Ginger: An overview of health benefits

Nutrition Today

Volumn 45, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 171-183

  Singletary, Keith ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77955381375     PISSN: 0029666X     EISSN: 15389839     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/NT.0b013e3181ed3543     Document Type: Review

References (184)

1. Langner E, Greifenberg S, Gruenewald J. Ginger: history and use. Adv Ther. 1998;15:25-44.
2. Schwertner H, Rios D. High performance liquid chromatographic analysis of 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol in ginger-containing dietary supplements, spices, teas, and beverages. Chromatogr B Anal Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2008;856:41-47.
3. Tapsell LC, Hemphill I. Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future. Med J Aust. 2006;185(4 suppl):S4-S24.
4. Wang W, Wang Z. Studies of commonly used traditional medicine-ginger. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2005;30: 1569-1573.
5. Ali B, Blunden G, Tanira M, Nemmar A. Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): a review of recent research. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46:409-420.
6. Chubrasik S, Pittler M, Roufogalis B. Zingiberis rhizome: a comprehensive review on the ginger effect and efficacy profiles. Phytomedicine. 2005;12:684-701.
7. Yoshikawa M, Hatakayema S, Chantani N, Nishino Y, Yamahara J. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of bioactive principles in Zingiberis rhizoma by means of high performance liquid chromatography and gas liquid chromatography: on the evaluation of Zingiberis rhizoma and chemical change of constituents during Zingiberis rhizome processing. Yakugaku-Zasshi. 1993;113:307-315.
8. Jiang H, Xie Z, Kou H, McLaughlin S, Timmerman B, Gang D. Metabolic profiling and phylogenetic analysis of medicinal Zingiber species: tools for authentication of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Phytochem. 2006;67: 1673-1685.
9. Nakazawa T, Ohsawa K. Metabolism of [6]-gingerol in rats. Life Sci. 2002;70:2165-2175.
10. Wang W, Li C, Wen X, Li P, Qi L. Simultaneous determination of 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol in rat plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry: application to pharmacokinetics. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci.2009;877:671-679
11. Jiang G, Wang N, Mi S. Plasma pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of [6]-gingerol in rats. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2008;29:529-537.
12. Zick S, Djuric Z, Ruffin M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol and 6-shogaol and conjugate metabolites in healthy human subjects. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17:1930-1936.
13. Bhattaraj S, Tran V, Duke C. Stability of [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2007;45:648-653.
14. Pfeifer E, Heuschmid F, Kranz S, Metzler M. Microsomal hydroxylation and glucuronidation of [6]-gingerol. J Agric Food Chem. 2006;54:8769-8774.
15. Surh Y, Lee S. Enzymatic reduction of [6]-gingerol, a major pungent principle of ginger in the cell-free preparation of rat liver. Life Sci. 1994;54:321-326.
16. Ernst E, Pittler M. Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Br J Anesthesia. 2006;84:367-371.
17. Grzanna R, Lindmark L, Frondoza C. Ginger-an herbal medicinal product with broad anti-inflammatory action. J Med Food. 2005;8:125-132.
18. Afzal M, Al-Hadidi D, Menon M, Pesek J, Dhani M. Ginger: an ethnomedical, chemical and pharmacological review. Drug Metab Drug Interact. 2001;18:159-190.
19. Shukla Y, Singh M. Cancer preventive properties of ginger: a brief review. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007;45: 683-690.
20. Ghayur M, Gilani A, Afridt M, Houghton P. Cardiovascular effects of ginger aqueous extract and its phenolic constituents are mediated through multiple pathways. Vascul Pharmacol. 2005;43:234-241.
21. Chubrasik S, Pittler M. Addendum to a recent systematic review on ginger. Forsch Komplementarmed Klass Naturheilkd. 2005;12:168.
22. Bryer E. A literature review of the effectiveness of ginger in alleviating mild-to-moderate nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2005;50:e1-e3.
23. Sonkusare S. Hyperemesis gravidarum: a review. Med J Malaysia. 2008;63:272-276.
24. Ozgoli G, Goli M, Simbar M. Effects of ginger capsules on pregnancy, nausea and vomiting. J Altern Complement Med. 2009;15:243-246.
25. Smith C, Crowther C, Willson K, Hotham N, McMillian V. A randomized controlled trial of ginger to treat nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103: 639-645.
26. Friedman J. Teratology society: presentation to the FDA public meeting on safety of dietary supplements during pregnancy. Teratology. 2000;62:134-137.
27. Marcus D, Snodgrass W. Do no harm: avoidance of herbal medicines during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105:1119-1122.
28. Fischer-Rasmussen W, Kjaer S, Dahl C, Asping U. Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum. Eur J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;38:19-24.
29. Westfall R. Use of anti-emetic herbs in pregnancy: women's choices, and the question of safety and efficacy. Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery. 2004;10:30-36.
30. Schwertner H, Rios D, Pascoe J. Variation in concentration and labeling of ginger root dietary supplements. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;107:1337-1343.
31. White B. Ginger: an overview. Am Fam Physician. 2007;75:1689-1691.
32. Cohen M. Traveller's funny tummy: reviewing the evidence for complementary medicine. Aust Fam Physician. 2007;36:335-336.
33. Lumb A. Mechanism of antiemetic effect of ginger. Anaesthesia. 1993;48:1118.
34. Frisch C, Hasenohri R, Mattern C, Hacker R, Huston J. Blockage of lithium chloride-induced conditioned place aversion as a test for antiemetic agents: comparison of metoclopramide with combined extracts of Zingiber officinale and Ginkgo biloba. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1995;52:321-327.
35. Sharma S, Kochupillai V, Gupta S, Seth S, Gupta Y. Antiemetic efficacy of ginger (Zingiber officinale) against cisplatin-induced emesis in dogs. J Ethnopharmacol. 1997;57:93-96.
36. Yamahara J, Rong H, Naitoh Y, Kitani T, Fujimura H. Inhibition of cytotoxic drug-induced vomiting in Suncus by a ginger constituent. J Ethnopharmacol. 1989;27: 353-355.
37. Manusirivithaya S, Sripramote M, Tangjitgamol S, et al. Antiemetic effect of ginger in gynecologic oncology patients receiving cisplatin. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2004;14:1063-1069.
38. Levine M, Gillis M, Koch S, Voss A, Stern R, Koch K. Protein and ginger for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced delayed nausea. J Altern Complement Med. 2008;14:545-551.
39. Hickok J, Roscoe J, Morrow G, Ryan J. A phase II/III randomized placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial of ginger (Zingiber officinale) for nausea caused by chemotherapy for cancer: a currently accruing URCC CCOP cancer control study. Support Cancer Ther. 2007;4:247-250.
40. Zick S, Ruffin M, Lee J, Normolle S, Siden F, Alrawi S, Brenner D. Phase II trial of encapsulated ginger as a treatment for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Support Care Cancer. 2009;17:563-572.
41. Morin A, Betz O, Kramke P, Geldener G, Wulf H, Eberhart L. Is ginger a relevant antiemetic for postoperative nausea and vomiting? Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmertzther. 2004;39:281-285.
42. Chaiyakunapruk N, Kitikannakorn N, Nathisuwan S, Leeprakobboon K, Leelasettagool C. The efficacy of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194:95-99.
43. Thompson HJ, Potter PJ. Review: ginger prevents 24 hour postoperative nausea and vomiting. Evid Based Nurs. 2006;9(3):80.
44. Tavlan A, Tuncer S, Erol A, Reisli R, Aysolam G, Otelcioglu S. Prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after thyroidectomy. Clin Drug Invest. 2006;26:209-214.
45. Philips S, Hutchinson S, Ruggier R. Zingiber officinale does not affect gastric emptying rate: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Anaesthesia. 1993; 48:393-395.
46. Philips S, Ruggier R, Hutchinson S. Zingiber officinale (ginger)-an antiemetic for day case surgery. Anaesthesia. 1993;48:715-717.
47. Yamahara J, Huang Q, Li Y, Xu L, Fujimura H. Gastrointestinal motility enhancing effect of ginger and its active constituents. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 1990;38:430-431. (Pubitemid 20161708)
48. Wu K, Rayner C, Chuah S, et al. Effects of ginger on gastric emptying and motility in health humans. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;20:436-440.
49. Ghayur M, Gilani M. Species differences in the prokinetic effects of ginger. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2006;57:65-73.
50. Micklefield G, Redeker Y, Meister V, Jung O, Greving I, May B. Effects of ginger on gastrointestinal motility. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1999;37:341-346.
51. Yamahara J, Rong H, Iwamoto M, Kobayashi G, Matsuda H, Fujimura H. Active components of ginger exhibiting antiseratoninergic action. Phytother Res. 1989;3:70-71.
52. Abdel-Aziz H, Windeck T, Ploch M, Verspohl E. Mode of action of gingerols and shogaols on 5-HT3 receptors: binding studies, cation uptake by the receptor channel and contraction of isolated guinea pig ileum. Eur J Pharmacol. 2006;530:136-143.
53. Riyazi A, Hensel A, Bauer K, Geissler N, Schaaf S, Verspohl E. The effects of the volatile oil from ginger rhizomes (Zingiber officinale), its fractions and isolated compounds on the 5-HT3 receptor complex and the seratoninergic system of the rat ileum. Plant Med. 2007;73:355-362.
54. Huang Q, Iwamoto M, Aoki S, Tanaka N. Anti-5-hydroxytriptamine effect of galanolactone diterpenoid isolated from ginger. Chem Pharm Bull. 1991;39:397-399.
55. Lien H, Sun W, Chen Y, Kim H, Hasler W, Owyang C. Effects of ginger on motion sickness and gastric slow-wave dysrythmias induced by circular vection. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2003;248:G481-G489.
56. Gonlachanvit S, Chen Y, Hasler W, Sun W, Owyang C. Ginger reduces hyperglycemia-evoked gastric dysrythmias in healthy humans: possible role of endogenous prostaglandins. Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003;307:1098-1103.
57. Young H, Liao J, Chang Y, Luo Y, Lu M, Peng W. Synergistic effect of ginger and nifedipine on human platelet aggregation: a study in hypertensive patients and normal volunteers. Am J Chin Med. 2006;34:545-551.
58. Bordia A, Verma S, Srivastava K. Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) on blood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1997;56:379-384.
59. Verma S, Bordia A. Ginger, fat and fibrinolysis. Indian J Med Sci. 2001;55:83-86.
60. Jiang X, Williams K, Liauw W, et al. Effect of gingko and ginger on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;59:425-432.
61. Nurtjahja-Tjendraputra E, Ammit A, Roufogalis B, Tran V, Duke C. Effective anti-platelet and COX-1 enzyme inhibitors from pungent constituents of ginger. Thromb Res. 2003;111:259-265.
62. Nie H, Meng L, Zhang H, Zhang J, Yin Z, Huang X. Analysis of anti-platelet aggregation components of rhizoma zingiberis using chicken thrombocyte extract and high performance liquid chromatography. Chin Med J. 2008;121:1226-11220
63. Thomson M, Al-Qattan K, Al-Sawan S, Alnaqeeb M, Khan I, Ali M. The use of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) as a potential anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic agent. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2002;67:475-478.
64. Janssen P, Meyboom S, VanStaveren W, DeVegt F, Katan M. Consumption of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) does not affect ex vivo platelet thromboxane production in humans. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1996;50:772-774.
65. Ghayur M, Gilani A. Ginger lowers blood pressure through blockage of voltage-dependent calcium channels. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2005;45:74-80.
66. Al-Amin Z, Thomson M, al-Qattan K, Peltonen-Shalaby R, Ali M. Anti-diabetic and hypolipidaemic properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Br J Nutr. 2006;96:660-666.
67. Bhandari U, Kanojia R, Pillai K. Effect of ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale on dyslipidemia in diabetic rats. J Ethnopharmacol.2005;97:227-230.
68. Akhani S, Vishwakarma S, Goyal R. Antidiabetic activity of Zingiber officinale in streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetic rats. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2004;56:101-105.
69. Islam M, Choi H. Comparative effects of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale) and garlic (Allium sativum) investigated in a type 2 diabetes model of rats. J Med Food. 2008;11:152-159.
70. Kadnur S, Goyal R. Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale Roscoe on fructose-induced hyperlipidemia and hyperinsulinemia in rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 2005;43: 1161-1164.
71. Goyal R, Kadnur S. Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale on gold thioglucose-induced obesity. Fitoterapia. 2006;77:160-163.
72. Chou Y, Wang S, Chen G, Lin Y, Chao P. The functional assessment of Alpinei pricei on metabolic syndrome induced by sucrose-containing drinking water in mice. Phytother Res. 2009;23:558-563.
73. Ojewole J. Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and hypoglycemic effects of ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale (Roscoe) rhizomes (Zingiberaceae) in mice and rats. Phytother Res. 2006;20:764-772.
74. Han L, Morimoto C, Zheng Y, Li W, Asami E, Okuda H, Saito M. Effects of zingiberone on fat storage in ovariectomized rats. Yakugaku Zasshi. 2008;128: 1195-1201.
75. Sekiya K, Ohtani A, Kusano S. Enhancement of insulin sensitivity in adipocytes by ginger. Biofactors. 2004;22: 153-156.
76. Kato A, Higuchi Y, Goto H, et al. Inhibitory effects of Zingiber officinale Roscoe derived components on aldose reductase activity in vitro and in vivo. J Agric Food Chem. 2006;54:6640-6644.
77. Alizadeh-Navaei R, Roozbeh F, Saravi M, Pouramir M, Jalali F, Moghadamnia A. Investigation of the effect of ginger on the lipid levels. Saudi Med J. 2008;29: 1280-1284.
78. Aggarwal B, Shishodia S. Molecular targets for prevention and therapy of cancer. Biochem Pharmacol. 2006;71: 1397-1421.
79. Aggarwal B, Kunnumakkara A, Harikumar K, Tharakan S, Sung B, Anand P. Potential of spice-derived phytochemicals for cancer prevention. Plant Med. 2008;74:1560-1569.
80. Kim J, Lee S, Park H, et al. Cytotoxic components from the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Arch Pharm Res. 2008;31:415-418.
81. Lee H, Seo E, Kang N, Kim W. [6]-Gingerol inhibits metastasis of MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. J Nutr Biochem. 2008;19:313-319.
82. Rhode J, Fogoros S, Zick S, et al. Ginger inhibits cell growth and modulates angiogenic factors in ovarian cancer cells. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2007;7:44.
83. Chen C, Liu T, Liu Y, et al. 6-Shogaol (alkanone from ginger) induces apoptotic cell death of human hepatoma p53 mutant Mahlavu subline via an oxidative stress-mediated caspase-dependent mechanism. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:948-954.
84. Lee S, Cekanova M, Baek S. Multiple mechanisms are involved in 6-gingerol-induced cell growth arrest and apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells. Mol Carcinog. 2008;47:197-208.
85. Kundu J, Na H, Surh Y. Ginger-derived phenolic substances with cancer preventive and therapeutic potential. Forum Nutr. 2009;61:182-192.
86. Park E, Pezzuto J. Botanicals in cancer chemoprevention. Cancer Metast Rev. 2002;21:231-255.
87. Dias M, Spinardi-Barbisan A, Rodrigues M, DeCamargo J, Teran E, Barbisan L. Lack of chemopreventive effects of ginger on colon carcinogenesis induced by 1, 2-dimethylhydrazine in rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2006;44:877-884.
88. Bidinotto L, Spinardi-Barbisan A, Rocha N, Salvadori D, Barnisan L. Effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) on DNA damage and development of urothelial tumors in a mouse bladder carcinogenesis model. Environ Mol Mutagen. 2006;47:624-630.
89. Mangu V, Nalini N. Effect of ginger on bacterial enzymes in 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced experimental colon carcinogenesis. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2006;15:377-383. (Pubitemid 44252908)
90. Ihlaseh S, DeOliveira M, Teran E, DeCamargo J, Barbisan L. Chemopreventive property of dietary ginger in rat urinary bladder chemical carcinogenesis. World J Urol. 2006;24: 591-596.
91. Park K, Chun S, Lee J, Lee S, Surh Y. Inhibitory effects of ginger on phorbol ester-induced inflammation, epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity and skin tumor formation in ICR mice. Cancer Lett. 1998;129:139-144.
92. Kim M, Miyamoto S, Yasui Y, Oyama T, Murakami A, Tanaka T. Zerumbone, a tropical ginger sesquiterpene, inhibits colon and lung carcinogenesis in mice. Int J Cancer. 2008;124:264-271.
93. Sung B, Murakami A, Oyajobi B, Aggarwal B. Zerumbone abolishes RANKL-induced NF-kappaB activation, inhibits osteoclastogenesis and suppresses human breast cancer-induced bone loss in athymic nude mice. Cancer Res. 2009;69:1477-1484.
94. Habib S, Makpol S, Abdul-Hamid S, Das S, Ngah W, Yusok Y. Ginger extract (Zingiber officinale) has anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects on ethionine-induced hepatoma in rats. Clinics. 2008;63:807-813.
95. Aeschbach R, Loliger J, Scott B, et al. Antioxidant actions of thymol, carvacrol, 6-gingerol, zingerone and hydroxytyrosol. Food Chem Toxicol. 1994;32:31-36.
96. Asnani V, Verma R. Antioxidative effect of rhizome of Zingiber officinale on paraben induced lipid peroxidation: an in vitro study. Acta Pol Pharm. 2007;64:35-37.
97. Chohan M, Forster-Wilkins G, Opara E. Determination of the antioxidant capacity of culinary herbs subjugated to various cooking and storage processes using the ABTS(+) radical cation assay. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2008;631: 47-52.
98. Tao Q, Xu Y, Lam R, et al. Diarylheptanoids and aminoterpenoid from the rhizome of Zingiber officinale: antioxidant and cytoprotective properties. J Nat Prod. 2008;71:12-17.
99. Kim J, Kim Y, Na K, Surh Y, Kim T. [6]-Gingerol prevents UVB-induced ROS production and COX-2 expression in vitro and in vivo. Free Radic Res. 2007;41:603-614.
100. Mallikarjuna K, Sahitya P, Sathyavelu K, Rajendra W. Ethanol toxicity: rehabilitation of hepatic defense system with dietary ginger. Fitoterapia. 2008;79: 174-178.
101. Ahmed R, Suke S, Seth V, Chakraborti A, Tripathi A, Banerjee B. Protective effects of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) on lindane-induced oxidative stress in rats. Phytother Res. 2008;22:902-906.
102. Amin A, Hamza A. Effects of Roselle and ginger on cisplatin-induced reproductive toxicity in rats. Asian J Androl. 2006;8:607-612.
103. Haksar A, Sharma A, Chawla R, et al. Zingiber officinale exhibits behavioral radioprotection against radiation-induced CTA in gender-specific manner. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2006;84:179-188.
104. Ansari M, Bhandari U, Pillai K. Ethanolic Zingiber officinale R. extract pretreatment alleviates isoproterenol-induced oxidative myocardial necrosis in rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 2006;44:892-897.
105. Ajith T, Nivitha V, Usha S. Zingiber officinale Roscoe alone and in combination with alpha-tocopherol protect kidney against cisplatin-induced acute renal failure. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007;45:921-927.
106. Ajith T, Hema U, Aswathy M. Zingiber officinale Roscoe prevents acetaminophen-induced acute hepatotoxicity by enhancing hepatic antioxidant status. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007;45:2267-2272.
107. Ahmed R, Seth V, Pasha S, Banarjee B. Influence of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) on oxidative stress induced by malathion in rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2000;38:443-450.
108. El-Abhar H, Hammad L, Gawad H. Modulating effect of ginger extract on rats with ulcerative colitis. J Ethnopharmacol.2008;118:367-372
109. Chen I, Ng C, Wang C, Chang T. Lactic fermentation and antioxidant activity of Zingiberaceae plants in Taiwan. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2008;22:1-10.
110. Gregory P, Sperry M, Wilson A. Dietary supplements for osteoarthritis. Am Fam Physician. 2008;77:177-184.
111. Aktan F, Henness S, Tran V, Duke C, Roufogalis B, Ammit A. Gingerol metabolite and a synthetic analogue capsarol inhibit macrophage NF-kappaB-mediated iNOS gene expression and enzymatic activity. Plant Med. 2006;72:727-734.
112. Lantz R, Chen G, Sarihan M, Solyom A, Jolad D, Timmerman B. The effect of extracts from ginger on inflammatory mediator production. Phytomedicine. 2007;14:123-128.
113. Pan M, Hsieh M, Hsu P, et al. 6-Shogaol suppressed lipopolysaccharide- induced up-expression of iNOS and COX-2 in murine macrophages. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2008;52:1467-1477.
114. Tripathi S, Maier K, Bruch D, Kittur D. Effect of 6-gingerol on pro-inflammatory cytokine production and costimulatory molecule expression in murine peritoneal macrophages. J Surg Res. 2007;138:209-213.
115. Frondoza C, Sohrabi A, Polotsky A, Phan P, Hungerford D, Lindmark L. An in vitro screening assay for inhibitors of proinflammatory mediators in herbal extracts using human synoviocyte cultures. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim. 2004;40:95-101.
116. Mustafa T, Srivastava K, Jensen K. Drug development report: pharmacology of ginger, Zingiber officinale. J Drug Devel. 1993;6:25-89.
117. Kiuchi F, Iwakami S, Shibuya M, Hanaoka F, Sandawa U. Inhibition of prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis by gingerols and diarylheptanoids. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 1992;40:187-191.
118. Jana U, Chattopadhayay R, Shaw B. Preliminary studies on anti-inflammatory activity of Zingiber officinale Rosc., Vitex negundo Linn. and Tinospora cordifolia (Willid) miers in albino rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 1999;31: 232-233.
119. Minghetti P, Sosa S, Cilurzo F, et al. Evaluation of the topical anti-inflammatory activity of ginger dry extracts from solutions and plasters. Planta Med. 2007;73: 1525-1530.
120. Young H, Luo Y, Cheng H, Hsieh W, Liao J, Peng W. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of [6]-gingerol. Ethnopharmacol. 2005;96:207-210.
121. Ambire F, Penna S, Rodrigues M, Rodrigues K, Lopez-Martins R, Sertie J. Effect of hydroalcoholic extract of Zingiber officinale rhizomes on LPS-induced rat airway hyperreactivity and lung inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2007;77:129-138.
122. Levy A, Simon G, Shelly J, Gardener M. 6-Shogaol reduced chronic inflammatory response in the knees of rats treated with complete Freund's adjuvant. BMC Pharmacol. 2006;1:6-12.
123. Sharma J, Srivastava K, Gan E. Suppressive effects of eugenol and ginger oil on arthritic rats. Pharmacology. 1994;49:314-318.
124. Shen C, Hong K, Kim S. Effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) on decreasing the production of inflammatory mediators in sow osteoarthrotic cartilage explants. J Med Food. 2003;6:323-328.
125. Fouda A, Berika M. Evaluation of the effect of hydroalcoholic extract of Zingiber officinale rhizomes in rat collagen-induced arthritis. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2009;104:262-271.
126. Funk J, Frye J, Oyarzo J, Timmermann B. Comparative effects of two gingerol-containing Zingiber officinale extracts on experimental rheumatoid arthritis (perpendicular). J Nat Prod. 2009;72:403-407.
127. Jung H, Yoon C, Park K, Han H, Park Y. Hexane fraction of Zingiberis rhizoma crudus extract inhibits the production of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells via the NFkappaB pathway. Food Chem Toxicol. 2009;47:1190-1197.
128. Fajardo M, DiCesare P. Disease-modifying therapies for osteoarthritis. Drugs Aging. 2005;22:141-161.
129. Chubrasik J, Roufogalis B, Chubrasik S. Evidence of effectiveness of herbal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of painful osteoarthritis and chronic low back pain. Phytother Res. 2007;21:675-683.
130. Wigler I, Grotto I, Caspi D, Yaron M. The effects of Zintona EC (a ginger extract) on symptomatic gonarthritis. Osteoarth Cartil. 2003;11:783-789.
131. Altman R, Marcussen K. Effects of ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;11:2431-2538.
132. Srivastava K, Mustafa T. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders. Med Hypotheses. 1992;39:341-348.
133. Bliddal H, Rosettzky A, Schlichting P, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study of ginger extracts and ibuprofen in osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2000;8:9-12.
134. Cady R, Schreiber C, Beach M, Hart C. Gelstat Migraine (sublinguinally administered feverfew and ginger compound) for acute treatment of migraine when administered during the mild pain phase. Med Sci Monit. 2005;11:PI65-PI69.
135. Onogi T, Minami M, Kuraishi Y, Satoh M. Capsaicin-like effect of (6)-shogaol on substance P-containing primary afferents of rats: a possible mechanism of its analgesic action. Neuropharmacology. 1992;31:1165-1169.
136. Cortright D, Krause J, Broom D. TRP channels and pain. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2007;1772:978-988.
137. Dedov V, Tran V, Duke C, et al. Gingerols: a novel class of vanilloid receptor (VR1) agonists. Br J Pharmacol. 2002; 137:793-798.
138. Black C, O'Connor P. Acute effects of dietary gingeron quadriceps muscle pain during moderate-intensity cycling exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metabol. 2008; 18:653-664.
139. Ozgoli G, Goli M, Moattar F. Comparison of effects of ginger, mefenamic acid and ibuprofen on pain in women with primary dysmenorrheal. J Altern Complement Med. 2009;15:129-132.
140. Norajit K, Laohakunjit N, Kerdchoenchuen O. Antibacterial effect of five Zingiberaceae essential oils. Molecules. 2007;12:2047-2060.
141. Gupta S, Ravishankar S. A comparison of the antimicrobial activity of garlic, ginger, carrot and turmeric pastes against Escherichia coli O157:H7 in laboratory buffer and ground beef. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2005;2:330-340.
142. Nagoshi C, Shiota S, Kuroda T, et al. Synergistic effect of [10]-gingerol and aminoglycosides against vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). Biol Pharm Bull. 2006;29:443-447.
143. Mahady G, Rendland S, Yun G, Lu Z, Stoia A. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and the gingerols inhibit the growth of CagA+ strains of Helicobacter pylori. Anticancer Res. 2003;23:3699-3702.
144. Siddaraju M, Dharmesh S. Inhibition of gastric H+, K+-ATPase and Helicobacter pylori by phenolic antioxidants of Zingiber officinale. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007;51:324-332.
145. Nostro A, Cellini L, DiBartolomo S, et al. Effects of combining extracts (from propolis or Zingiber officinale) with clarithromycin on Helicobacter pylori. Phytother Res. 2006;20:187-190.
146. Jageta G, Baliga M, Venkatesh P, Ulloor J. Influence of ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) on survival, glutathione and lipid peroxidation in mice after whole body irradiation. Radiat Res. 2003;160:584-592.
147. Chen J, Huang L, Wu S, Kuo S, Ho T, Hsiang C. Ginger and its bioactive components inhibit enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin-induced diarrhea in mice. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:8390-8397.
148. Ficker C, Smith M, Akpagana K, et al. Bioassay-guided isolation and identification of antifungal compounds from ginger. Phytother Res. 2003;17:897-902.
149. Ficker C, Arnason J, Vindas P, et al. Inhibition of human pathogenic fungi by ethnobotanically selected plant extracts. Mycoses. 2003;46:29-37.
150. Agarwal V, Lal P, Pruthi V. Prevention of Candida albicans biofilm by plant oils. Mycopathologia. 2008;165: 13-19.
151. Pozzatti P, Scheid L, Spader T, Atayde M, Santurio J, Alves S. In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from plants used as spices against fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible Candida spp. Can J Microbiol. 2008;54:950-956.
152. Imanishi N, Andoh T, Mantani N, et al. Macrophage- mediated inhibitory effect of Zingiber officinale Rosc., a traditional oriental herbal medicine, on the growth of influenza A/Aichi/2/68 virus. Am J Clin Med. 2006;34: 157-169.
153. Schnitzler P, Koch C, Reichling J. Susceptibility of drug-resistant clinical herpes simplex virus type 1 strains to essential oils of ginger, thyme, hyssop, and sandalwood. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51:1859-1862.
154. Iqbal Z, Lateef M, Akhtar M, Ghayur M, Gilani A. In vivo antihelminthic activity of ginger against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;106: 285-287. (Pubitemid 43766203)
155. Ueki S, Miyoshi M, Shido O, Hasegawa J, Watanabe T. Systemic administration of [6]-gingerol, a pungent constituent of ginger, induces hypothermia in rats via an inhibitory effect on metabolic rate. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;584:87-92.
156. Westerterp-Plantenga M, Diepvens K, Joosen A, Berube-Parent S, Tremblay A. Metabolic effects of spices, teas and caffeine. Physiol Behav. 2006;89:85-91.
157. Henry C, Piggott S. Effect of ginger on metabolic rate. Hum Nutr Clin Nutr. 1987;41:89-92.
158. Iwasaki Y, Morita A, Iwasawa T, et al. A nonpungent component of steamed ginger-[10]-shogaol-increases adrenaline secretion via activation of TRPV1. Nutr Neurosci. 2006;9:169-178.
159. Eldershaw T, Colquhoun E, Dora K, Peng Z, Clark M. Pungent principles of ginger (Zingiber officinale) are thermogenic in the perfused rat hindlimb. Int J Obes. 1992;16:755-763.
160. Kim D, Kim J, Han Y. Alzheimer's disease drug discovery from herbs: neuroprotectivity from beta-amyloid (1-42) insult. J Altern Complement Med. 2007;13:333-340.
161. Ghayur M, Gilani A, Ahmed T, et al. Muscarinic Ca(++) antagonist and specific butyrlcholinesterase inhibitory activity of dried ginger extract might explain its use in dementia. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2008;60:1375-1383.
162. Yi L, Xu Q, Li Y, Yang L, Kong L. Antidepressant-like synergism of extracts from magnolia bark and ginger rhizome alone and in combination in mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2009;33:616-624.
163. Yemitan O, Izegbu M. Protective effects of Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae) against carbon tetrachloride and acetaminophen-induced hepatoxicity in rats. Phytother Res. 2006;20:997-1002.
164. Verma R, Asnani V. Ginger extract ameliorates paraben induced biochemical changes in liver and kidney of mice. Acta Pol Pharm. 2007;64:217-220.
165. Moneret-Vautrin D, Morisset M, Lemerdy P, Croizier A, Kanny G. Food allergy and IgE sensitization caused by spices: CICBAA data (based on 598 cases of food allergy). Allergy Immunol (Paris). 2002;34:135-140.
166. Kaul P, Joshi B. Alternative medicine: herbal drugs and their critical appraisal-part II. Prog Drug Res. 2001; 57:1-75. (Pubitemid 32973148)
167. Bradley P, ed. British Herbal Compendium. Bournemouth: British Herbal Medical Association, 1990.
168. Rong X, Peng G, Suzuki T, Yang Q, Yamahara J, Li Y. A 35-day gavage safety assessment of ginger in rats. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2009;54:118-123.
169. Eberhard L, Kranke P, Betz O. Addendum to a recent systematic review of ginger [author's reply]. Forsch Komplement.rmed Klass Naturheilkd. 2005;12:168-169.
170. Fugh-Berman A. The 5-Minute Herb and Dietary Supplement Consult. Bradenton, FL: Lippincott, Wiliams and Wilkins; 2003.
171. Portnoi G, Chang L, Karimi J, Koren G, Tan M, Emarson A. Prospective comparative study of the safety and effectiveness of ginger for the treatment of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189: 1374-1377.
172. Wilkinson J. Effect of ginger tea on the fetal development of Sprague-Dawley rats. Reprod Toxicol. 2000;14:507-512.
173. Weidner M, Sigwart K. Investigation of the teratogenic potential of a Zingiber officinale extract in the rat. Reprod Toxicol. 2001;15:75-80.
174. Therapeutic monographs on medicinal plants for human use. In: Blumenathal M, Busse W, eds. German Commission E Monographs. Austin TX: American Botanical Council; 1997.
175. Fugh-Berman A. Herbal supplements, indications, clinical concerns and safety. Nutr Today. 2002;37: 122-124.
176. Vlastarakos P, Nikolopoulos T, Manolopoulos L, Ferekidis E, Kreatsas G. Treating common ear problems in pregnancy: what's safe? Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;265:139-145.
177. Heck A, DeWitt B, Lukes A. Potential interactions between alternative therapies and warfarin. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2000;57:1221-1227.
178. Ulbricht C, Chao W, Costa D, Rusie-Seaman E, Weissner W, Woods J. Clinical evidence of herb drug interactions: a systematic review by the natural standard research collaboration. Curr Drug Metab. 2008;9: 1063-1120.
179. Spolarich A, Andrews L. An examination of the bleeding complications associated with herbal supplements, antiplatelet and anticoagulant medications. J Dent Hyg. 2007;81:67.
180. Miller L. Herbal medicinals: selected clinical considerations focusing on known or potential drug-herb interactions. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158: 2200-2211.
181. Kruth P, Brosi E, Fux R, Morike K, Gleiter C. Ginger-associated overanticoagulation by phenprocoumon. Ann Pharmacother. 2004;38:257-260.
182. Jiang X, Blair E, McLachlan A. Investigation of the effects of herbal medicines on warfarin responses in healthy subjects: a population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling approach. J Clin Pharmacol. 2006;46:1370-1378.
183. Chiang H, Chao P, Hsiu S, Wen K, Tsai S, Hou Y. Ginger significantly decreased the oral bioavailability of cyclosporine in rats. Am J Chin Med. 2006;34:845-855.
184. Nicoll R, Henein M. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): a hot remedy for cardiovascular disease? Int J Cardiol. 2009;131:408-409.