and Huang XF (2005) Membrane phospholipid composition, alterations in neurotransmitter systems and schizophrenia. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 29, 878-888.
44. Elkis H, Friedman L, Wise A, et al. (1995) Meta-analyses of studies of ventricular enlargement and cortical sulcal prominence in mood disorders. Comparisons with controls or patients with schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 735-746.
45. Fehsel K, Loeffler S, Krieger K, et al. (2005) Clozapine induces oxidative stress and proapoptotic gene expression in neutrophils of schizophrenic patients. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 25, 419-426.
46. Feinberg I (1982) Schizophrenia: Caused by a fault in programmed synaptic elimination during adolescence? Journal of Psychiatric Research 17. 319-334.
47. Flyckt L, Wiesel FA, Borg J, et al. (2000) Neuromuscular and psychomotor abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives. Journal of Psychiatric Research 34, 355-364.
48. Ford JM (1999) Schizophrenia: The broken P300 and beyond. Psychophysiology 36, 667-682.
49. Ford JM and Mathalon DH (2005) Corrolary discharge dysfunction in schizophrenia: Can it explain auditory hallucinations? International Journal of Psychophysiology 58, 179-189.
50. Frazier JA, Giedd JN, Hamburger SD, et al. (1996a) Brain anatomic magnetic resonance imaging in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 53, 617-624.
51. Frazier JA, Giedd JN, Kaysen D, et al. (1996b) Childhood-onset schizophrenia: Brain MRI rescan after 2 years of clozapine maintenance treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 564-546.
52. Freedman R, Coon H, Myles-Worsley M, et al. (1997) Linkage of a neuro-physiological deficit in schizophrenia to a chromosome 15 locus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 94, 587-592.
53. Friston KJ and Frith CD (1995) Schiophrenia: A disconnection syndrome? Clinical Neuroscience 3, 89-97.
54. Gaddum JH (1954) Drug antagonistic to 5-hydroxytryptamine. In Ciba Foundation Symposium on Hypertension, Wolstenholme GW (ed). Little Brown & Co., Boston, MA, USA, pp 75-77.
55. Geyer MA, Krebs-Thompson K, Braff DL, et al. (2001) Pharmacological studies of prepulse inhibition models of sensorimotor gating deficits in schizophrenia: A decade in review. Psychopharmacology 156, 117-154.
56. Giedd JN, Jeffries NO, Blumenthal J, et al. (1999) Childhood-onset schizophrenia: Progressive brain changes during adolescence. Biological Psychiatry 46, 892-898.
57. Glahn DC, Ragland JD, Abramoff A, et al. (2005) Beyond hypofrontal-ity: A quantitiative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of working memory in schizophrenia. Human Brain Mapping 25, 60-69.
58. Glantz LA and Lewis DA (2000) Decreased dendritic spine density on pre-frontal cortical pyramidal neurons in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 65-73.
59. Glen AI, Glen EM, Horrobin DF, et al. (1994) A red cell membrane abnormality in a subgroup for two diseases. Schizophrenia Research 12, 53-61.
60. Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, et al. (2004) Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101, 8174-8179.
61. Goldman-Rakic PS, Muly ED 3rd, and Williams GV (2000) D(1) receptors in prefrontal cells and circuits. Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews 31, 295-301.
62. Goode DJ, Meltzer HY, Crayton JW, et al. (1977) Physiologic abnormalities of the neuromuscular system in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 3, 121-138.
63. Gottesman II and Gould TD (2003) The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: Etymology and strategic intentions. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 636-645.
64. Green MF, Kern RS, Braff DL, et al. (2000) Neurocognitive deficits and functional outcome in schizophrenia: Are we measuring the "right stuff"? Schizophrenia Bulletin 26, 119-136.
65. Gresch PJ, Strickland LV, and Sanders-Bush E (2002) Lysergic acid diethylamide-induced Fos expression in rat brain: Role of serotonin-2A receptors. Neuroscience 114, 707-713.
66. Gur RE, Cowell P, Turetsky BI, et al. (1998) A follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study of schizophrenia. Relationship of neuroanatomical changes to clinical and neurobehavioral measures. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 145-152.
67. Hahn CG, Wang HY, Cho DS, et al. (2006) Altered neuregulin 1-erbB4 signaling contributes to NMDA receptor hypofunction in schizophrenia. Nature Medicine 12, 824-828.
68. Halliday GM (2001) A review of the neuropathology of schizophrenia. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 28, 64-65.
69. Hambrecht M and Hafner H (2000) Cannabis, vulnerability, and the onset of schizophrenia: An epidemiological perspective. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34, 468-475.
70. Harrison PJ and Weinberger DR (2005) Schizophrenia genes, gene expression, and neuropathology: On the matter of their convergence. Molecular Psychiatry 10, 40-68.
71. Harvey PD, Lombardi J, Leiberman M, et al. (1996) Cognitive impairment and negative symptoms in geriatric chronic schizophrenic patients: A fol-lowup study. Schizophrenia Research 22, 223-231.
72. Heckers S and Goff DC (2002) Neural circuitry and signaling in schizophrenia. In Brain Circuitry and Signaling in Psychiatry, Kaplan GB and Hammer RP (eds). American Psychaitric Publishing, Inc., Washington DC, USA, pp 67-97.
73. Heckers S, Weiss AP, Deckers bach T, et al. (2004) Anterior cingulate cortex activation during cognitive interference in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 707-715.
74. Heinrichs RW and Zakzanis KK (1998) Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: A quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology 12, 426-435.
75. Heinz A, Romero B, Gallinat J, et al. (2003) Molecular brain imaging and the neurobiology and genetics of schizophrenia. Pharmacopsychiatry 36 (suppl 3), S152-S157.
76. Henn FA and Braus DF (1999) Structural neuroimaging in schizophrenia. An integrative view of neuromorphology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 249 (suppl 4), 48-56.
77. Ho BC, Andreasen NC, Nopoulos P, et al. (2003) Progressive structural brain abnormalities and their relationship to clinical outcome: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study early in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 585-594.
78. Hoff AL, Sakuma M, Wieneke M, et al. (1999) Longitudinal neuropsychological follow-up study of patients with first-episode schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 1336-1341.
79. Hollis C (1995) Child and adolescent (juvenile onset) schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 166, 489-495.
80. Honea R, Crow TJ, Passingham D, et al. (2005) Regional deficits in brain volume in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 2233-2245.
81. Hong LE, Mitchell BD, Avila MT, et al. (2006) Familial aggregation of eye-tracking endophenotypes in families of schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 259-264.
82. Hubl D, Koenig T, Strik W, et al. (2004) Pathways that make voices: White matter changes in auditory hallucinations. Archives of General Psychiatry 61, 658-668.
83. Huttenloacher PR and Dabholkar AS (1997) Regional differences in synap-togenesis in human cerebral cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology 387, 167-178.
84. Ichikawa J, Dai J, O'Laughlin IA, et al. (2002a) Atypical, but not typical, antipsychotic drugs increase cortical acetylcholine release without an effect in the nucleus accumbens or striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology 26, 325-339.
85. Ichikawa J, Li Z, Dai J, et al. (2002b) Atypical antipsychotic drugs, quetiap-ine, iloperidone, and melperone, preferentially increase dopamine and acetylcholine release in rat medial prefrontal cortex: Role of 5-HT1A receptor agonism. Brain Research 956, 349-357.
86. Isohanni M, Murray GK, Jokelainen J, et al. (2004) The persistence of developmental markers in childhood and adolescence and risk for schizophrenic psychoses in adult life. A 34-year follow-up of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. Schizophrenia Research 71, 213-225.
87. Jakob H and Beckmann H (1986) Prenatal developmental disturbances in the limbic allocortex in schizophrenics. Journal of Neural Transmission 65, 303-326.
88. Janowski DS, Davis JM, and El-Yousef MK (1974) Proceedings: Effect of intravenous d-amphetamine, 1-amphetamine and methylphenidate in schizophrenics. Psycho pharmacology Bulletin 10, 15-24.
89. Jarskog LF, Miyamoto S, and Lieberman JA (2007) Schizophrenia: New pathological insights and therapies. Annual Review of Medicine 58, 49-61.
90. Jaskiw GE, Karoum F, Freed WJ, et al. (1990) Effect of ibotenic acid lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex on amphetamine-induced locomotion and regional brain catecholamine concentrations in the rat. Brain Research 534, 263-272.
91. Javitt DC (2004) Gultamate as a therapeutic target in psychiatric disorders. Molecular Psychiatry 9, 984-997.
92. Javitt DC and Zukin SR (1991) Recent advances in the phencyclidine model of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 148, 1301-1308.
93. Jones P, Rodgers B, Murray R, et al. (1994) Child development risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 344, 1398-1402.
94. Keefe RS, Bilder RM, Davis SM, et al. (2007) Neurocognitive effects of antipsychotic medications in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the CATIE Trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 631-632.
95. Keefe RS, Bilder RM, Davis SM, et al. (2007) Neurogognitive effects of antipsychotic medications in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the CATIE trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 633-647.
96. Keefe RS, Perkins DO, Gu H, et al. (2006) A longitudinal study of neu-rocognitive function in individuals at-risk for psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 88, 26-35.
97. Kegeles LS, Martinez D, Kochan LD, et al. (2002) NMDA antagonist effects on striatal dopamine release: Positron emission tomography studies in humans. Synapse 43, 19-29.
98. Kimble M, Lyons M, O'Donnell B, et al. (2000) The effect of family status and schizotypy on electrophysiologic measures of attention and semantic processing. Biological Psychiatry 47, 402-412.
99. Kim-Cohen J, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, et al. (2003) Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 709-717.
100. Kircher TT and Thienel R (2005) Functional brain imaging of symptoms and cognition in schizophrenia. Progress in Brain Research 57, E1068.
101. Kirkpatrick B, Buchanan RW, Ross DE, et al. (2001) A separate disease within the syndrome of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 165-171.
102. Knable MB, Weinberger DR (1997) Dopamine, the prefrontal cortex and schizophrenia. Journal of Psychopharmacology 11, 123-131.
103. Krystal JH, D'Souza DC, Karper LP, et al. (1999) Interactive effects of subanesthetic ketamine and haloperidol in healthy humans. Psychopharmacology 145, 193-204.
104. Krystal JH, Karper LP, Seibyl JP, et al. (1994) Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in humans. Psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive, and neuroendocrine responses. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 199-214.
105. Kubicki M, McCarley R, Westin CF, et al. (2007) A review of diffusion tensor imaging studies in schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research 41, 15-30.
106. Kumari V and Cooke M (2006) Use of magnetic resonance imaging in tracking the course and treatment of schizophrenia. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 6, 1005-1016.
107. Kumari V, Das M, Zachariah E, et al. (2005) Reduced prepulse inhibition in unaffected siblings of schizophrenia patients. Psychophysiology 42, 588-594.
108. Kuroki T, Meltzer HY, and Ichikawa J (1999) Effects of antipsychotic drugs on extracellular dopamine levels in rat medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 288, 774-781.
109. Laurelle M (1998) Imaging dopamine transmission in schizophrenia. A review on meta-analysis. Quarterly Journal of Nuclear Medicine 42, 211-221.
110. Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A, Gil R, et al. (1999) Increased dopamine transmission in schizophrenia: Relationship to illness phases. Biological Psychiatry 46, 56-72.
111. Law AJ, Lipska BK, Weickert CS, et al. (2006) Neuregulin 1 transcripts are differentially expressed in schizophrenia and regulated by 5' SNPs associated with the disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103(17), 6747-6752.
112. Lee KH and Williams LM (2000) Eye movement dysfunction as a biological marker of risk for schizophrenia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34(suppl), S91-S100.
113. Levitt P (2005) Developmental neurobiology and clinical disorders: Lost in translation? Neuron 46, 407-412.
114. Levy R and Goldman-Rakic PS (2000) Segregation of working memory functions within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Experimental Brain Research 133, 23-32.
115. Lewis DA and Gonzalez-Burgos G (2006) Pathophysiologically based treatment interventions in schizophrenia. Nature Medicine 12, 1016-1022.
116. Lewis DA, Hashimoto T, and Volk DW (2005) Cortical inhibitory neurons in schizophrenia. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6, 312-324.
117. Lewis DA, Pierri JN, Volk DW, et al. (1999) Altered GAB A neurotransmission and prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 46, 616-626.
118. Lewis DA, Volk DW, and Hashimoto T (2004) Selective alterations in pre-frontal cortical GABA neurotransmission in schizophrenia: A novel target for the treatment of working memory dysfunction. Psychopharmacology 174, 143-150.
119. Li Z, Huang M, Ichikawa J, et al. (2005) N-Desmethylclozapine, a major metabolite of clozapine, increases cortical acetylcholine and dopamine release in vivo via stimulation of M1 muscarinic receptors. Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 1986-1995.
120. Liddle PF, Friston KJ, Frith CD, et al. (1992) Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 160, 179-186.
121. Lieberman JA, Kane JM, and Alvir J (1987) Provocative tests with psychostimulant drugs in schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 91, 415-433.
122. Maier W, Zobel A, and Kuhn KU (2006) Clinical impact of recently detected susceptibility genes for schizophrenia. Dialogues Clinical Neuroscience 8, 79-84.
123. Mahadik SP, Pillai A, Joshi S, et al. (2006) Prevention of oxidative stress-mediated neuropathology and improved clinical outcome by adjunctive use of a combination of antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids in schizophrenia. International Review of Psychiatry 18, 119-131.
124. Margolis RL, Chung D-M, and Post RM (1994) Programmed cell death: Implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Biological Psychiatry 35, 946-956.
125. Martin LF and Freedman R (2007) Schizophrenia and the alpha7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor. International Review of Neurobiology 78, 225-246.
126. Mathalon DH, Rapoport JL, Davis KL, et al. (2003) Neurotoxicity, neuroplasticity, and magnetic resonance imaging morphometry. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 846-848.
127. Mathalon DH, Sullivan EV, Lim KO, et al. (2001) Progressive brain volume changes and the clinical course of schizophrenia in men: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 148-157.
128. Maynard TM, Haskell GT, Peters AZ, et al. (2003) A comprehensive analysis of 22q11 gene expression in the developing and adult brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100, 14433-14438.
129. McCreadie RG, Thara R, Srinivasan TN, et al. (2003) Spontaneous dyskinesia in first-degree relatives of chronically ill, never-treated people with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 183, 45-49.
130. Meador-Woodruff JH and Healy DJ (2000) Glutamate receptor expression in schizophrenic brain. Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews 31, 288-294.
131. Meltzer HY (1976) Neuromuscular dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2, 106-135.
132. Meltzer HY (1979) Biology of schizophrenia subtypes: A review and proposal for method of study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 5, 460-479.
133. Meltzer HY (1989) Clinical studies on the mechanism of action of clozapine: The dopamine-serotonin hypothesis of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 99(suppl), S18-S27.
134. Meltzer HY (1991) The mechanism of action of novel antipsychotic drugs. Schizophrenia Bulletin 17, 263-286.
135. Meltzer HY (1999) The role of serotonin in antipsychotic drug action. Neuropsychopharmacology 21, 106S-115S.
136. Meltzer HY, Li Z, Kaneda Y, et al. (2003) Serotonin receptors: their key role in drugs to treat schizophrenia. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 27, 1159-1172.
137. Meltzer HY and Stahl SM (1976) The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: A review. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2, 19-76.
138. Meyer-Lindenberg A, Miletich RS, Kohn PD, et al. (2002) Reduced pre-frontal activity predicts exaggerated striatal dopaminergic function in schizophrenia. Nature Neuroscience 430, 267-271.
139. Michie PT (2001) What has MMN revealed about the auditory system in schizophrenia? International Journal of Psychophysiology 42, 177-194.
140. Millan MJ (2000) Improving the treatment of schizophrenia: focus on serotonin (5-HT)1A receptors. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 295, 853-861.
141. Millan MJ (2005) N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptors as a target for improved antipsychotic agents: novel insights and clinical perspectives. Psychopharmacology 179 (1), 30-53.
142. Moghaddam B (2003) Bringing order to the glutamate chaos in schizophrenia. Neuron 40, 881-884.
143. Moller HJ (2003) Management of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia: New treatment options. CNS Drugs 17, 793-823.
144. Morey RA, Inan S, Mitchell TV, et al. (2005) Imaging frontostriatal function in ultra-high-risk, early, and chronic schizophrenia during executive processing. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 254-262.
145. Myles-'Worsley M and Park S (2002) Spatial working memory deficits in schizophrenia patients and their first degree relatives from Palau, Micronesia. American Journal of Medical Genetics 114, 609-615.
146. Narendran R, Frankle WG, Keefe R, et al. (2005) Altered prefrontal dopaminergic function in chronic recreational ketamine users. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 2352-2359.
147. Nicolson R and Rapoport JL (1999) Childhood-onset schizophrenia: Rare but worth studying. Biological Psychiatry 46, 1418-1428.
148. Nocjar C, Roth BL, and Pehek EA (2002) Localization of 5-HT(2A) receptors on dopamine cells in subnuclei of the midbrain A10 cell group. Neuroscience 111, 163-176.
149. Norton N and Owen MJ (2005) HTR2A: Association and expression studies in neuropsychiatric genetics. Annals of Medicine 37 (2), 121.
150. Onitsuka T, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF, et al. (2004) Middle and inferior temporal gyrus gray matter volume abnormalities in chronic schizophrenia: An MRI study. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1603-1611.
151. Owens DG and Johnstone EC (2006) Precursors and prodromata of schizophrenia: Findings from the Edinburgh High Risk Study and their literature context. Psychological Medicine 36, 1501-1514.
152. Ozyurt B, Sarsilmaz M, Akpolat N, et al. (2007) The protective effects of omega-3 fatty acids against MK-801-induced neurotoxicity in prefrontal cortex of rat. Neurochemistry International 50, 196-202.
153. Pantelis C, Yucel M, Wood SJ, et al. (2005) Structural brain imaging evidence for multiple pathological processes at different stages of brain development in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, 672-696.
154. Petronis A, Paterson AD, and Kennedy JL (1999) Schizophrenia: An epigenetic puzzle? Schizophrenia Bulletin 25(4), 639-655.
155. Phillips LJ, McGorry PD, Garner B, et al. (2006) Stress, the hippocampus and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: Implications for the development of psychotic disorders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 40, 725-741.
156. Pierri JN, Volk CL, Auh S, et al. (2001) Decreased somal size of deep layer 3 pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 466-473.
157. Porteous DJ, Thompson P, Brandon NJ, et al. (2006) The genetics and biology of disc1-an emerging role in psychosis and cognition. Biological Psychiatry 60, 123-131.
158. Poulton R, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, et al. (2000) Children's self-reported psychotic symptoms and adult schizophreniform disorder: A 15-year longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 1053-1058.
159. Pycock CJ, Kerwin RW, and Carter CJ (1980) Effect of lestion of cortical dopamine terminals on subcortical dopamine receptors in rats. Nature 286, 74-77.
160. Raedler TJ, Bymaster FP, Tandon R, et al. (2006) Towards a muscarinic hypothesis of schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry 12, 232-246.
161. Rana RS and Hokin LE (1990) Role of phosphoinositides in transmembrane signalling. Physiological Reviews 70, 115-164.
162. Rao AV and Balachandran B (2002) Role of oxidative stress and antioxidants in neurodegenerative diseases. Nutritional Neuroscience 5, 291-309.
163. Rao ML and Moller HJ (1994) Biochemical findings of negative symptoms in schizophrenia and their putative relevance to pharmacologic treatment. A review. Neuropsychobiology 30, 160-172.
164. Rapoport JL, Addington AM, Frangou S, et al. (2005) The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: Update 2005. Molecular Psychiatry 10, 434-439.
165. Reynolds GP, Templeman LA, and Zhang ZJ (2005) The role of 5-HT2C receptor polymorphisms in the pharmacogenetics of antipsychotic drug treatment. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 29, 1021-1028.
166. Ross CA, Margolis RL, Rading SA, et al. (2006) Neurobiology of schizophrenia. Neuron 52, 139-153.
167. Rosso IM, Cannon TD, Huttunen T, et al. (2000) Obstetric risk factors for early-onset schizophrenia in a Finnish birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 801-807.
168. Rossum V (1966) The significance of dopamine receptor blockade for the mechanism of action of neuroleptic drugs. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 160, 492-494.
169. Saperstein AM, Fuller RL, Avila MT, et al. (2006) Spatial working memory as a cognitive endophenotype of schizophrenia: Assessing risk for pathophysiological dysfunction. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 498-506.
170. Schlosser RG, Nenadic I, Wagner G, et al. (2007) White matter abnormalities and brain activation in schizophrenia: A combined DTI and fMRI study. Schizophrenia Research 89, 1-11.
171. Schurov IL, Handford EJ, Bandon NJ, et al. (2004) Expression of disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) protein in the adult and developing mouse brain indicates its role in neurodevelopment. Molecular Psychiatry 9, 1100-1110.
172. Seeman P, Chau-wong M, Tedesco J, et al. (1975) Brain receptors for antipsychotic drugs and dopamine: Direct binding assays. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 72, 4376-4380.
173. Selemon LD and Goldman-Rakic PS (1999) The reduced neuropil hypothesis: A circuit based model of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 45, 17-25.
174. Shenton ME, Dickey CC, Frumin M, et al. (2001) A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 49, 1-52.
175. Sim K, Cullen T, Ongur D, et al. (2006) Testing models of thalamic dysfunction in schizophrenia using neuroimaging. Journal of Neural Transmission 113, 907-928.
176. Silbersweig DA, Stern E, Frith C, et al. (1995) A functional neuroanatomy of hallucinations in schizophrenia. Nature 378, 176-179.
177. Singh SM, McDonald P, Murphy B, et al. (2004) Incidental neurodevelop-mental episodes in the etiology of schizophrenia: An expanded model involving epigenetics and development. Clinical Genetics 65, 435-440.
178. Skosnik PD and Yao JK (2003) From membrane phospholipid defects to altered neurotransmission: Is archidonic acid a nexus in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia? Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 69, 367-384.
179. Stefansson H, Sigurdsson E, Steinthorsdottir V, et al. (2002) Neuregulin 1 and susceptibility to schizophrenia. American Journal of Human Genetics 71, 877-892.
180. Sullivan PF, Kendler KS, and Neale MC (2003) Schizophrenia as a complex trait: Evidence from a meta-analysis of twin studies. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 1187-1192.
181. Tamminga CA, Vogel M, Gao X, et al. (2000) The limbic cortex in schizophrenia: Focus on the anterior congulate. Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews 31, 364-370.
182. Tan W, Wang Y, Gold B, et al. (2007) Molecular cloning of a brain-specific, developmentally regulated Neuregulin 1 (NRG1) isoform and identification of a functional promoter variant associated with schizophrenia. Journal of Biological Chemistry [Epub ahead of print].
183. Thompson PM, Vidal C, Giedd JN, et al. (2001) Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98, 11650-11655.
184. Townsend LA and Norman RM (2004) Course of cognitive functioning in first episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 4, 61-68.
185. Turetsky BI, Calkins ME, Light GA, et al. (2007) Neurophysio logical endo-phenotypes of schizophrenia: The viability of selected candidate measures. Schizophrenia Bulletin 33, 69-94.
186. Turetsky BI, Colbath EA, and Gur RE (1998) P300 subcomponent abnormalities in schizophrenia: I. Physiologic evidence for gender and subtype specific differences in regional pathology. Biological Psychiatry 43, 84-96.
187. Tzschentke TM (2001) Pharmacology and behavioral pharmacology of the mesocortical dopamine system. Progress in Neurobiology 63, 241-320.
188. Umbicht D, Schmid L, Koller R, et al. (2000) Ketamine-induced deficits in auditory and visual context-dependent processing in healthy volunteers: Implications for models of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 1139-1147.
189. Walterfang M, Wood SJ, Velakoulis D, et al. (2006) Neuropathological, neurogenetic and neuroimaging evidence for white matter pathology in schizophrenia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30, 918-948.
190. Walker EF, Savoie T, and Davis D (1994) Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 20, 441-451.
191. Weinberger DR and Berman KF (1996) Prefrontal function in schizophrenia: Confounds and controversies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. SERIES B: Biological Sciences 351, 1495-1503.
192. Weiner DM, Meltzer HY, Veinbergs I, et al. (2004) The role of M1 muscarinic receptor agonism of N-desmethylclozapine in the unique clinical effects of clozapine. Psychopharmacology 177, 207-216.
193. Weisbord M, Hill H, Niethammer R, et al. (1999) Genetic influence on auditory information processing in schizophrenia: P300 in manozygotic twins. Biological Psychiatry 46, 721-725.
194. Werneke U, Turner T, and Priebe S (2006) Complementary medicines in psychiatry: Review of effectiveness and safety. British Journal of Psychiatry 188, 109-121.
195. Woo TU, Whitehead RE, Melchitzky DS, et al. (1998) A subclass of pre-frontal gamma-aminobutyric acid axon terminals are selectively altered in schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95, 5341-5346.
196. Woodward ND, Purdon SE, Meltzer HY, et al. (2005) A meta-analysis of neuropsychological change to clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in schizophrenia. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 8, 457-472.
197. Wright IC, Rabe-Hasketh S, Woodruff PW, et al. (2000) Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 16-25.
198. Yao JK and Reddy RD (2003) Membrane pathology in schizophrenia: Implication for arachidonic acid signaling. Current Medicinal Chemistry-Central Nervous System Agents 3, 57-65.
199. Yao JK, Reddy RD, and van Kammen DP (2001) Oxidative damage and schizophrenia: An overview of the evidence and its therapeutic implications. CNS Drugs 15, 287-310.
200. Yucel M, Pantelis C, Stuart GW, et al. (2002) Anterior cingulate activation during Stroop task performance: A PET to MRI coregistration study of individual patients with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 251-254.
201. Zakzanis KK, Poulin P, Hansen KT, et al. (2000) Searching the schizophrenic brain for temporal lobe deficits: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychological Medicine 30, 491-504.
202. Zecevic N, Bourgeois JP, and Rakic P (1989) Changes in synaptic density in motor cortex of thesus monkey during fetal and postnatal life. Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research 50, 11-32.
203. Zhang XY, Tan YL, Zhou DF, et al. (2007) Disrupted antioxidant enzyme activity and elevated lipid peroxidation products in schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 68, 754-760.
204. Zuo DY, Wu YL, Yao WX, et al. (2007) Effect of MK-801 and ketamine on hydroxyl radical generation in the posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortex of free-moving mice, as determined by in vivo microdialysis. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 86, 1-7.