Structural brain imaging evidence for multiple pathological processes at different stages of brain development in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia Bulletin

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 672-696

  Pantelis, Christos ^a,c   Yücel, Murat ^a   Wood, Stephen J ^a   Velakoulis, Dennis ^a   Sun, Daqiang ^b   Berger, Gregor ^a   Stuart, Geoff W ^a   Yung, Alison ^a   Phillips, Lisa ^a   McGorry, Patrick D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c SUNSHINE HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Brain changes; Cognition; HPA axis; Longitudinal; Neurodegeneration; Neurodevelopment; Neuroimaging; Prodrome; Psychosis; Schizophrenia; Stress

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIOR; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN DYSFUNCTION; BRAIN MATURATION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETICS; GRAY MATTER; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MORPHOLOGY; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROIMAGING; PATHOLOGY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SCHIZOPHRENIA; STRESS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE;

BRAIN; DISEASE PROGRESSION; FETAL DEVELOPMENT; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PUBERTY; RISK FACTORS; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 24344436398     PISSN: 05867614     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbi034     Document Type: Review

References (210)

1. Lawrie SM, Abukmeil SS. Brain abnormality in schizophrenia: a systematic and quantitative review of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging studies. Brit J Psychiat 1998;172:110-120.
2. Shenton ME, Dickey CC, Frumin M, McCarley RW. A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2001;49(1-2):1-52.
3. Liddle PF, Pantelis C. Brain imaging in schizophrenia. In: Hirsch SR, Weinberger DR, eds. Schizophrenia. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.; 2003:403-417.
4. Weinberger DR. From neuropathology to neurodevelopment. Lancet 1995;346:552-557.
5. Harrison PJ. The neuropathology of schizophrenia: a critical review of the data and their interpretation. Brain 1999;122:593-624.
6. Harrison PJ, Lewis DA. Neuropathology of schizophrenia. In: Hirsch SR, Weinberger DR, eds. Schizophrenia. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.; 2003:310-325.
7. Weinberger DR. Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiat 1987;44:660-669.
8. Jones P, Murray RM. The genetics of schizophrenia is the genetics of neurodevelopment. Brit J Psychiat 1991;158:615-623.
9. Murray RM. Neurodevelopmental schizophrenia: the rediscovery of dementia praecox. Brit J Psychiat 1994;165(suppl):6-12.
10. Marenco S, Weinberger DR. The neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: following a trail of evidence from cradle to grave. Dev Psychopathol 2000;12(3):501-527.
11. McGrath JJ, Murray RM. Risk factors for schizophrenia: from conception to birth. In: Hirsch SR, Weinberger DR, eds. Schizophrenia. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.; 2003:232-250.
12. DeLisi LE. Is schizophrenia a lifetime disorder of brain plasticity, growth and aging? Schizophr Res 1997;23:119-129.
13. Woods BT. Is schizophrenia a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder? toward a unitary pathogenetic mechanism. Am J Psychiat 1998;155(12):1661-1670.
14. Lieberman JA. Is schizophrenia a neurodegenerative disorder? a clinical and neurobiological perspective. Biol Psychiat 1999;46:729-739.
15. McCarley RW, Hirayasu Y, Salisbury DF, et al. Left posterior superior temporal gyrus: progressive gray matter volume reduction in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1999;36:204-205.
16. Lieberman J, Chakos M, Wu H, et al. Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first episode schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 2001;49(6):487-499.
17. Pantelis C, Velakoulis D, McGorry PD, et al. Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet 2003;361(9354):281-288.
18. Job DE, Whalley HC, Johnstone EC, Lawrie SM. Grey matter changes over time in high risk subjects developing schizophrenia. Neuroimage 2005;25(4):1023-1030.
19. Pantelis C, Yücel M, Wood SJ, McGorry PD, Velakoulis D. The timing and functional consequences of structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenia. Neurosci News 2001;4(1):36-46.
20. Pantelis C, Yücel M, Wood SJ, McGorry PD, Velakoulis D. Early and late neurodevelopmental disturbances in schizophrenia and their functional consequences. Aust NZ J Psychiat 2003;37(4):399-406.
21. Cannon TD, van Erp TG, Bearden CE, et al. Early and late neurodevelopmental influences in the prodrome to schizophrenia: contributions of genes, environment, and their interactions. Schizophrenia Bull 2003;29(4):653-669.
22. Harrison PJ, Weinberger DR. Schizophrenia genes, gene expression, and neuropathology: on the matter of their convergence. Mol Psychiatr 2005;10(1):40-68, image 5.
23. Rapoport JL, Addington AM, Frangou S, Psych MR. The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: update 2005. Mol Psychiatr 2005;10(5):434-449.
24. Murray RM, Lewis SW. Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder? Brit Med J (Clinical Research ed.) 1987;295(6600):681-682.
25. Walker E, Savoie T, Davis D. Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bull 1994;20:441-451.
26. Weinberger DR, Marenco S. Schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental disorder. In: Hirsch SR, Weinberger DR, eds. Schizophrenia. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.; 2003:326-348.
27. McCarley RW, Wible CG, Frumin M, Hirayasu Y, Fischer IA, Shenton ME. MRI anatomy of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 1999;45:1085-1098.
28. Oppenheimer DR. Diseases of the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor neurons. In: Adams JH, Corsellis JAN, Duchen LW, eds. Greenfield's Neuropathology. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1984:699-747.
29. Berger GE, Wood S, McGorry PD. Incipient neurovulnerability and neuroprotection in early psychosis. Psychopharmacol Bull 2003;37(2):79-101.
30. Feinberg I. Schizophrenia: caused by a fault in programmed synaptic elimination during adolescence? J Psychiat Res 1982;17(4):319-334.
31. Benes FM. Evidence for neurodevelopment disturbances in anterior cingulate cortex of post-mortem schizophrenic brain. Schizophr Res 1991;5(3):187-188.
32. McGlashan TH, Hoffman RE. Schizophrenia as a disorder of developmentally reduced synaptic connectivity. Arch Gen Psychiat 2000;57:637-648.
33. Selemon LD, Goldman-Rakic PS. The reduced neuropil hypothesis: a circuit based model of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 1999;45(1):17-25.
34. McGrath JJ, van Os J, Hoyos C, Jones PB, Harvey I, Murray RM. Minor physical anomalies in psychoses: associations with clinical and putative aetiological variables. Schizophr Res 1995;18(1):9-20.
35. Dazzan P, Murray RM. Neurological soft signs in first-episode psychosis: a systematic review. Brit J Psychiat 2002;43(suppl):S50-S57.
36. Boks MP, Liddle PF, Burgerhof JG, Knegtering R. van den Bosch RJ. Neurological soft signs discriminating mood disorders from first episode schizophrenia. Acta Psychiat Scand 2004;110(1):29-35.
37. Chen EY, Hui CL, Chan RC, et al. A 3-year prospective study of neurological soft signs in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2005;75(1):45-54.
38. Bramon E, Walshe M, McDonald C, et al. Dermatoglyphics and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis and investigation of the impact of obstetric complications upon a-b ridge count. Schizophr Res 2005;75(2-3):399-404.
39. Buckley PF. The clinical stigmata of aberrant neurodevelopment in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1998;186(2):79-86.
40. Lawrie SM, Byrne M, Miller P, et al. Neurodevelopmental indices and the development of psychotic symptoms in subjects at high risk of schizophrenia. Brit J Psychiat 2001;178:524-530.
41. Waddington JL, Lane A, Scully P, et al. Early cerebrocraniofacial dysmorphogenesis in schizophrenia: a lifetime trajectory model from neurodevelopmental basis to "neuroprogressive" process. J Psychiat Res 1999;33(6):477-489.
42. Gelowitz DL, Rakic P, Goldman-Rakic PS, Selemon LD. Craniofacial dysmorphogenesis in fetally irradiated nonhuman primates: implications for the neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 2002;52(7):716-720.
43. McNeil TF, Cantor-Graae E, Weinberger DR. Relationship of obstetric complications and differences in size of brain structures in monozygotic twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2000;157:203-212.
44. van Os J, Woodruff PW, Fananas L, et al. Association between cerebral structural abnormalities and dermatoglyphic ridge counts in schizophrenia. Compr Psychiat 2000;41(5):380-384.
45. Selemon LD, Wang L, Nebel MB, Csernansky JG, Goldman-Rakic PS, Rakic P. Direct and indirect effects of fetal irradiation on cortical gray and white matter volume in the macaque. Biol Psychiat 2005;57(1):83-90.
46. Zilles K, Armstrong E, Schleicher A, Kretschmann HJ. The human pattern of gyrification in the cerebral cortex. Anat Embryol 1988;179(2):173-179.
47. Chi J, Dooling E, Gilles F. Gyral development of the human brain. Ann Neurol 1977;1:86-93.
48. Crichton-Browne J. On the weight of the brain and its component parts in the insane. Brain 1879;2:42-67.
49. Crow TJ, Ball J, Bloom S, et al. Schizophrenia as an anomaly of development of cerebral asymmetry: a postmortem study and a proposal concerning the genetic basis of the disease. Arch Gen Psychiat 1989;46(12):1145-1150.
50. Crow TJ. Temporal lobe asymmetries as the key to the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bull 1990;16(3):433-443.
51. Falkai P, Bogerts B, Greve B, et al. Loss of sylvian fissure asymmetry in schizophrenia: a quantitative post mortem study. Schizophr Res 1992;7(1):23-32.
52. Falkai P, Bogerts B, Schneider T, et al. Disturbed planum temporale asymmetry in schizophrenia: a quantitative post-mortem study. Schizophr Res 1995;14(2):161-176.
53. Bilder RM, Wu H, Bogerts B, et al. Absence of regional hemispheric volume asymmetries in first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 1994;151(10):1437- 1447.
54. Hirayasu Y, McCarley RW, Salisbury DF, et al. Planum temporale and Heschl gyrus volume reduction in schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging study of first-episode patients. Arch Gen Psychiat 2000;57(7):692-699.
55. Welker W. Why does the cerebral cortex fissure and fold? a review of determinants of gyri and sulci. In: Jones EG, Peters A, eds. Cerebral Cortex: Comparative Structure and Evolution of Cerebral Cortex. New York: Plenum Press; 1990:3-126.
56. Kasai K, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF, et al. Progressive decrease of left Heschl gyrus and planum temporale gray matter volume in first-episode schizophrenia: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiat 2003;60(8):766-775.
57. Kasai K, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF, et al. Progressive decrease of left superior temporal gyrus gray matter volume in patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2003;160(1):156-164.
58. Kwon JS, Shenton ME, Hirayasu Y, et al. MRI study of cavum septi pellucidi in schizophrenia, affective disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder. Am J Psychiat 1998;155(4):509-515.
59. Kasai K, McCarley RW, Salisbury DF, et al. Cavum septi pellucidi in first-episode schizophrenia and first-episode affective psychosis: an MRI study. Schizophr Res 2004;71(1):65-76.
60. Nopoulos PC, Giedd JN, Andreasen NC, Rapoport JL. Frequency and severity of enlarged cavum septi pellucidi in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 1998;155(8):1074-1079.
61. Yücel M, Stuart GW, Maruff P, et al. Paracingulate morphological differences in males with established schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging morphometric study. Biol Psychiat 2002;52(1):15-23.
62. Worthen NJ, Gilbertson V, Lau C. Cortical sulcal development seen on sonography: relationship to gestational parameters. J Ultras Med 1986;5(3):153-156.
63. Armstrong E, Schleicher A, Omran H, Curtis M, Zilles K. The ontogeny of human gyrification. Cereb Cortex 1995;5(1):56-63.
64. Le Provost JB, Bartres-Faz D, Paillere-Martinot ML, et al. Paracingulate sulcus morphology in men with early-onset schizophrenia. Brit J Psychiat 2003;182:228-232.
65. Marquardt RK, Levitt JG, Blanton RE, et al. Abnormal development of the anterior cingulate in childhood-onset schizophrenia: a preliminary quantitative MRI study. Psychiat Res 2005;138(3):221-233.
66. Kulynych JJ, Luevano LF, Jones DW, Weinberger DR. Cortical abnormality in schizophrenia: an in vivo application of the gyrification index. Biol Psychiat 1997;41(10):995-999.
67. Narr KL, Thompson P, Sharma T, et al. Three-dimensional mapping of gyral shape and cortical surface asymmetries in schizophrenia: gender effects. Am J Psychiat 2001;158:244-255.
68. Vogeley K, Schneider-Axmann T, Pfeiffer U, et al. Disturbed gyrification of the prefrontal region in male schizophrenic patients: a morphometric postmortem study. Am J Psychiat 2000;157:34-39.
69. Narr KL, Bilder RM, Kim S, et al. Abnormal gyral complexity in first-episode schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 2004;55(8):859-867.
70. Yücel M, Wood SJ, Phillips LJ, et al. Morphology of the anterior cingulate cortex in young men at ultra-high risk of developing a psychotic illness. Brit J Psychiat 2003;182:518-524.
71. Yung AR, Phillips LJ, Yuen HP, et al. Psychosis prediction: 12-month follow up of a high-risk ("prodromal") group. Schizophr Res 2003;60(1):21-32.
72. Yung AR, Phillips LJ, Yuen HP, McGorry PD. Risk factors for psychosis in an ultra high-risk group: psychopathology and clinical features. Schizophr Res 2004;67(2-3):131-142.
73. Bartley AJ, Jones DW, Weinberger DR. Genetic variability of human brain size and cortical gyral patterns. Brain 1997;120(2):257-269.
74. Haznedar MM, Buchsbaum MS, Metzger M, Solimando A, Spiegel-Cohen J, Hollander E. Anterior cingulate gyrus volume and glucose metabolism in autistic disorder. Am J Psychiat 1997;154(8):1047-1050.
75. Slagle TA, Oliphant M, Gross SJ. Cingulate sulcus development in preterm infants. Pediatr Res 1989;26(6):598-602.
76. Worthen NJ, Gilbertson V, Lau C. Cortical sulcal development seen on sonography: relationship to gestational parameters. J Ultras Med 1986;5(3):153-156.
77. McDonald C, Bullmore ET, Sham PC, et al. Association of genetic risks for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with specific and generic brain structural endophenotypes. Arch Gen Psychiat 2004;61(10):974-984.
78. Wood SJ, Yücel M, Velakoulis D, et al. Hippocampal and anterior cingulate morphology in subjects at ultra-high-risk for psychosis: the role of family history of psychotic illness. Schizophr Res 2005;75(2-3):295-301.
79. Bartzokis G. Schizophrenia: breakdown in the well-regulated lifelong process of brain development and maturation. Neuropsychopharmacol 2002;27(4):672-683.
80. Weinberger DR, McClure RK. Neurotoxicity, neuroplasticity, and magnetic resonance imaging morphometry: what is happening in the schizophrenic brain? Arch Gen Psychiat 2002;59(6):553-558.
81. Mathalon DH, Rapoport JL, Davis KL, Krystal JH. Letter: neurotoxicity, neuroplasticity, and magnetic resonance imaging morphometry. Arch Gen Psychiat 2003;60(8):846-848.
82. Weinberger DR, McClure RK. In reply: neurotoxicity, neuroplasticity, and magnetic resonance imaging morphometry. Arch Gen Psychiat 2003;60(8):848-849.
83. Raz S, Raz N. Structural brain abnormalities in the major psychoses: a quantitative review of the evidence from computerized imaging. Psychol Bull 1990;108(1):93-108.
84. Van Horn JD, McManus IC. Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of studies of the ventricle: brain ratio (VBR). Brit J Psychiat 1992;160:687-697.
85. Nopoulos P, Torres I, Flaum M, Andreasen NC, Ehrhardt JC, Yuh WT. Brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 1995;152(12):1721-1723.
86. Madsen A, Karle A, Rubin P, Cortsen M, Andersen H, Hemmingsen R. Progressive atrophy of the frontal lobes in first-episode schizophrenia: interaction with clinical course and neuroleptic treatment. Acta Psychiat Scand 1999;100:367-374.
87. Malla AK, Mittal C, Lee M, Scholten DJ, Assis L, Norman RM. Computed tomography of the brain morphology of patients with first-episode schizophrenic psychosis. J Psychiatr Neurosci 2002;27(5):350-358.
88. Hulshoff Pol HE, Schnack HG, Bertens MG, et al. Volume changes in gray matter in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2002;159(2):244-250.
89. Narr KL, Sharma T, Woods RP, et al. Increases in regional subarachnoid CSF without apparent cortical gray matter deficits in schizophrenia: modulating effects of sex and age. Am J Psychiat 2003;160(12):2169-2180.
90. Woods BT, Ward KE, Johnson EH. Meta-analysis of the time-course of brain volume reduction in schizophrenia: implications for pathogenesis and early treatment. Schizophr Res 2005;73(2-3):221-228.
91. Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, et al. Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nat Neurosci 1999;2(10):861-863.
92. DeLisi LE. Defining the course of brain structural change and plasticity in schizophrenia. Psychiat Res - Neuroim 1999;92:1-9.
93. DeLisi LE, Stritzke PH, Holan V, et al. Brain morphological changes in 1st episode cases of schizophrenia: are they progressive? Schizophr Res 1991;5(3):206-208.
94. DeLisi LE, Stritzke P, Riordan HJ, et al. The timing of brain morphological changes in schizophrenia and their relationship to clinical outcome. Biol Psychiat 1992;31:241-254.
95. DeLisi LE, Tew W, Xie S-h, et al. A prospective follow-up study of brain morphology and cognition in first-episode schizophrenic patients: preliminary findings. Biol Psychiat 1995;38:349-360.
96. DeLisi LE, Sakuma M, Tew W, Kushner M, Hoff AL, Grimson R. Schizophrenia as a chronic active brain process: a study of progressive brain structural change subsequent to the onset of schizophrenia. Psychiat Res - Neuroim 1997;74:129-140.
97. DeLisi LE, Sakuma M, Ge S, Kushner M. Association of brain structural change with the heterogeneous course of schizophrenia from early childhood through five years subsequent to a first hospitalization. Psychiat Res 1998;84(2-3):75-88.
98. Gharaibeh WS, Rohlf FJ, Slice DE, DeLisi LE. A geometric morphometric assessment of change in midline brain structural shape following a first episode of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 2000;48(5):398-405.
99. DeLisi LE, Sakuma M, Maurizio AM, Relja M, Hoff AL. Cerebral ventricular change over the first 10 years after the onset of schizophrenia. Psychiat Res 2004;130(1):57-70.
100. Delisi LE, Hoff AL. Failure to find progressive temporal lobe volume decreases 10 years subsequent to a first episode of schizophrenia. Psychiat Res 2005;138(3):265-268.
101. Nair TR, Christensen JD, Kingsbury SJ, Kumar NG, Terry WM, Garver DL. Progression of cerebroventricular enlargement and the subtyping of schizophrenia. Psychiat Res - Neuroim 1997;74:141-150.
102. Garver DL, Nair TR, Christensen JD, Holcomb JA, Kingsbury SJ. Brain and ventricle instability during psychotic episodes of the schizophrenias. Schizophr Res 2000;44:11-23.
103. Mathalon DH, Sullivan EV, Lim KO, Pfefferbaum A. Progressive brain volume changes and the clinical course of schizophrenia: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiat 2001;58:148-157.
104. Saijo T, Abe T, Someya Y, et al. Ten year progressive ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: an MRI morphometrical study. Psychiat Clin Neuros 2001;55(1):41-47.
105. Cahn W, Pol HE, Lems EB, et al. Brain volume changes in first-episode schizophrenia: a 1-year follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiat 2002;59(11):1002- 1010.
106. Ho BC, Andreasen NC, Nopoulos P, Arndt S, Magnotta V, Flaum M. Progressive structural brain abnormalities and their relationship to clinical outcome: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study early in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiat 2003;60(6):585-594.
107. Puri BK, Hutton SB, Saeed N, et al. A serial longitudinal quantitative MRI study of cerebral changes in first-episode schizophrenia using image segmentation and subvoxel registration. Psychiat Res 2001;106(2):141-150.
108. Gur RE, Cowell P, Turetsky BI, et al. A follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study of schizophrenia: relationship of neuroanatomical changes to clinical and neurobehavioural measures. Arch Gen Psychiat 1998;55(2):145-152.
109. Nelson MD, Saykin AJ, Flashman LA, Riordan HJ. Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: a meta-analytic study. Arch Gen Psychiat 1998;55:433-440.
110. Wright IC, Rabe-Hesketh S, Woodruff PW, David AS, Murray RM, Bullmore ET. Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2000;157(1):16-25.
111. Lipska BK. Using animal models to test a neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Neurosci 2004;29(4):282-286.
112. Lipska BK, Weinberger DR. A neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: neonatal disconnection of the hippocampus. Neurotox Res 2002;4(5-6):469-475.
113. Wood SJ, Velakoulis D, Smith DJ, et al. A longitudinal study of hippocampal volume in first episode psychosis and chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2001;52(1-2):37-46.
114. Lieberman JA, Tollefson GD, Charles C, et al. Antipsychotic drug effects on brain morphology in first-episode psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiat 2005;62(4):361-370.
115. Dazzan P, Morgan KD, Orr K, et al. Different effects of typical and atypical antipsychotics on grey matter in first episode psychosis: the AESOP study. Neuropsychopharmacol 2005;30(4):765-774.
116. Dorph-Petersen KA, Pierri JN, Perel JM, Sun Z, Sampson AR, Lewis DA. The influence of chronic exposure to antipsychotic medications on brain size before and after tissue fixation: a comparison of haloperidol and olanzapine in macaque monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacol 2005; in press.
117. Duke PJ, Pantelis C, Barnes TR. South Westminster schizophrenia survey: alcohol use and its relationship to symptoms, tardive dyskinesia and illness onset. Brit J Psychiat 1994;164(5):630-636.
118. Duke PJ, Pantelis C, McPhillips MA, Barnes TRE. Comorbid non-alcohol substance misuse among people with schizophrenia - epidemiological study in central London. Brit J Psychiat 2001;179:509-513.
119. Carpenter WT, Jr., Heinrichs DW, Wagman AM. Deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia: the concept. Am J Psychiat 1988;145(5):578-583.
120. Kirkpatrick B, Buchanan RW, Ross DE, Carpenter WT, Jr. A separate disease within the syndrome of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiat 2001;58(2):165-171.
121. Arango C, Buchanan RW, Kirkpatrick B, Carpenter WT. The deficit syndrome in schizophrenia: implications for the treatment of negative symptoms. Eur Psychiat 2004;19(1):21-26.
122. Smith SM, Zhang Y, Jenkinson M, et al. Accurate, robust and automated longitudinal and cross-sectional brain change analysis. Neuroimage 2002;17:479-489.
123. Sun D, Stuart GW, Wood SJ, et al. Progressive frontal lobe reduction in first episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 2003;60(1):208-208.
124. Sun D-Q, Stuart GW, Wood SJ, et al. Structural evidence for abnormal neurodevelopment following the onset of schizophrenia. Submitted 2005.
125. Sigmundsson T, Suckling J, Maier M, et al. Structural abnormalities in frontal, temporal, and limbic regions and interconnecting white matter tracts in schizophrenic patients with prominent negative symptoms. Am J Psychiat 2001;158:234-243.
126. Hirayasu Y, Tanaka S, Shenton ME, et al. Prefrontal gray matter volume reduction in first episode schizophrenia. Cereb Cortex 2001;11(4):374-381.
127. Dickey CC, Salisbury DF, Nagy AI, et al. Follow-up MRI study of prefrontal volumes in first-episode psychotic patients. Schizophr Res 2004;71(2-3):349-351.
128. Narr KL, Bilder RM, Toga AW, et al. Mapping cortical thickness and gray matter concentration in first episode schizophrenia. Cereb Cortex 2005;15(6):708-719.
129. Selemon LD, Kleinman JE, Herman MM, Goldman-Rakic PS. Smaller frontal gray matter volume in postmortem schizophrenic brains. Am J Psychiat 2002;159(12):1983-1991.
130. Selemon LD, Rajkowska G. Cellular pathology in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex distinguishes schizophrenia from bipolar disorder. Curr Mol Med 2003;3(5):427-436.
131. James AC, Javaloyes A, James S, Smith DM. Evidence for non-progressive changes in adolescent-onset schizophrenia: follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study. Brit J Psychiat 2002;180:339-344.
132. Sowell ER, Peterson BS, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, Toga A. Mapping cortical change across the human life span. Nat Neurosci 2003;6(3):309-315.
133. Thompson PM, Giedd JN, Woods RP, MacDonald D, Evans AC, Toga AW. Growth patterns in the developing brain detected by using continuum mechanical tensor maps. Nature 2000;404(6774):190-193.
134. Sporn AL, Greenstein DK, Gogtay N, et al. Progressive brain volume loss during adolescence in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2003;160(12):2181-2189.
135. Giedd JN. Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. Ann NY Acad Sci 2004;1021:77-85.
136. Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, et al. Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. P Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101(21):8174-8179.
137. Rapoport JL, Castellanos FX, Gogate N, Janson K, Kohler S, Nelson P. Imaging normal and abnormal brain development: new perspectives for child psychiatry. Aust NZ J Psychiat 2001;35(3):272-281.
138. Rapoport JL, Giedd J, Kumra S, et al. Childhood-onset schizophrenia: progressive ventricular change during adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiat 1997;54(10):897-903.
139. Giedd JN, Jeffries NO, Blumenthal J, et al. Childhood-onset schizophrenia: progressive brain changes during adolescence. Biol Psychiat 1999;46(7):892-898.
140. Rapoport JL, Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, et al. Progressive cortical change during adolescence in childhood-onset schizophrenia: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiat 1999;56(7):649-654.
141. Jacobsen LK, Giedd JN, Castellanos FX, et al. Progressive reduction of temporal lobe structures in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 1998;155(5):678-685.
142. Thompson PM, Vidal C, Giedd JN, et al. Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. P Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98(20):11650-11655.
143. Keller A, Castellanos FX, Vaituzis AC, Jeffries NO, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL. Progressive loss of cerebellar volume in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2003;160(1):128-133.
144. Seidman LJ, Pantelis C, Keshavan MS, et al. A review and new report of medial temporal lobe dysfunction as a vulnerability indicator for schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging morphometric family study of the parahippocampal gyrus. Schizophrenia Bull 2003;29(4):803-830.
145. Lawrie SM. Premorbid structural abnormalities in schizophrenia. In: Keshavan MS, Kennedy JL, Murray RM, eds. Neurodevelopment and Schizophrenia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2004:347-372.
146. Lawrie SM, Whalley H, Kestelman JN, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of brain in people at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Lancet 1999;353:30-33.
147. Job DE, Whalley HC, McConnell S, Glabus M, Johnstone EC, Lawrie SM. Voxel-based morphometry of grey matter densities in subjects at high risk of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2003;64(1):1-13.
148. Job DE, Whalley HC, McConnell S, Glabus M, Johnstone EC, Lawrie SM. Structural gray matter differences between first-episode schizophrenics and normal controls using voxel-based morphometry. Neuroimage 2002;17(2):880-889.
149. McGorry PD, Yung AR, Phillips LJ. "Closing in": what features predict the onset of first episode psychosis within a high-risk group? In: Schulz SC, Zipursky R, eds. The Early Stages of Schizophrenia. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press; 2001:3-32.
150. Yung AR, Phillips LJ, McGorry PD. Treating Schizophrenia in the Prodromal Phase. London: Taylor and Francis; 2004.
151. Velakoulis D, Pantelis C, McGorry PD, et al. Hippocampal volume in first-episode psychoses and chronic schizophrenia: a high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiat 1999;56:133-140.
152. Copolov D, Velakoulis D, McGorry P, et al. Neurobiological findings in early phase schizophrenia. Brain Res Rev 2000;31(2-3):157-165.
153. Phillips LJ, Velakoulis D, Pantelis C, et al. Non-reduction in hippocampal volume is associated with higher risk of psychosis. Schizophr Res 2002;58(2-3):145-158.
154. Pantelis C, Velakoulis D, Suckling J, et al. Left medial temporal volume reduction occurs during the transition from high-risk to first-episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 2000;41(1):35-35.
155. Brewer WJ, Wood SJ, McGorry PD, et al. Impairment of olfactory identification ability in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis who later develop schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2003;160(10):1790-1794.
156. Wood SJ, Pantelis C, Proffitt T, et al. Spatial working memory ability is a marker of risk-for-psychosis. Psychol Med 2003;33(7):1239-1247.
157. Wood SJ, Berger G, Velakoulis D, et al. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in first episode psychosis and ultra high-risk individuals. Schizophrenia Bull 2003;29(4):831-843.
158. Brewer WJ, Francey SM, Wood SJ, et al. Memory impairments identified in people at ultra-high risk for psychosis who later develop first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiat 2005;162(1):71-78.
159. Garner B, Pariante CM, Wood SJ, et al. Pituitary volume predicts future transition to psychosis in individuals at ultra-high risk of developing psychosis. Biol Psychiat 2005; in press.
160. Velakoulis D, Wood SJ, Wong MTH, et al. Hippocampal and amygdala volumes differ according to psychosis stage and diagnosis: an MRI study of chronic schizophrenia, first-episode psychosis and ultra-high risk subjects. Arch Gen Psychiat 2005; in press.
161. Altshuler LL, Bartzokis G, Grieder T, et al. An MRI study of temporal lobe structures in men with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 2000;48(2):147-162.
162. Altshuler LL, Bartzokis G, Grieder T, Curran J, Mintz J. Amygdala enlargement in bipolar disorder and hippocampal reduction in schizophrenia: an MRI study demonstrating neuroanatomic specificity. Arch Gen Psychiat 1998;55(7):663-664.
163. Bertolino A, Callicott JH, Elman I, et al. Regionally specific neuronal pathology in untreated patients with schizophrenia: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Biol Psychiat 1998;43(9):641-648.
164. Heckers S. Neuroimaging studies of the hippocampus in schizophrenia. Hippocampus 2001;11(5):520-528.
165. Velakoulis D, Wood SJ, Smith DJ, et al. Increased duration of illness is associated with reduced volume in right medial temporal/anterior cingulate grey matter in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2002;57(1):43-49.
166. Bilder RM, Bogerts B, Ashtari M, et al. Anterior hippocampal volume reductions predict frontal lobe dysfunction in first episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1995;17:47-58.
167. Szeszko PR, Goldberg E, Gunduz-Bruce H, et al. Smaller anterior hippocampal formation volume in antipsychotic-naive patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2003;160(12):2190-2197.
168. Narr KL, Thompson PM, Szeszko P, et al. Regional specificity of hippocampal volume reductions in first-episode schizophrenia. Neuroimage 2004;21(4):1563-1575.
169. Csernansky JG, Joshi S, Wang L, et al. Hippocampal morphometry in schizophrenia by high dimensional brain mapping. P Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95(19):11406-11411.
170. Velakoulis D, Stuart GW, Wood SJ, et al. Selective bilateral hippocampal volume loss in chronic schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 2001;50(7):531-539.
171. Csernansky JG, Wang L, Jones D, et al. Hippocampal deformities in schizophrenia characterized by high dimensional brain mapping. Am J Psychiat 2002;159(12):2000-2006.
172. McGorry PD, Yung AR, Phillips LJ, et al. Randomized controlled trial of interventions designed to reduce the risk of progression to first-episode psychosis in a clinical sample with subthreshold symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiat 2002;59(10):921-928.
173. Sun D-Q. Longitudinal brain changes in early psychosis: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Melbourne, 2005.
174. Sapolsky RM. Why stress is bad for your brain. Science 1996;273(5276):749-750.
175. Bremner J. Does stress damage the brain? Biol Psychiat 1999;45:797-805.
176. Yehuda R. Are glucocortoids responsible for putative hippocampal damage in PTSD? how and when to decide. Hippocampus 2001;11(2):85-89.
177. Pariante CM, Vassilopoulou K, Velakoulis D, et al. Pituitary volume in psychosis. Brit J Psychiat 2004;185:5-10.
178. Phillips L, Thompson K, Komesaroff P, et al. HPA-axis functioning and the onset of psychosis in an ultra high-risk group. Schizophr Res 2004;70(suppl):15.
179. Thompson K, Berger G, Komesaroff P, Phillips L, McGorry P. Corticotrophin releasing hormone test in patients at high risk of psychosis. Schizophrenia Bull 2004;31(suppl):194.
180. Bremner JD. Hypotheses and controversies related to effects of stress on the hippocampus: an argument for stress-induced damage to the hippocampus in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Hippocampus 2001;11(2):75-81.
181. Garner B, Wood SJ, Pantelis C, van den Buuse M. Modelling the "two-hit" hypothesis of schizophrenia: effect of neonatal maternal deprivation and chronic postnatal corticosterone treatment in rats. Submitted 2005; unpublished manuscript.
182. Wood SJ, Yücel M, Yung AR, Berger GE, Velakoulis D, Pantelis C. The transition to psychosis: risk factors and brain changes. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc 2004;13(3):137-140.
183. Wood SJ, Pantelis C. Does a neurodevelopmental lesion involving the hippocampus explain memory dysfunction in schizophrenia? Z Neuropsychol 2001;12(1):61-68.
184. Wood SJ, De Luca CR, Anderson V, Pantelis C. Cognitive development in adolescence: cerebral underpinnings, neural trajectories and the impact of aberrations. In: Keshavan MS, Kennedy JL, Murray RM, eds. Neurodevelopment and Schizophrenia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2004:69-88.
185. Hoff AL, Sakuma M, Wieneke M, Horon R, Kushner M, DeLisi LE. Longitudinal neuropsychological follow-up study of patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 1999;156(9):1336-1341.
186. Gold S, Arndt S, Nopoulos P, O'Leary DS, Andreasen NC. Longitudinal study of cognitive function in first-episode and recent-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 1999;156(9):1342-1348.
187. Rund BR. A review of longitudinal studies of cognitive functions in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Bull 1998;24(3):425-435.
188. Proffitt T. The stability of spatial working memory and problem solving deficits in first-episode psychosis and established psychotic illness. D.Psych. dissertation, University of Melbourne, 2002.
189. Brewer WJ, Pantelis C, Anderson V, et al. Stability of olfactory identification deficits in neuroleptic-naive patients with first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiat 2001;158:107-115.
190. Barker DJ. The Wellcome Foundation Lecture, 1994: the fetal origins of adult disease. P Roy Soc B - Biol Sci 1995;262(1363):37-43.
191. Vance AL, Velakoulis D, Maruff P, Wood SJ, Desmond P, Pantelis C. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy and schizophrenia: what have we learnt? Aunt NZ J Psychiat 2000;34:14-25.
192. Stanley JA, Pettegrew JW, Keshavan MS. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia: methodological issues and findings - part I. Biol Psychiat 2000;48:357-368.
193. Keshavan MS, Stanley JA, Pettegrew JW. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia: methodological issues and findings - part II. Biol Psychiat 2000;48:369-380.
194. Keshavan MS, Stanley JA, Montrose DM, Minshew NJ, Pettegrew JW. Prefrontal membrane phospholipid metabolism of child and adolescent offspring at risk for schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: an in vivo 31P MRS study. Mol Psychiatr 2003;8(3):316-323.
195. Kubicki M, Park H, Westin CF, et al. DTI and MTR abnormalities in schizophrenia: analysis of white matter integrity. Neuroimage 2005;in press.
196. Szeszko PR, Ardekani BA, Ashtari M, et al. White matter abnormalities in first-episode schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Am J Psychiat 2005;162(3):602-605.
197. Walterfang M, Wood SJ, Velakoulis D, Copolov D, Pantelis C. Diseases of white matter and schizophrenia-like psychosis. Aust NZ J Psychiat 2005;in press.
198. Vita A, Dieci M, Giobbio GM, et al. A reconsideration of the relationship between cerebral structural abnormalities and family history of schizophrenia. Psychiat Res 1994;53(1):41-55.
199. DeQuardo JR, Goldman M, Tandon R. VBR in schizophrenia: relationship to family history of psychosis and season of birth. Schizophr Res 1996;20(3):275-285.
200. Stefanis N, Frangou S, Yakeley J, et al. Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia: effects of genetic risk and pregnancy and birth complications. Biol Psychiat 1999;46(5):697-702.
201. Cannon TD, van Erp TG, Huttunen M, et al. Regional gray matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid distributions in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Arch Gen Psychiat 1998;55(12):1084-1091.
202. Cannon TD, van Erp TG, Rosso IM, et al. Fetal hypoxia and structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Arch Gen Psychiat 2002;59(1):35-41.
203. Styner M, Lieberman JA, McClure RK, Weinberger DR, Jones DW, Gerig G. Morphometric analysis of lateral ventricles in schizophrenia and healthy controls regarding genetic and disease-specific factors. P Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102(13):4872-4877.
204. Owen MJ, Williams NM, O'Donovan MC. The molecular genetics of schizophrenia: new findings promise new insights. Mol Psychiatr 2004;9(1):14-27.
205. Degreef G, Ashtari M, Wu H, Borenstein M, Geisler S, Lieberman JA. Follow up MRI study in first episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1991;5:204-206.
206. Keshavan MS, Haas GL, Kahn CE, et al. Superior temporal gyrus and the course of early schizophrenia: progressive, static, or reversible? J Psychiat Res 1998;32(3-4):161-167.
207. Davis KL, Buchsbaum MS, Shihabuddin L, et al. Ventricular enlargement in poor-outcome schizophrenia. Biol Psychiat 1998;43:783-793.
208. Kasai K, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF, et al. Differences and similarities in insular and temporal pole MRI gray matter volume abnormalities in first-episode schizophrenia and affective psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiat 2003;60(11):1069-1077.
209. Bachmann S, Bottmer C, Pantel J, et al. MRI-morphometric changes in first-episode schizophrenic patients at 14 months follow-up. Schizophr Res 2004;67(2-3):301-303.
210. James AC, James S, Smith DM, Javaloyes A. Cerebellar, prefrontal cortex, and thalamic volumes over two time points in adolescent-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiat 2004;161(6):1023-1029.