Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: Part II: Role of cigarette smoking in cardiovascular disease development

Biomarkers in Medicine

Volumn 3, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 617-653

  Winkelmann, Bernhard R ^a,b   Von Holt, Klaus ^c   Unverdorben, Martin ^d  

^a ClinPhenomics GmbH   (Germany)

^b Cardiology Group   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BONN   (Germany)

^d Center for Cardiovascular Diseases   (Germany)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Biomarker; Cardiovascular disease; Cigarette smoking

Indexed keywords

11 OXOTHROMBOXANE B2; ANTIOXIDANT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CARBON MONOXIDE; D DIMER; ENDOTHELIN 1; FIBRINOGEN; GROWTH FACTOR; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; HOMOCYSTEINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 6; ISOPROSTANE DERIVATIVE; LEPTIN; MALONALDEHYDE; NICOTINE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; OXIDIZED LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; PADGEM PROTEIN; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR; SERUM AMYLOID A; SIALIC ACID; THIOBARBITURIC ACID REACTIVE SUBSTANCE; THROMBOPLASTIN; TISSUE FACTOR PATHWAY INHIBITOR; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR; VON WILLEBRAND FACTOR; XANTHINE OXIDASE;

ARTERY INTIMA PROLIFERATION; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; BLOOD VISCOSITY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; HEART INFARCTION; HEART REINFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LEUKOCYTE COUNT; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPID PEROXIDATION; MICROALBUMINURIA; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SMOKING CESSATION; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION;

EID: 70450265707     PISSN: 17520363     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/bmm.09.51     Document Type: Review

References (451)

1. Villablanca AC, McDonald JM, Rutledge JC: Smoking and cardiovascular disease. Clin. Chest Med. 21, 159-172 (2000).
2. IARC: Chemistry and analysis of tobacco smoke. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans: Tobacco Smoking. 83-126 (1986). ■ Gives an overview of cigarette smoke chemistry, analysis and toxicology.
3. Green CR, Rodgman A: The tobacco chemists - research conference: a half century forum for advances in analytical methodology of tobacco and its products. Recent Adv. Tobacco Sci. 22, 131-304 (1996).
4. Hoffmann D, Hoffmann I: Chemistry and toxicology (chapter: 3; NIH publication c 98-4302). National Institutes of Health. Cigars: health effects and trends - smoking and tobacco control monograph no. 9. National Institutes of Health, Washington DC, USA, 55-104 (1998). ■ Gives an overview of cigarette smoke chemistry, analysis and toxicology.
5. Pillsbury HC, Bright CC, O'Connor KJ, Irish FW: Tar and nicotine in cigarette smoke. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 52, 458-462 (1969).
6. Smith CJ, Fischer TH: Particulate and vapor phase constituents of cigarette mainstream smoke and risk of myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 158, 257-267 (2001).
7. Benowitz NL: The role of nicotine in smokingrelated cardiovascular disease. Prev. Med. 26, 412-417 (1997). ■ Gives an insight into the role of nicotine in smoking-related diseases.
8. Pittilo RM: Cigarette smoking, endothelial injury and cardiovascular disease. J. Exp. Path. 81, 219-230 (2000).
9. Armitage AK, Dollery CT, George CF, Houseman TH, Lewis PJ, Turner DM: Absorption and metabolism of nicotine from cigarettes. BMJ 4, 313-316 (1975).
10. Benowitz NL, Hansson A, Jacob P III: Cardiovascular effects of nasal and transdermal nicotine and cigarette smoking. Hypertension 39, 1107-1112 (2002). ■ Gives an insight into the role of nicotine in smoking-related diseases.
11. Benowitz NL, Fitzgerald GA, Wilson M, Zhang Q: Nicotine effects on eicosanoid formation and hemostatic function: comparison of transdermal nicotine and cigarette smoking. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 22, 1159-1167 (1993). ■ Gives an insight into the role of nicotine in smoking-related diseases.
12. Aicher A, Heeschen C, Mohaupt M, Cooke JP, Zeiher AM, Dimmeler S: Nicotine strongly activates dendritic cellmediated adaptive immunity: potential role for progression of atherosclerotic lesions. Circulation 107, 604-611 (2003).
13. Neunteufl T, Heher S, Kostner K et al.: Contribution of nicotine to acute endothelial dysfunction in longterm smokers: J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 239, 251-256 (2002). ■ Describes examples for functional markers influenced by smoking.
14. Villablanca AC: Nicotine stimulates DNA synthesis and proliferation in vascular endothelial cells in vitro. J. Appl. Physiol. 84, 2089-2098 (1998).
15. Heeschen C, Jang JJ, Weis M et al.: Nicotine stimulates angiogenesis and promotes tumor growth and atherosclerosis. Nat. Med. 7, 833-839 (2001).
16. SRNT Subcommittee on Biochemical Verification: Biochemical verification of tobacco use and cessation. Nicotine Tob. Res. 149-159 (2002).
17. Heller WD, Scherer G, Sennewald E, Adlkofer F: Misclassification of smoking in a followup population study in southern Germany. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 51, 211-218 (1998).
18. Borden JT, Man A, Scott DA, Liu KZ: Tobaccoinduced alterations to the Fouriertransform infrared spectrum of serum. J. Mol. Med. 81, 788-794 (2003).
19. Chale SN: Carbon monoxide poisoning. In: Handbook of Medical Toxicology. Viccellio P (Ed.). Little, Brown & Company, Boston, MA, USA (1993).
20. Zuckerbraun BS, Chin BY, Wegiel B et al.: Carbon monoxide reverses established pulmonary hypertension. J. Exp. Med. 203, 2109-2119 (2006).
21. Anderson R, Theron AJ, Richards GA, Myer MS, van Rensburg AJ: Passive smoking by humans sensitizes circulating neutrophils. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 144, 570-574 (1991).
22. Glantz SA, Parmley WW: Even a little secondhand smoke is dangerous. JAMA 286, 462-463 (2001).
23. Tornqvist H, Mills NL, Gonzalez M et al.: Persistent endothelial dysfunction in humans after diesel exhaust inhalation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 176, 395-400 (2007).
24. Siafaka A, Angelopoulos E, Kritikos K et al.: Acute effects of smoking on skeletal muscle microcirculation monitored by nearinfrared spectroscopy. Chest 131, 1479-1485 (2007).
25. Ahn YS: Cellderived microparticles: 'miniature envoys with many faces'. J. Thromb. Haemost. 3, 884-887 (2005).
26. Panagiotakos DB, Chrysohoou C, Pitsavos C et al.: The association between secondhand smoke and the risk of developing acute coronary syndromes, among nonsmokers, under the presence of several cardiovascular risk factors: The CARDIO2000 case-control study. BMC Public Health 2, 9 (2002).
27. Burghuber OC, Punzengruber C, Sinzinger H, Haber P, Silberbauer K: Platelet sensitivity to prostacyclin in smokers and nonsmokers. Chest 90, 34-38 (1986).
28. Howard G, Burke GL, Szklo M et al.: Active and passive smoking are associated with increased carotid wall thickness. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 154, 1277-1282 (1994).
29. Howard G, Wagenknecht LE, Burke GL et al.: Cigarette smoking and progression of atherosclerosis: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. JAMA 279, 119-124 (1998).
30. Wells AJ: Passive smoking as a cause of heart disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 24, 546-554 (1994).
31. Celermajer DS, Adams MR, Clarkson P et al.: Passive smoking and impaired endotheliumdependent arterial dilatation in healthy young adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 334, 150-154 (1996).
32. Panagiotakos DB, Pitsavos C, Chrysohoou C et al.: Effect of exposure to secondhand smoke on markers of inflammation: the ATTICA study. Am. J. Med. 116, 145 (2004).
33. Schmid P, Karanikas G, Kritz H et al.: Passive smoking and platelet thromboxane. Thromb. Res. 81, 451-460 (1996).
34. Leone A, Mori L, Bertanelli F, Fabiano P, Filippelli M: Indoor passive smoking: its effect on cardiac performance. Int. J. Cardiol. 33, 247-251 (1991).
35. Ernst A, Zibrak JD: Carbon monoxide poisoning. N. Engl. J. Med. 339, 1603-1608 (1998).
36. Allen DR, Browse NL, Rutt DL, Butler L, Fletcher C: The effect of cigarette smoke, nicotine, and carbon monoxide on the permeability of the arterial wall. J. Vasc. Surg. 7, 139-152 (1988).
37. Nemmar A, Hoet PH, Vanquickenborne B et al.: Passage of inhaled particles into the blood circulation in humans. Circulation 105, 411-414 (2002).
38. Pekkanen J, Peters A, Hoek G et al.: Particulate air pollution and risk of ST-segment depression during repeated submaximal exercise tests among subjects with coronary heart disease: the Exposure and Risk Assessment for Fine and Ultrafine Particles in Ambient Air (ULTRA) study. Circulation 106, 933-938 (2002).
39. Verrier RL, Mittleman MA, Stone PH: Air pollution: an insidious and pervasive component of cardiac risk. Circulation 106, 890-892 (2002).
40. Kannel WB: Contributions of the Framingham Study to the conquest of coronary artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 62, 1109-1112 (1988).
41. Kagan A, Harris BR, Winkelstein W Jr et al.: Epidemiologic studies of coronary heart disease and stroke in Japanese men living in Japan, Hawaii and California: demographic, physical, dietary and biochemical characteristics. J. Chronic Dis. 27, 345-364 (1974).
42. Solberg LA, Strong JP: Risk factors and atherosclerotic lesions. A review of autopsy studies. Arteriosclerosis 3, 187-198 (1983).
43. Sytkowski PA, Kannel WB, D'Agostino RB: Changes in risk factors and the decline in mortality from cardiovascular disease. The Framingham Heart Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 322, 1635-1641 (1990).
44. Bradford HA: The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58, 295-300 (1965). ■ Gives insight into the criteria for biomarkers as a risk factor and/or a surrogate end point.
45. Winkelmann BR, Maerz W: An epidemiological perspective: society, environment, risk factors, and genetics. Saunders, PA, USA 15-48 (2003).
46. Hurt RD, Croghan GA, Wolter TD et al.: Does smoking reduction result in reduction of biomarkers associated with harm? A pilot study using a nicotine inhaler. Nicotine Tob. Res. 2, 327-336 (2000).
47. Harbour R, Miller J: A new system for grading recommendations in evidence based guidelines. BMJ 323, 334-336 (2001).
48. Braunwald E, Antman EM, Beasley JW et al.: ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina and nonSTsegment elevation myocardial infarction - a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines (Committee on the management of patients with unstable angina). Am. J. Coll. Cardiol. 36, 970-1062 (2000).
49. Braunwald E, Antman EM, Beasley JW et al.: ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina and nonSTsegment elevation myocardial infarction: executive summary and recommendations. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines (committee on the management of patients with unstable angina). Circulation 102, 1193-1209 (2000).
50. Bertrand ME, Simoons ML, Fox KA et al.: Management of acute coronary syndromes: acute coronary syndromes without persistent STsegment elevation; recommendations of the Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur. Heart J. 21, 1406-1432 (2000).
51. Winkelmann BR, von Holt K, Unverdorben M: Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: Part I: Atherosclerotic disease process. Biomarkers Med. 3(4), 411-428 (2009).
52. Hansson GK: Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 1685-1695 (2005).
53. Kannel WB, Anderson K, Wilson PW: White blood cell count and cardiovascular disease. Insights from the Framingham Study. JAMA 267, 1253-1256 (1992).
54. Lavi S, Prasad A, Yang EH et al.: Smoking is associated with epicardial coronary endothelial dysfunction and elevated white blood cell count in patients with chest pain and early coronary artery disease. Circulation 115, 2621-2627 (2007).
55. Yarnell JW, Baker IA, Sweetnam PM et al.: Fibrinogen, viscosity, and white blood cell count are major risk factors for ischemic heart disease. The Caerphilly and Speedwell collaborative heart disease studies. Circulation 83, 836-844 (1991).
56. Sopori M: Effects of cigarette smoke on the immune system. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2, 372-377 (2002).
57. Harel-Meir M, Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y: Tobacco smoking and autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol. 3, 707-715 (2007).
58. Erkan D, Yazici Y, Peterson MG, Sammaritano L, Lockshin MD: A cross-sectional study of clinical thrombotic risk factors and preventive treatments in antiphospholipid syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxf.) 41, 924-929 (2002).
59. Harrison BJ, Silman AJ, Hider SL, Herrick AL: Cigarette smoking as a significant risk factor for digital vascular disease in patients with systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 46, 3312-3316 (2002).
60. Shoenfeld Y, Gerli R, Doria A et al.: Accelerated atherosclerosis in autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Circulation 112, 3337-3347 (2005).
61. Gerli R, Sherer Y, Vaudo G et al.: Early atherosclerosis in rheumatoid arthritis: effects of smoking on thickness of the carotid artery intima media. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1051, 281-290 (2005).
62. Cavusoglu E, Chopra V, Gupta A et al.: Usefulness of the white blood cell count as a predictor of angiographic findings in an unselected population referred for coronary angiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 98, 1189-1193 (2006).
63. Lowe GD, Machado SG, Krol WF, Barton BA, Forbes CD: White blood cell count and haematocrit as predictors of coronary recurrence after myocardial infarction. Thromb. Haemost. 54, 700-703 (1985).
64. Margolis KL, Manson JE, Greenland P et al.: Leukocyte count as a predictor of cardiovascular events and mortality in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 165, 500-508 (2005).
65. Folsom AR, Wu KK, Rosamond WD, Sharrett AR, Chambless LE: Prospective study of hemostatic factors and incidence of coronary heart disease: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Circulation 96, 1102-1108 (1997).
66. Lee CD, Folsom AR, Nieto FJ, Chambless LE, Shahar E, Wolfe DA: White blood cell count and incidence of coronary heart disease and ischemic stroke and mortality from cardiovascular disease in African-American and White men and women: atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 154, 758-764 (2001).
67. Prentice RL, Szatrowski TP, Fujikura T, Kato H, Mason MW, Hamilton HH: Leukocyte counts and coronary heart disease in a Japanese cohort. Am. J. Epidemiol. 116, 496-509 (1982).
68. Coller BS: Leukocytosis and ischemic vascular disease morbidity and mortality: is it time to intervene? Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25, 658-670 (2005).
69. Grimm RH Jr, Neaton JD, Ludwig W: Prognostic importance of the white blood cell count for coronary, cancer, and allcause mortality. JAMA 254, 1932-1937 (1985).
70. Weijenberg MP, Feskens EJ, Kromhout D: White blood cell count and the risk of coronary heart disease and allcause mortality in elderly men. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 16, 499-503 (1996).
71. Shankar A, Mitchell P, Rochtchina E, Wang JJ: The association between circulating white blood cell count, triglyceride level and cardiovascular and all-cause mortality: population-based cohort study. Atherosclerosis 192(1), 177-183 (2007).
72. Sherwin R, Kaelber CT, Kezdi P, Kjelsberg MO, Thomas HE Jr: The multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT) II. The development of the protocol. Prev. Med. 10, 402-425 (1981).
73. Bovill EG, Bild DE, Heiss G et al.: White blood cell counts in persons aged 65 years or more from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Correlations with baseline clinical and demographic characteristics. Am. J. Epidemiol. 143, 1107-1115 (1996).
74. Winkelmann BR, Boehm BO, Nauck M et al.: Cigarette smoking is independently associated with markers of endothelial dysfunction and hyperinsulinaemia in nondiabetic individuals with coronary artery disease. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 17, 132-141 (2001). ■ Describes examples of biochemical markers influenced by smoking.
75. Freedman DS, Flanders WD, Barboriak JJ, Malarcher AM, Gates L: Cigarette smoking and leukocyte subpopulations in men. Ann. Epidemiol. 6, 299-306 (1996).
76. Freedman DS, Joesoef M, Rarboriak JJ, Stallone DD, Byers TE: Correlates of leukocyte counts in men. Ann. Epidemiol. 6, 74-82 (1996).
77. Botti TP, Amin H, Hiltscher L, Wissler RW: A comparison of the quantitation of macrophage foam cell populations and the extent of apolipoprotein E deposition in developing atherosclerotic lesions in young people: high and low serum thiocyanate groups as an indication of smoking. PDAY Research Group. Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth. Atherosclerosis 124, 191-202 (1996).
78. Boutet M, Bazin M, Turcotte H, Lagace R: Effects of cigarette smoke on rat thoracic aorta. Artery 7, 56-72 (1980).
79. Bazin M, Turcotte H, Lagace R, Boutet M: [Cardiovascular effects of cigarette smoke in the rat. Aortic endothelial and myocardial capillary permeability in the rat]. Rev. Can. Biol. 40, 263-276 (1981).
80. Ford ES, Giles WH: Serum Creactive protein and fibrinogen concentrations and self-reported angina pectoris and myocardial infarction: findings from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 53, 95-102 (2000).
81. Bazzano LA, He J, Muntner P, Vupputuri S, Whelton PK: Relationship between cigarette smoking and novel risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the United States. Ann. Intern. Med. 138, 891-897 (2003).
82. Rohde LE, Hennekens CH, Ridker PM: Survey of C-reactive protein and cardiovascular risk factors in apparently healthy men. Am. J. Cardiol. 84, 1018-1022 (1999).
83. Lowe GD, Yarnell JW, Rumley A, Bainton D, Sweetnam PM: C-reactive protein, fibrin D-dimer, and incident ischemic heart disease in the Speedwell study: are inflammation and fibrin turnover linked in pathogenesis? Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21, 603-610 (2001).
84. Tracy RP, Psaty BM, Macy E et al.: Lifetime smoking exposure affects the association of C-reactive protein with cardiovascular disease risk factors and subclinical disease in healthy elderly subjects. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17, 2167-2176 (1997).
85. Palosuo T, Husman T, Koistinen J, Aho K: C-reactive protein in population samples. Acta Med. Scand. 220, 175-179 (1986).
86. Mendall MA, Patel P, Ballam L, Strachan D, Northfield TC: C reactive protein and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors: a population based cross-sectional study. BMJ 312, 1061-1065 (1996).
87. Mendall MA, Strachan DP, Butland BK et al.: C-reactive protein: relation to total mortality, cardiovascular mortality and cardiovascular risk factors in men. Eur. Heart J. 21, 1584-1590 (2000).
88. Haverkate F, Thompson SG, Pyke SD, Gallimore JR, Pepys MB: Production of C-reactive protein and risk of coronary events in stable and unstable angina. European Concerted Action on Thrombosis and Disabilities Angina Pectoris Study Group. Lancet 349, 462-466 (1997).
89. Lindberg G, Rastam L, Gullberg B, Lundblad A, Nilsson-Ehle P, Hanson BS: Serum concentrations of total sialic acid and sialoglycoproteins in relation to coronary heart disease risk markers. Atherosclerosis 103, 123-129 (1993).
90. Lindberg G, Rastam L, Gullberg B, Eklund GA, Tornberg S: Serum sialic acid concentration and smoking: a population based study. BMJ 303, 1306-1307 (1991).
91. Tappia PS, Troughton KL, LangleyEvans SC, Grimble RF: Cigarette smoking influences cytokine production and antioxidant defense. Clin. Sci. 88(4), 485-489 (1995).
92. Takeuchi N, Kawamura T, Kanai A et al.: The effect of cigarette smoking on soluble adhesion molecules in middle-aged patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet. Med. 19, 57-64 (2002).
93. Blann AD, Steele C, McCollum CN: The influence of smoking on soluble adhesion molecules and endothelial cell markers. Thromb. Res. 85, 433-438 (1997).
94. Blann AD, Seigneur M, Steiner M, Miller JP, McCollum CN: Circulating ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in peripheral artery disease and hypercholesterolaemia: relationship to the location of atherosclerotic disease, smoking, and in the prediction of adverse events. Thromb. Haemost. 79, 1080-1085 (1998).
95. Bermudez EA, Rifai N, Buring J, Manson JE, Ridker PM: Interrelationships among circulating interleukin6, C-reactive protein, and traditional cardiovascular risk factors in women. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 22, 1668-1673 (2002).
96. Adams MR, Jessup W, Celermajer DS: Cigarette smoking is associated with increased human monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells: reversibility with oral larginine but not vitamin C. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 29, 491-497 (1997).
97. Saadeddin SM, Habbab MA, Ferns GA: Markers of inflammation and coronary artery disease. Med. Sci. Monit. 8, RA5-RA12 (2002).
98. Woodward M, Rumley A, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Lowe GD: Associations of blood rheology and interleukin6 with cardiovascular risk factors and prevalent cardiovascular disease. Br. J. Haematol. 104, 246-257 (1999).
99. Cohen HJ, Harris T, Pieper CF: Coagulation and activation of inflammatory pathways in the development of functional decline and mortality in the elderly. Am. J. Med. 114, 180-187 (2003).
100. Blankenberg S, Luc G, Ducimetiere P et al.: Interleukin-18 and the risk of coronary heart disease in European men: the Prospective Epidemiological Study of Myocardial Infarction (PRIME). Circulation 108, 2453-2459 (2003).
101. de Maat MP, Kluft C: The association between inflammation markers, coronary artery disease and smoking. Vascul. Pharmacol. 39, 137-139 (2002).
102. Mendall MA, Patel P, Asante M et al.: Relation of serum cytokine concentrations to cardiovascular risk factors and coronary heart disease. Heart 78, 273-277 (1997).
103. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH: Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men. Circulation 101, 1767-1772 (2000).
104. O'Malley T, Ludlam CA, Riemermsa RA, Fox KA: Early increase in levels of soluble inter-cellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1); potential risk factor for the acute coronary syndromes. Eur. Heart J. 22, 1226-1234 (2001).
105. Chan JC, Cheung JC, Stehouwer CD et al.: The central roles of obesityassociated dyslipidaemia, endothelial activation and cytokines in the metabolic syndrome - an analysis by structural equation modelling. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 26, 994-1008 (2002).
106. Bermudez EA, Rifai N, Buring JE, Manson JE, Ridker PM: Relation between markers of systemic vascular inflammation and smoking in women. Am. J. Cardiol. 89, 1117-1119 (2002).
107. Fernandez-Real JM, Vayreda M, Richart C et al.: Circulating interleukin 6 levels, blood pressure, and insulin sensitivity in apparently healthy men and women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86, 1154-1159 (2001).
108. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N: C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 836-843 (2000).
109. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH: Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men. Circulation 101, 1767-1772 (2000).
110. Pradhan AD, Manson JE, Rossouw JE et al.: Inflammatory biomarkers, hormone replacement therapy, and incident coronary heart disease: prospective analysis from the Women's Health Initiative observational study. JAMA 288, 980-987 (2002).
111. Vasan RS: Biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: molecular basis and practical considerations. Circulation 113, 2335-2362 (2006).
112. Lee TM, Su SF, Suo WY et al.: Distension of urinary bladder induces exaggerated coronary constriction in smokers with early atherosclerosis. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 279, H2838-H2845 (2000).
113. Lee P: The associations of five interleukins with smoking and with risk of heart disease. Internal report. London, UK (2004).
114. Ohta T, Yamashita N, Maruyama M, Sugiyama E, Kobayashi M: Cigarette smoking decreases interleukin-8 secretion by human alveolar macrophages. Respir. Med. 92, 922-927 (1998).
115. Keatings VM, Collins PD, Scott DM, Barnes PJ: Differences in interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-α in induced sputum from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 153, 530-534 (1996).
116. Kuschner WG, D'Alessandro A, Wong H, Blanc PD: Dose-dependent cigarette smoking-related inflammatory responses in healthy adults. Eur. Respir. J. 9, 1989-1994 (1996).
117. Yamamoto C, Yoneda T, Yoshikawa M et al.: Airway inflammation in COPD assessed by sputum levels of interleukin8. Chest 112, 505-510 (1997).
118. Morrison D, Strieter RM, Donnelly SC, Burdick MD, Kunkel SL, MacNee W: Neutrophil chemokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and leukocyteconditioned medium from nonsmokers and smokers. Eur. Respir. J. 12, 1067-1072 (1998).
119. Roth MD, Arora A, Barsky SH, Kleerup EC, Simmons M, Tashkin DP: Airway inflammation in young marijuana and tobacco smokers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 157, 928-937 (1998).
120. Sher ME, Bank S, Greenberg R et al.: The influence of cigarette smoking on cytokine levels in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 5, 73-78 (1999).
121. Takizawa H, Tanaka M, Takami K et al.: Increased expression of inflammatory mediators in smallairway epithelium f rom tobacco smokers. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 278, L906-L913 (2000).
122. Chalmers GW, MacLeod KJ, Thomson L, Little SA, McSharry C, Thomson NC: Smoking and airway inflammation in patients with mild asthma. Chest 120, 1917-1922 (2001).
123. Hellgren J, Eriksson C, Karlsson G, Hagberg S, Olin AC, Toren K: Nasal symptoms among workers exposed to soft paper dust. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 74, 129-132 (2001).
124. Abe Y, Kawakami M, Kuroki M et al.: Transient rise in serum interleukin8 concentration during acute myocardial infarction. Br. Heart J. 70, 132-134 (1993).
125. Damas JK, Gullestad L, Ueland T et al.: CXC-chemokines, a new group of cytokines in congestive heart failure - possible role of platelets and monocytes. Cardiovasc. Res. 45, 428-436 (2000).
126. Zhou RH, Shi Q, Gao HQ, Shen BJ: Changes in serum interleukin-8 and interleukin-12 levels in patients with ischemic heart disease in a Chinese population. J. Atheroscler. Thromb. 8, 30-32 (2001).
127. Anguera I, Miranda-Guardiola F, Bosch X et al.: Elevation of serum levels of the antiinflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 and decreased risk of coronary events in patients with unstable angina. Am. Heart J. 144, 811-817 (2002).
128. Romuk E, Skrzep-Poloczek B, Wojciechowska C et al.: Selectin-P and interleukin-8 plasma levels in coronary heart disease patients. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 32, 657-661 (2002).
129. Donger C, Georges JL, Nicaud V et al.: New polymorphisms in the interleukin10 gene - relationships to myocardial infarction. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 31, 9-14 (2001).
130. Perez T: [Bronchodilatators and exercise in COPD: effects, evaluation and strategy of use]. Rev. Pneumol. Clin. 58, 2S11-2S17 (2002).
131. Gonzalez-Quintela A, Vidal C, Lojo S et al.: Serum cytokines and increased total serum IgE in alcoholics. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 83, 61-67 (1999).
132. Takanashi S, Hasegawa Y, Kanehira Y et al.: Interleukin-10 level in sputum is reduced in bronchial asthma, COPD and in smokers. Eur. Respir. J. 14, 309-314 (1999).
133. Koss K, Satsangi J, Fanning GC, Welsh KI, Jewell DP: Cytokine (TNF-α, LT-α and IL-10) polymorphisms in inflammatory bowel diseases and normal controls: differential effects on production and allele frequencies. Genes Immun. 1, 185-190 (2000).
134. Reuss E, Fimmers R, Kruger A, Becker C, Rittner C, Hohler T: Differential regulation of interleukin10 production by genetic and environmental factors - a twin study. Genes Immun. 3, 407-413 (2002).
135. Mizia-Stec K, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Gasior Z: Cigarette smoking and inflammatory indices in coronary artery disease. Int. J. Cardiol. 93, 169-174 (2004).
136. Marriott JB, Goldman JH, Keeling PJ, Baig MK, Dalgleish AG, McKenna WJ: Abnormal cytokine profiles in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy and their asymptomatic relatives. Heart 75, 287-290 (1996).
137. Aukrust P, Ueland T, Lien E et al.: Cytokine network in congestive heart failure secondary to ischemic or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 83, 376-382 (1999).
138. Mazzone A, De Servi S, Vezzoli M et al.: Plasma levels of interleukin 2, 6, 10 and phenotypic characterization of circulating T lymphocytes in ischemic heart disease. Atherosclerosis 145, 369-374 (1999).
139. Mizia-Stec K, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Mandecki T, Janowska J, Jastrzebska-Maj E, Szymanski L: [The selected proand antiinflammatory cytokines in the patients with coronary heart disease: preliminary communication]. Pol. Arch. Med. Wewn. 102, 677-684 (1999).
140. Yamaoka M, Yamaguchi S, Okuyama M, Tomoike H: Anti-inflammatory cytokine profile in human heart failure: behavior of interleukin-10 in association with tumor necrosis factor-α. Jpn Circ. J. 63, 951-956 (1999).
141. Kimur T, Kotajima N, Kanda T, Kuwabara A, Fukumura Y, Kobayashi I: Correlation of circulating interleukin-10 with thyroid hormone in acute myocardial infarction. Res. Commun. Mol. Pathol. Pharmacol. 110, 53-58 (2001).
142. Loppnow H, Werdan K, Werner C: The enhanced plasma levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors (sTNF-R1; sTNF-R2) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) in patients suffering from chronic heart failure are reversed in patients treated with β-adrenoceptor antagonist. Auton. Autacoid. Pharmacol. 22, 83-92 (2002).
143. Waehre T, Halvorsen B, Damas JK et al.: Inflammatory imbalance between IL-10 and TNFα in unstable angina potential plaque stabilizing effects of IL-10. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 32, 803-810 (2002).
144. Stumpf C, Lehner C, Yilmaz A, Daniel WG, Garlichs CD: Decrease of serum levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 in patients with advanced chronic heart failure. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 105, 45-50 (2003).
145. Yamashita H, Shimada K, Seki E, Mokuno H, Daida H: Concentrations of interleukins, interferon, and Creactive protein in stable and unstable angina pectoris. Am. J. Cardiol. 91, 133-136 (2003).
146. Mizia-Stec K, Zahorska-Markiewicz B, Mandecki T et al.: Hyperlipidaemias and serum cytokines in patients with coronary artery disease. Acta Cardiol. 58, 9-15 (2003).
147. Koch W, Kastrati A, Bottiger C, Mehilli J, von Beckerath N, Schomig A: Interleukin-10 and tumor necrosis factor gene polymorphisms and risk of coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 159, 137-144 (2001).
148. Wang KS, Frank DA, Ritz J: Interleukin2 enhances the response of natural killer cells to interleukin-12 through up-regulation of the interleukin-12 receptor and STAT4. Blood 95, 3183-3190 (2000).
149. Trinchieri G: Interleukin-12 and the regulation of innate resistance and adaptive immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3, 133-146 (2003).
150. Lee TS, Yen HC, Pan CC, Chau LY: The role of interleukin 12 in the development of atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19, 734-742 (1999).
151. Biet F, Locht C, Kremer L: Immunoregulatory functions of interleukin 18 and its role in defense against bacterial pathogens. J. Mol. Med. 80, 147-162 (2002).
152. Seta Y, Kanda T, Tanaka T et al.: Interleukin 18 in acute myocardial infarction. Heart 84, 668 (2000).
153. Mallat Z, Henry P, Fressonnet R et al.: Increased plasma concentrations of interleukin-18 in acute coronary syndromes. Heart 88, 467-469 (2002).
154. Naito Y, Tsujino T, Fujioka Y, Ohyanagi M, Okamura H, Iwasaki T: Increased circulating interleukin-18 in patients with congestive heart failure. Heart 88, 296-297 (2002).
155. Yamaoka-Tojo M, Tojo T, Masuda T et al.: C-reactive proteininduced production of interleukin-18 in human endothelial cells: a mechanism of orchestrating cytokine cascade in acute coronary syndrome. Heart Vessels 18, 183-187 (2003).
156. Van Tiel E, Peeters PH, Smit HA et al.: Quitting smoking may restore hematological characteristics within five years. Ann. Epidemiol. 12, 378-388 (2002).
157. Smith MR, Kinmonth AL, Luben RN et al.: Smoking status and differential white cell count in men and women in the EPIC-Norfolk population. Atherosclerosis 169, 331-337 (2003).
158. Unverdorben M, van der Bijl A, Potgieter L, Liang Q, Roethig HJ: Spiroergometry in adult smokers comparing a conventional cigarette to an electrical heated cigarette smoking system. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 45, 1069 (2005).
159. Corwin EJ, Klein LC: C-reactive protein and depressed mood in a subgroup of smokers during nicotine abstinence. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 18, 329-337 (2003).
160. Zevin S, Saunders S, Gourlay SG, Jacob P, Benowitz NL: Cardiovascular effects of carbon monoxide and cigarette smoking. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 38, 1633-1638 (2001).
161. Crook MA, Scott DA, Stapleton JA, Palmer RM, Wilson RF, Sutherland G: Circulating concentrations of Creactive protein and total sialic acid in tobacco smokers remain unchanged following one year of validated smoking cessation. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 30, 861-865 (2000).
162. Ohsawa M, Okayama A, Nakamura M et al.: CRP levels are elevated in smokers but unrelated to the number of cigarettes and are decreased by longterm smoking cessation in male smokers. Prev. Med. 41, 651-656 (2005).
163. Lao XQ, Jiang CQ, Zhang WS et al.: Smoking, smoking cessation and inflammatory markers in older Chinese men: The Guangzhou Biobank Cohort Study. Atherosclerosis 203(1), 304-310 (2009).
164. Lind P, Engstrom G, Stavenow L, Janzon L, Lindgarde F, Hedblad B: Risk of myocardial infarction and stroke in smokers is related to plasma levels of inflammationsensitive proteins. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24, 577-582 (2004).
165. Wannamethee SG, Lowe GD, Shaper AG, Rumley A, Lennon L, Whincup PH: Associations between cigarette smoking, pipe/cigar smoking, and smoking cessation, and haemostatic and inflammatory markers for cardiovascular disease. Eur. Heart J. 26, 1765-1773 (2005).
166. Puranik R, Celermajer DS: Smoking and endothelial function. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 45, 443-458 (2003).
167. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Georgakopoulos D et al.: Cigarette smoking is associated with dose-related and potentially reversible impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation in healthy young adults. Circulation 88, 2149-2155 (1993).
168. Ijzerman RG, Serne EH, van Weissenbruch MM, de Jongh RT, Stehouwer CD: Cigarette smoking is associated with an acute impairment of microvascular function in humans. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 104, 247-252 (2003).
169. Enderle MD, Pfohl M, Kellermann N, Haering HU, Hoffmeister HM: Endothelial function, variables of fibrinolysis and coagulation in smokers and healthy controls. Haemostasis 30, 149-158 (2000).
170. Moreno HJ, Chalon S, Urae A et al.: Endothelial dysfunction in human hand veins is rapidly reversible after smoking cessation. Am. J. Physiol. 275, H1040-H1045 (1998).
171. Barua RS, Ambrose JA, Eales-Reynolds LJ, DeVoe MC, Zervas JG, Saha DC: Dysfunctional endothelial nitric oxide biosynthesis in healthy smokers with impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilatation. Circulation 104, 1905-1910 (2001).
172. Butler R, Morris AD, Struthers AD: Cigarette smoking in men and vascular responsiveness. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 52, 145-149 (2001).
173. Chalon S, Moreno HJ, Hoffman BB, Blaschke TF: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition improves venous endothelial dysfunction in chronic smokers. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 65, 295-303 (1999).
174. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM et al.: Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 340, 1111-1115 (1992).
175. Lekakis J, Papamichael C, Vemmos C, Stamatelopoulos K, Voutsas A, Stamatelopoulos S: Effects of acute cigarette smoking on endothelium-dependent arterial dilatation in normal subjects. Am. J. Cardiol. 81, 1225-1228 (1998).
176. Lekakis J, Papamichael C, Vemmos C et al.: Effect of acute cigarette smoking on endothelium-dependent brachial artery dilatation in healthy individuals. Am. J. Cardiol. 79, 529-531 (1997).
177. Raitakari OT, Adams MR, McCredie RJ, Griffiths KA, Celermajer DS: Arterial endothelial dysfunction related to passive smoking is potentially reversible in healthy young adults. Ann. Intern. Med. 130, 578-581 (1999).
178. Bonetti PO, Pumper GM, Higano ST, Holmes DR Jr, Kuvin JT, Lerman A: Noninvasive identification of patients with early coronary atherosclerosis by assessment of digital reactive hyperemia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44, 2137-2141 (2004).
179. Kuvin JT, Patel AR, Sliney KA et al.: Assessment of peripheral vascular endothelial function with finger arterial pulse wave amplitude. Am. Heart J. 146, 168-174 (2003).
180. Jensen EW, Bryde AH, Nielsen SL, Christensen NJ: Long-term smoking increases transcapillary escape rate of albumin. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 52, 653-656 (1992).
181. Jensen EW, Espersen K, Knudsen JH, Nielsen SL: Increased transcapillary escape rate of albumin in elderly subjects due to longterm smoking habits. Clin. Physiol. 15, 159-167 (1995).
182. Blann A, Bignell A, McCollum C: von Willebrand factor, fibrinogen and other plasma proteins as determinants of plasma viscosity. Atherosclerosis 139, 317-322 (1998).
183. Mannucci PM: von Willebrand factor: a marker of endothelial damage? Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 18, 1359-1362 (1998).
184. Conway DS, Pearce LA, Chin BS, Hart RG, Lip GY: Plasma von Willebrand factor and soluble pselectin as indices of endothelial damage and platelet activation in 1321 patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: relationship to stroke risk factors. Circulation 106, 1962-1967 (2002).
185. Zeiher AM, Schachinger V, Minners J: Long-term cigarette smoking impairs endothelium-dependent coronary arterial vasodilator function. Circulation 92, 1094-1100 (1995).
186. Hambrecht R, Wolf A, Gielen S et al.: Effect of exercise on coronary endothelial function in patients with coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 454-460 (2000).
187. Stadler RW, Ibrahim SF, Lees RS: Measurement of the time course of peripheral vasoactivity: results in cigarette smokers. Atherosclerosis 138, 197-205 (1998).
188. Pedrinelli R, Dell'Omo G, Penno G, Mariani M: Nondiabetic microalbuminuria, endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular disease. Vasc. Med. 6, 257-264 (2001).
189. Jellinek H: The role of transmural fluxes and vascular permeability in atherogenesis. In: Anders G, Olsson MD (Eds.) Atherosclerosis Biology and Clinical Science. Churchill Livingstone, NY, USA (1987).
190. Jellinek H, Detre Z: Role of the altered transmural permeability in the pathomechanism of arteriosclerosis. History of arteriosclerosis theories - role of the altered transmural permeability in experimental arteriosclerosis models. Pathol. Res. Pract. 181, 693-712 (1986).
191. Takacs E, Jellinek H: Early morphological changes of vessels in an experimental model system. Int. Angiol. 6, 7-19 (1987).
192. Kharitonov SA, Robbins RA, Yates D, Keatings V, Barnes PJ: Acute and chronic effects of cigarette smoking on exhaled nitric oxide. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152, 609-612 (1995).
193. Jaimes EA, DeMaster EG, Tian RX, Raij L: Stable compounds of cigarette smoke induce endothelial superoxide anion production via NADPH oxidase activation. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24, 1031-1036 (2004).
194. Kavdia M, Popel AS: Contribution of nNOS- and eNOS-derived NO to microvascular smooth muscle NO exposure. J. Appl. Physiol. 97, 293-301 (2004).
195. Demady DR, Lowe ER, Everett AC et al.: Metabolism-based inactivation of neuronal nitricoxide synthase by components of cigarette and cigarette smoke. Drug Metab. Dispos. 31, 932-937 (2003).
196. Kugiyama K, Yasue H, Ohgushi M et al.: Deficiency in nitric oxide bioactivity in epicardial coronary arteries of cigarette smokers. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 28, 1161-1167 (1996).
197. Winniford MD, Jansen DE, Reynolds GA, Apprill P, Black WH, Hillis LD: Cigarette smoking-induced coronary vasoconstriction in atherosclerotic coronary artery disease and prevention by calcium antagonists and nitroglycerin. Am. J. Cardiol. 59, 203-207 (1987). ■ Describes examples for functional markers influenced by smoking.
198. Barua RS, Ambrose JA, Eales-Reynolds LJ, DeVoe MC, Zervas JG, Saha DC: Heavy and light cigarette smokers have similar dysfunction of endothelial vasoregulatory activity: an in vivo and in vitro correlation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 39, 1758-1763 (2002). ■ Describes examples for functional markers influenced by smoking.
199. Pellaton C, Kubli S, Feihl F, Waeber B: Blunted vasodilatory responses in the cutaneous microcirculation of cigarette smokers. Am. Heart J. 144, 269-274 (2002).
200. Nene S, Gelabert H, Moore W, Quinones-Baldrich W, Santibanez-Gallerani A, Ignarro L: Cigarette smoking increases endothelial-derived vasorelaxation in the rat carotid artery in a dose-dependent manner. J. Surg. Res. 71, 101-106 (1997).
201. Node K, Kitakaze M, Yoshikawa H, Kosaka H, Hori M: Reversible reduction in plasma concentration of nitric oxide induced by cigarette smoking in young adults. Am. J. Cardiol. 79, 1538-1541 (1997).
202. Tsuchiya M, Asada A, Kasahara E, Sato EF, Shindo M, Inoue M: Smoking a single cigarette rapidly reduces combined concentrations of nitrate and nitrite and concentrations of antioxidants in plasma. Circulation 105, 1155-1157 (2002).
203. Yanagisawa M, Kurihara H, Kimura S et al.: A novel potent vasoconstrictor peptide produced by vascular endothelial cells. Nature 332, 411-415 (1988).
204. Noori A, Kabbani S: Endothelins and coronary vascular biology. Coron. Artery Dis. 14, 491-494 (2003).
205. Fan J, Unoki H, Iwasa S, Watanabe T: Role of endothelin-1 in atherosclerosis. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 902, 84-93 (2000).
206. Masaki T: The endothelin family: an overview. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 35, S3-S5 (2000).
207. Lerman A, Holmes DR Jr, Bell MR, Garratt KN, Nishimura RA, Burnett JC Jr: Endothelin in coronary endothelial dysfunction and early atherosclerosis in humans. Circulation 92, 2426-2431 (1995).
208. Lanza GA, Bencardino G, Sestito A et al.: Association of endothelin-1 with transient myocardial ischemia in patients with unstable angina pectoris. Am. J. Cardiol. 95, 492-494 (2005).
209. Kanaya AM, Barrett-Connor E, Wassel Fyr CL: Endothelin-1 and prevalent coronary heart disease in older men and women (the Rancho Bernardo Study). Am. J. Cardiol. 99, 486-490 (2007).
210. Haak T, Jungmann E, Raab C, Usadel KH: Elevated endothelin-1 levels after cigarette smoking. Metabolism 43, 267-269 (1994).
211. Yildiz L, Akcay F, Kaynar H, Bakan N: Increased plasma endothelin-1 in heavy and light smokers. Clin. Chem. 42, 483-484 (1996).
212. Gambaro G, Verlato F, Budakovic A et al.: Renal impairment in chronic cigarette smokers. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 9, 562-567 (1998).
213. Borissova AM, Tankova T, Kirilov G, Dakovska L, Krivoshiev S: The effect of smoking on peripheral insulin sensitivity and plasma endothelin level. Diabetes Metab. 30, 147-152 (2004).
214. Hirai Y, Adachi H, Fujiura Y, Hiratsuka A, Enomoto M, Imaizumi T: Plasma endothelin-1 level is related to renal function and smoking status but not to blood pressure: an epidemiological study. J. Hypertens. 22, 713-718 (2004).
215. Kosicka T, Kara-Perz H, Perz S: [Evaluation of plasma endothelin-1 concentration in tobacco smoking patients with essential hypertension]. Przegl. Lek. 63, 957-959 (2006).
216. Barbera JA, Peinado VI, Santos S, Ramirez J, Roca J, Rodriguez-Roisin R: Reduced expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in pulmonary arteries of smokers. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 164, 709-713 (2001).
217. Robbins RA, Millatmal T, Lassi K, Rennard S, Daughton D: Smoking cessation is associated with an increase in exhaled nitric oxide. Chest 112, 313-318 (1997).
218. Kondo T, Hayashi M, Takeshita K et al.: Smoking cessation rapidly increases circulating progenitor cells in peripheral blood in chronic smokers. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24, 1442 (2004).
219. Marangon K, Herbeth B, Lecomte E et al.: Diet, antioxidant status, and smoking habits in French men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67, 231-239 (1998).
220. Kunsch C, Medford RM: Oxidative stress as a regulator of gene expression in the vasculature. Circ. Res. 85, 753-766 (1999).
221. Dhalla NS, Temsah RM, Netticadan T: Role of oxidative stress in cardiovascular diseases. J. Hypertens. 18, 655-673 (2000).
222. Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS: Oxidative stress and vascular disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25, 29-38 (2005).
223. Andreassi MG, Botto N: DNA damage as a new emerging risk factor in atherosclerosis. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 13, 270-275 (2003).
224. Montuschi P, Barnes PJ, Roberts LJ: Isoprostanes: markers and mediators of oxidative stress. FASEB J. 18, 1791 - 1800 (2004).
225. Block G, Dietrich M, Norkus EP et al.: Factors associated with oxidative stress in human populations. Am. J. Epidemiol. 156, 274-285 (2002).
226. Dotan Y, Lichtenberg D, Pinchuk I: Lipid peroxidation cannot be used as a universal criterion of oxidative stress. Prog. Lipid Res. 43, 200-227 (2004).
227. Astley S: Dietary antoxidants - past, present and future? Trends Food Sci. Tech. 14, 93-98 (2003).
228. Repine JE, Bast A, Lankhorst I: Oxidative stress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Oxidative Stress Study Group. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 156, 341-357 (1997).
229. Raij L, DeMaster EG, Jaimes EA: Cigarette smoke-induced endothelium dysfunction: role of superoxide anion. J. Hypertens. 19, 891-897 (2001).
230. Mays BW, Freischlag JA, Eginton MT, Cambria RA, Seabrook GR, Towne JB: Ascorbic acid prevents cigarette smoke injury to endothelium-dependent arterial relaxation. J. Surg. Res. 84, 35-39 (1999).
231. Lehr HA, Weyrich AS, Saetzler RK et al.: Vitamin C blocks inflammatory platelet-activation factor mimetics created by cigarette smoking. J. Clin. Invest. 99, 2358-2364 (1997).
232. Frei B, Forte TM, Ames BN, Cross CE: Gas phase oxidants of cigarette smoke induce lipid peroxidation and changes in lipoprotein properties in human blood plasma. Protective effects of ascorbic acid. Biochem. J. 277(Pt 1), 133-138 (1991).
233. Mol MJ, de Rijke YB, Demacker PN, Stalenhoef AF: Plasma levels of lipid and cholesterol oxidation products and cytokines in diabetes mellitus and cigarette smoking: effects of vitamin E treatment. Atherosclerosis 129, 169-176 (1997).
234. Pech-Amsellem MA, Myara I, Storogenko M, Demuth K, Proust A, Moatti N: Enhanced modifications of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) by endothelial cells from smokers: a possible mechanism of smoking-related atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc. Res. 31, 975-983 (1996).
235. Zaratin Ag, Gidlund M, Boschcov P, Castilho Lu, Cotta de Faria E: Antibodies against oxidized low-density lipoprotein in normolipidemic smokers. Am. J. Cardiol. 90, 651-653 (2002).
236. Yokode M, Kita T, Arai H, Kawai C, Narumiya S, Fujiwara M: Cholesteryl ester accumulation in macrophages incubated with low density lipoprotein pretreated with cigarette smoke extract. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 85, 2344-2348 (1988).
237. Nagano Y, Arai H, Kita T: High density lipoprotein loses its effect to stimulate efflux of cholesterol from foam cells after oxidative modification. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 88, 6457-6461 (1997).
238. Yokode M, Ueyama K, Arai NH, Ueda Y, Kita T: Modification of high- and low-density lipoproteins by cigarette smoke oxidants. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 786, 245-251 (1996).
239. Van de Vijver LPL, Steyger R, Van Poppel G et al.: Autoantibodies against MDALDL in subjects with severe and minor atherosclerosis and healthy population controls. Atherosclerosis 122, 245-253 (1996).
240. Fickl H, Van Antwerpen VL, Richards GA et al.: Increased levels of autoantibodies to cardiolipin and oxidised low density lipoprotein are inversely associated with plasma vitamin C status in cigarette smokers. Atherosclerosis 124, 75-81 (1996).
241. Karvonen J, Kauma H, Kervinen K et al.: Apolipoprotein E polymorphism affects carotid artery atherosclerosis in smoking hypertensive men. J. Hypertens. 20, 2371-2378 (2002).
242. Nielsen F, Mikkelsen BB, Nielsen JB, Andersen HR, Grandjean P: Plasma malondialdehyde as biomarker for oxidative stress: reference interval and effects of lifestyle factors. Clin. Chem. 43, 1209-1214 (1997).
243. Gutteridge JM, Halliwell B: The measurement and mechanism of lipid peroxidation in biological systems. Trends Biochem. Sci. 15, 129-135 (1990).
244. Gutteridge JM, Halliwell B: Free radicals and antioxidants in the year 2000. A historical look to the future. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 899, 136-147 (2000).
245. 2-isoprostanes) in smokers. Smoking as a cause of oxidative damage. N. Engl. J. Med. 332, 1198-1203 (1995). ■ Describes examples of biochemical markers influenced by smoking.
246. Reilly M, Delanty N, Lawson JA, Fitzgerald GA: Modulation of oxidant stress in vivo in chronic cigarette smokers. Circulation 94, 19-25 (1996).
247. Oguogho A, Lupattelli G, Palumbo B, Sinzinger H: Isoprostanes quickly normalize after quitting cigarette smoking in healthy adults. Vasa 29, 103-105 (2000).
248. Do BK, Garewal HS, Clements NC, Jr, Peng YM, Habib MP. Exhaled ethane and antioxidant vitamin supplements in active smokers. Chest 110, 159-164 (1996).
249. Habib MP, Tank LJ, Lane LC, Garewal HS: Effect of vitamin E on exhaled ethane in cigarette smokers. Chest 115, 684-690 (1999).
250. Guthikonda S, Sinkey C, Barenz T, Haynes WG: Xanthine oxidase inhibition reverses endothelial dysfunction in heavy smokers. Circulation 107, 416-421 (2003).
251. Wang XL, Rainwater DL, VandeBerg JF, Mitchell BD, Mahaney MC: Genetic contributions to plasma total antioxidant activity. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21, 1190-1195 (2001).
252. Hughes K, Choo M, Kuperan P, Ong CN, Aw TC: Cardiovascular risk factors in relation to cigarette smoking: a population-based survey among Asians in Singapore. Atherosclerosis 137, 253-258 (1998).
253. Price JF, Mowbray PI, Lee AJ, Rumley A, Lowe GD, Fowkes FG: Relationship between smoking and cardiovascular risk factors in the development of peripheral arterial disease and coronary artery disease: Edinburgh Artery Study. Eur. Heart J. 20, 344-353 (1999).
254. Christan C, Dietrich T, Hagewald S, Kage A, Bernimoulin JP: White blood cell count in generalized aggressive periodontitis after nonsurgical therapy. J. Clin. Periodontol. 29, 201-206 (2002).
255. Mezzetti A, Lapenna D, Pierdomenico SD et al.: Vitamins E, C and lipid peroxidation in plasma and arterial tissue of smokers and nonsmokers. Atherosclerosis 112, 91-99 (1995).
256. Duthie GG, Arthur JR, Beattie JA et al.: Cigarette smoking, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, and coronary heart disease. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 686, 120-129 (1993).
257. Lykkesfeldt J, Christen S, Wallock LM, Chang HH, Jacob RA, Ames BN: Ascorbate is depleted by smoking and repleted by moderate supplementation: a study in male smokers and nonsmokers with matched dietary antioxidant intakes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 71, 530-536 (2000).
258. Kharb S, Singh GP: Effect of smoking on lipid profile, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in normal subjects and in patients during and after acute myocardial infarction. Clin. Chim. Acta 302, 213-219 (2000).
259. 2-isoprostanes in plasma of smokers. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11, 7-13 (2002).
260. Alberg AJ, Chen JC, Zhao H, Hoffman SC, Comstock GW, Helzlsouer KJ: Household exposure to passive cigarette smoking and serum micronutrient concentrations. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72, 1576-1582 (2000).
261. Schwertner HA: Association of smoking and low serum bilirubin antioxidant concentrations. Atherosclerosis 136, 383-387 (1998).
262. Van Hoydonck PG, Temme EH, Schouten EG: Serum bilirubin concentration in a Belgian population: the association with smoking status and type of cigarettes. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30, 1465-1472 (2001).
263. Haramaki N, Ikeda H, Takajo Y et al.: Long-term smoking causes nitroglycerin resistance in platelets by depletion of intraplatelet glutathione. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21, 1852-1856 (2001).
264. Dallongeville J, Marecaux N, Fruchart JC, Amouyel P: Cigarette smoking is associated with unhealthy patterns of nutrient intake: a meta-analysis. J. Nutr. 128, 1450-1457 (1998).
265. Halliwell B: Vitamin C: poison, prophylactic or panacea? Trends Biochem. Sci. 24, 255-259 (1999).
266. Weinberg RB, Vander-Werken BS, Anderson RA, Stegner JE, Thomas MJ: Prooxidant effect of vitamin E in cigarette smokers consuming a high polyunsaturated fat diet. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21, 1029-1033 (2001).
267. Stocker R: The ambivalence of vitamin E in atherogenesis. Trends Biochem. Sci. 24, 219-223 (1999).
268. Morita H, Ikeda H, Haramaki N, Eguchi H, Imaizumi T: Only two-week smoking cessation improves platelet aggregability and intraplatelet redox imbalance of long-term smokers. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 45, 589 (2005).
269. Burke A, Fitzgerald GA: Oxidative stress and smoking-induced vascular injury. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 46, 79-90 (2003).
270. Heitzer T, Yla HS, Wild E, Luoma J, Drexler H: Effect of vitamin E on endothelial vasodilator function in patients with hypercholesterolemia, chronic smoking or both. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 33, 499-505 (1999).
271. Heitzer T, Brockhoff C, Mayer B et al.: Tetrahydrobiopterin improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in chronic smokers : evidence for a d ysfunctional nitric oxide synthase. Circ. Res. 86, E36-E41 (2000).
272. Fennessy FM, Moneley DS, Wang JH, Kelly CJ, Bouchier-Hayes DJ: Taurine and vitamin C modify monocyte and endothelial dysfunction in young smokers. Circulation 107, 410-415 (2003).
273. Brown AA, Hu FB: Dietary modulation of endothelial function: implications for cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73, 673-686 (2001).
274. Raitakari OT, Adams MR, McCredie RJ, Griffiths KA, Stocker R, Celermajer DS: Oral vitamin C and endothelial function in smokers: short-term improvement, but no sustained beneficial effect. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 35, 1616-1621 (2000).
275. Kelemen M, Vaidya D, Waters DD et al.: Hormone therapy and antioxidant vitamins do not improve endothelial vasodilator function in postmenopausal women with established coronary artery disease: a substudy of the Women's Angiographic Vitamin and Estrogen (WAVE) trial. Atherosclerosis 179, 193-200 (2005).
276. Pilz H, Oguogho A, Chehne F, Lupattelli G, Palumbo B, Sinzinger H: Quitting cigarette smoking results in a fast improvement of in vivo oxidation injury (determined via plasma, serum and urinary isoprostane). Thromb. Res. 99, 209-221 (2000).
277. Lykkesfeldt J, Prieme H, Loft S, Poulsen HE: Effect of smoking cessation on plasma ascorbic acid concentration. BMJ 313, 91 (1996).
278. Polidori MC, Mecocci P, Stahl W, Sies H: Cigarette smoking cessation increases plasma levels of several antioxidant micronutrients and improves resistance towards oxidative challenge. Br J. Nutr. 90, 147-150 (2003).
279. van den Berkmortel FW, Demacker PN, Wollersheim H, Thien T, Stalenhoef AF: Smoking or its cessation does not alter the susceptibility to in vitro LDL oxidation. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 30, 972-979 (2000).
280. Wu KK: Platelet activation mechanisms and markers in arterial thrombosis. J. Intern. Med. 239, 17-34 (1996).
281. Davi G, Patrono C: Platelet activation and atherothrombosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 357, 2482-2494 (2007).
282. Ichiki K, Ikeda H, Haramaki N, Ueno T, Imaizumi T: Long-term smoking impairs platelet-derived nitric oxide release. Circulation 94, 3109-3114 (1996).
283. Takajo Y, Ikeda H, Haramaki N, Murohara T, Imaizumi T: Augmented oxidative stress of platelets in chronic smokers. Mechanisms of impaired platelet-derived nitric oxide bioactivity and augmented platelet aggregability. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 38, 1320-1327 (2001).
284. Harding SA, Sarma J, Josephs DH et al.: Upregulation of the CD40/CD40 ligand dyad and platelet-monocyte aggregation in cigarette smokers. Circulation 109, 1926-1929 (2004).
285. Meade TW, Imeson J, Stirling Y: Effects of changes in smoking and other characteristics on clotting factors and the risk of ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 2(8566), 986-988 (1987).
286. Fitzgerald GA, Oates JA, Nowak J: Cigarette smoking and hemostatic function. Am. Heart J. 115, 267-271 (1988).
287. Cimminiello C, Toschi V: Atherothrombosis: the role of platelets. Eur. Heart J. 20(Suppl. A), A8-A13 (1999).
288. Prentice CRM: Platelets and atherosclerosis. Eur. Heart J. 20(Suppl. A), A3-A7 (1999).
289. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy - I: Prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients: Antiplatelet Trialists' Collaboration. BMJ 308, 81-106 (1994).
290. 2 formation in the human circulation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 83, 5861-5865 (1986).
291. Eikelboom JW, Hirsh J, Weitz JI, Johnston M, Yi Q, Yusuf S: Aspirin-resistant thromboxane biosynthesis and the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, or cardiovascular death in patients at high risk for cardiovascular events. Circulation 105, 1650-1655 (2002).
292. Fusegawa Y, Goto S, Handa S, Kawada T, Ando Y: Platelet spontaneous aggregation in platelet-rich plasma is increased in habitual smokers. Thromb. Res. 93, 271-278 (1999).
293. Rubenstein D, Jesty J, Bluestein D: Differences between mainstream and sidestream cigarette smoke extracts and nicotine in the activation of platelets under static and flow conditions. Circulation 109, 78-83 (2004).
294. Uedelhoven WM, Rutzel A, Meese CO, Weber PC: Smoking alters thromboxane metabolism in man. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1081, 197-201 (1991). ■ Describes examples of biochemical markers influenced by smoking.
295. Barrow SE, Ward PS, Sleightholm MA, Ritter JM, Dollery CT: Cigarette smoking: profiles of thromboxane- and prostacyclin-derived products in human urine. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 993, 121-127 (1989).
296. Hung J, Kishimoto Y, Sugio K et al.: Allele-specific chromosome 3p deletions occur at an early stage in the pathogenesis of lung carcinoma. JAMA 273, 558-563 (1995).
297. Weber AA, Liesener S, Schanz A, Hohlfeld T, Schror K: Habitual smoking causes an abnormality in platelet thromboxane A2 metabolism and results in an altered susceptibility to aspirin effects. Platelets 11, 177-182 (2000).
298. Hioki H, Aoki N, Kawano K et al.: Acute effects of cigarette smoking on platelet-dependent thrombin generation. Eur. Heart J. 22, 56-61 (2001).
299. Blann AD, Lanza F, Galajda P et al.: Increased platelet glycoprotein V levels in patients with coronary and peripheral atherosclerosis - the influence of aspirin and cigarette smoking. Thromb. Haemost. 86, 777-783 (2001).
300. Miller GJ, Bauer KA, Cooper JA, Rosenberg RD: Activation of the coagulant pathway in cigarette smokers. Thromb. Haemost. 79, 549-553 (1998).
301. Ernst E, Resch KL: Fibrinogen as a cardiovascular risk factor: a meta-analysis and review of the literature. Ann. Intern. Med. 118, 956-963 (1993).
302. Woodward M, Lowe GD, Rumley A, Tunstall-Pedoe H: Fibrinogen as a risk factor for coronary heart disease and mortality in middle-aged men and women. The Scottish Heart Health Study. Eur. Heart J. 19, 55-62 (1998).
303. Fisher SD, Zareba W, Moss AJ et al.: Effect of smoking on lipid and thrombogenic factors two months after acute myocardial infarction. Am. J. Cardiol. 86, 813-818 (2000).
304. Eliasson M, Asplund K, Evrin PE, Lundblad D: Relationship of cigarette smoking and snuff dipping to plasma fibrinogen, finrinolytic variables and serum insulin - The Northern Sweden MONICA study. Atherosclerosis 113, 41-53 (1995).
305. Tuut M, Hense HW: Smoking, other risk factors and fibrinogen levels. Evidence of effect modification. Ann. Epidemiol. 11, 232-238 (2001).
306. Mennen LI, Balkau B, Charles MA, D'Hour A, le Mauff JM: Gender differences in the relation between fibrinogen, tissuetype plasminogen activator antigen and markers of insulin resistance: effects of smoking. D.E.S.I.R. Study Group. Data from an Epidemiological Study on Insulin Resistance Syndrome. Thromb. Haemost. 82, 1106-1111 (1999).
307. Frohlich M, Sund M, Lowel H, Imhof A, Hoffmeister A, Koenig W: Independent association of various smoking characteristics with markers of systemic inflammation in men. Results from a representative sample of the general population (MONICA Augsburg Survey 1994/95). Eur. Heart J. 24, 1365-1372 (2003).
308. Eliasson B, Hjalmarson A, Kruse E, Landfeldt B, Westin A: Effect of smoking reduction and cessation on cardiovascular risk factors. Nicotine Tob. Res. 3, 249-255 (2001).
309. Whincup PH, Danesh J, Walker M et al.: von Willebrand factor and coronary heart disease: prospective study and meta-analysis. Eur. Heart J. 23, 1728-1730 (2002).
310. Blann AD, McCollum CN: Adverse influence of cigarette smoking on the endothelium. Thromb. Haemost. 70, 707-711 (1993).
311. Chia S, Newby DE: Atherosclerosis, cigarette smoking, and endogenous fibrinolysis: is there a direct link? Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 4, 143-148 (2002).
312. Newby DE, McLeod AL, Uren NG et al.: Impaired coronary tissue plasminogen activator release is associated with coronary atherosclerosis and cigarette smoking: direct link between endothelial dysfunction and atherothrombosis. Circulation 103, 1936-1941 (2001).
313. Barua RS, Ambrose JA, Saha DC, Eales-Reynolds LJ: Smoking is associated with altered endothelial-derived fibrinolytic and antithrombotic factors: an in vitro demonstration. Circulation 106, 905-908 (2002).
314. Mitchell CT, Kamineni A, Palmas W, Cushman M: Tissue factor pathway inhibitor, vascular risk factors and subclinical atherosclerosis: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis doi: 10.1016/j. atherosclerosis.2009.04.024 (2009) (Epub ahead of print).
315. Hunter KA, Garlick PJ, Broom I, Anderson SE, McNurlan MA: Effects of smoking and abstention from smoking on fibrinogen synthesis in humans. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 100, 459-465 (2001).
316. Wilhelmsen L: Effects of cessation of smoking after myocardial infarction. J. Cardiovasc. Risk 5, 173-176 (1998).
317. McElduff P, Dobson A, Beaglehole R, Jackson R: Rapid reduction in coronary risk for those who quit cigarette smoking. Aust. NZ J. Public Health 22, 787-791 (1998).
318. Nilsson P, Lundgren H, Soderstrom M, Fagerstrom KO, Nilsson-Ehle P: Effects of smoking cessation on insulin and cardiovascular risk factors - a controlled study of 4 months' duration. J. Intern. Med. 240, 189-194 (1996).
319. 2 metabolite in healthy young cigarette smokers: results from a prospective study in randomly sampled males with stable smoking habits. Clin. Physiol. 13, 257-264 (1993).
320. Bain BJ, Rothwell M, Feher MD, Robinson R, Brown J, Sever PS: Acute changes in haematological parameters on cessation of smoking. JR Soc. Med. 85, 80-82 (1992).
321. Dobson AJ, Alexander HM, Heller RF, Lloyd DM: How soon after quitting smoking does risk of heart attack decline? J. Clin. Epidemiol. 44, 1247-1253 (1991).
322. Reaven GM, Chen YD: Insulin resistance, its consequences, and coronary heart disease. Must we choose one culprit? Circulation 93, 1780-1783 (1996).
323. Kendall DM, Sobel BE, Coulston AM et al.: The insulin resistance syndrome and coronary artery disease. Coron. Artery Dis. 14, 335-348 (2003).
324. Wannamethee SG, Lowe GD, Shaper AG, Rumley A, Lennon L, Whincup PH: Insulin resistance, haemostatic and inflammatory markers and coronary heart disease risk factors in Type 2 diabetic men with and without coronary heart disease. Diabetologia 47, 1557-1565 (2004).
325. Theuma P, Fonseca VA: Inflammation, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis. Metabol. Synd. Relat. Dis. 2, 105-113 (2004).
326. Egan BM, Greene EL, Goodfriend TL: Insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease. Am J. Hypertens. 14, 116S-125S (2001).
327. Reaven G, Tsao PS: Insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinemia: the key player between cigarette smoking and cardiovascular disease? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 41, 1044-1047 (2003).
328. Qiao Q, Valle T, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J: Smoking and the risk of diabetes in elderly Finnish men. Retrospective analysis of data from a 30-year follow-up study. Diabetes Care 22, 1821-1826 (1999).
329. Eliasson B: Cigarette smoking and diabetes. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 45, 405-413 (2003).
330. Rimm RB, Chan J, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC: Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men. BMJ 310, 555-559 (1995).
331. Will JC, Galuska DA, Ford ES, Mokdad A, Calle EE: Cigarette smoking and diabetes mellitus: evidence of a positive association from a large prospective cohort study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30, 540-546 (2001).
332. Östgren C, Lindblad U, Ranstam J, Melander A, Rastam L: Associations between smoking and +β-cell function in a nonhypertensive and nondiabetic population - Skaraborg Hypertension and Diabetes project. Diabet. Med. 17, 445-450 (2000).
333. Haire-Joshu D, Glasgow RE, Tibbs TL: Smoking and diabetes. Diabetes Care 22, 1887-1898 (1999).
334. Baggio B, Budakovic A, Dalla VM, Saller A, Bruseghin M, Fioretto P: Effects of cigarette smoking on glomerular structure and function in Type 2 diabetic patients. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 13, 2730-2736 (2002).
335. Poulsen PL, Ebbehoj E, Hansen KW, Mogensen CE: Effects of smoking on 24h ambulatory blood pressure and autonomic function in normoalbuminuric insulindependent diabetes mellitus patients. Am J. Hypertens. 11, 1093-1099 (1998).
336. Sargeant LA, Khaw KT, Bingham S et al.: Cigarette smoking and glycaemia: the EPICNorfolk study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 30, 547-554 (2001).
337. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Perry IJ: Smoking as a modifiable risk factor for Type 2 diabetes in middleaged men. Diabetes Care 24, 1590-1595 (2001).
338. Kinosian B, Glick H, Garland G: Cholesterol and coronary heart disease: predicting risks by levels and ratios. Ann. Intern. Med. 121, 641-647 (1994).
339. Castelli WP: Lipids, risk factors and ischaemic heart disease. Atherosclerosis 124, S1-S9 (1996).
340. Karvonen M, Orma E, Keys A, Fidanza F, Brozek J: Cigarette smoking, serum-cholesterol, blood-pressure, and body fatness; observations in Finland. Lancet 1, 492-494 (1959).
341. Sanderson KJ, van Rij AM, Wade CR, Sutherland WH: Lipid peroxidation of circulating low density lipoproteins with age, smoking and in peripheral vascular disease. Atherosclerosis 118, 45-51 (1995).
342. Craig WY, Palomaki GE, Haddow JE: Cigarette smoking and serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations: an analysis of published data. BMJ 298(6676), 784-788 (1989).
343. Freeman DJ, Caslake MJ, Griffin BA et al.: The effect of smoking on postheparin lipoprotein and hepatic lipase, cholesteryl ester transfer protein and lecithin:cholesterol acyl transferase activities in human plasma. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 28, 584-591 (1998).
344. Jarvik GP, Tsai NT, McKinstry LA et al.: Vitamin C and E intake is associated with increased paraoxonase activity. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 22, 1329-1333 (2002).
345. James RW, Leviev I, Righetti A: Smoking is associated with reduced serum paraoxonase activity and concentration in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 101, 2252-2257 (2000).
346. Gerace TA, Hollis J, Ockene JK, Svendsen K: Smoking cessation and change in diastolic blood pressure, body weight, and plasma lipids. MRFIT Research Group. Prev. Med. 20, 602-620 (1991).
347. Ludviksdottir D, Blondal T, Franzon M, Gudmundsson TV, Sawe U: Effects of nicotine nasal spray on atherogenic and thrombogenic factors during smoking cessation. J. Intern. Med. 246, 61-66 (1999).
348. Green MS, Harari G: A prospective study of the effects of changes in smoking habits on blood count, serum lipids and lipoproteins, body weight and blood pressure in occupationally active men. The Israeli CORDIS Study. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 48, 1159-1166 (1995).
349. Maeda K, Noguchi Y, Fukui T: The effects of cessation from cigarette smoking on the lipid and lipoprotein profiles: a meta-analysis. Prev. Med. 37, 283-290 (2003).
350. Nygard O, Vollset SE, Refsum H et al.: Total plasma homocysteine and cardiovascular risk profile. The Hordaland Homocysteine Study. JAMA 274, 1526-1533 (1995).
351. O'Callaghan P, Meleady R, Fitzgerald T, Graham I: Smoking and plasma homocysteine. Eur. Heart J. 23, 1580-1586 (2002).
352. Wilcken DE: Homocysteine, smoking and vascular disease. Eur. Heart J. 23, 1559-1560 (2002).
353. Yamamoto M, Hara H, Adachi T: Effects of homocysteine on the binding of extracellular-superoxide dismutase to the endothelial cell surface. FEBS Lett. 486, 159-162 (2000).
354. Verhaar MC, Stroes E, Rabelink TJ: Folates and cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 22, 6-13 (2002).
355. Kennedy BP, Farag NH, Ziegler MG, Mills PJ: Relationship of systolic blood pressure with plasma homocysteine: importance of smoking status. J. Hypertens. 12, 1307-1312 (2003).
356. Targher G, Muggeo M, Bertolini L et al.: Cigarette smoking and plasma total homocysteine levels in young adults with Type 1 diabetes. Diab. Care 23, 524-528 (2000).
357. Wald NJ, Watt HC, Law MR, Weir DG, McPartlin J, Scott JM: Homocysteine and ischemic heart disease: results of a prospective study with implications regarding prevention. Arch. Intern. Med. 158, 862-867 (1998).
358. Nygard O, Nordrehaug JE, Refsum H, Ueland PM, Farstad M, Vollset SE: Plasma homocysteine levels and mortality in patients with coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 337, 230-236 (1997).
359. Hackam DG, Anand SS: Emerging risk factors for atherosclerotic vascular disease: a critical review of the evidence. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 290, 932-940 (2003).
360. Nygard O, Refsum H, Ueland PM, Vollset SE: Major lifestyle determinants of plasma total homocysteine distribution: the Hordaland Homocysteine Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67, 263-270 (1998).
361. Bergmark C, Mansoor MA, Svardal A, de Faire U: Redox status of plasma homocysteine and related aminothiols in smoking and nonsmoking young adults. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 43, 1997-1999 (1997).
362. Blom HJ: Determinants of plasma homocysteine. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67, 188-189 (1998).
363. Stein JH, Bushara M, Bushara K, McBride PE, Jorenby DE, Fiore MC: Smoking cessation, but not smoking reduction, reduces plasma homocysteine levels. Clin. Cardiol. 25, 23-26 (2002).
364. Tonstad S, Urdal P: Does short-term smoking cessation reduce plasma total homocysteine concentrations? Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 62, 279-284 (2002).
365. Brattstrom L, Wilcken DE: Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: cause or effect? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72, 315-323 (2000).
366. Havranek EP: Primary prevention of CHD: nine ways to reduce risk. Am. Fam. Physician 59, 1455-1463 (1999).
367. Benowitz NL, Jacob P, III: Effects of cigarette smoking and carbon monoxide on nicotine and cotinine metabolism. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 67, 653-659 (2000).
368. Wilcken DE, Wilcken B: The natural history of vascular disease in homocystinuria and the effects of treatment. J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 20, 295-300 (1997).
369. Yap S, Naughten ER, Wilcken B, Wilcken DE, Boers GH: Vascular complications of severe hyperhomocysteinemia in patients with homocystinuria due to cystathionine β-synthase deficiency: effects of homocysteine-lowering therapy. Semin. Thromb. Hemost. 26, 335-340 (2000).
370. Yap S, Boers GH, Wilcken B et al.: Vascular outcome in patients with homocystinuria due to cystathionine bsynthase deficiency treated chronically: a multicenter observational study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21, 2080-2085 (2001).
371. B-Vitamin Treatment Trialists' Collaboration: Homocysteine-lowering trials for prevention of cardiovascular events: a review of the design and power of the large randomized trials. Am. Heart J. 151, 282-287 (2006).
372. Homocysteine Lowering Trialists' Collaboration: Dose-dependent effects of folic acid on blood concentrations of homocysteine: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 82, 806-812 (2005).
373. Liebson PR: Women's Health Initiative (WHI) Dietary Trial and Norwegian Vitamin Trial (NORVIT). Prev. Cardiol. 9, 178-182 (2006).
374. Bonaa KH, Njolstad I, Ueland PM et al.: Homocysteine lowering and cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 354, 1578-1588 (2006).
375. Zhang F, Chen Y, Heiman M, Dimarchi R: Leptin: structure, function and biology. Vitam. Horm. 71, 345-372 (2005).
376. Friedman JM, Halaas JL: Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature 395, 763-770 (1998).
377. Beltowski J: Leptin and atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 189, 47-60 (2006).
378. Wei M, Stern MP, Haffner SM: Serum leptin levels in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic Whites: association with body mass index and cigarette smoking. Ann. Epidemiol. 7, 81-86 (1997).
379. Hodge AM, Westerman RA, de Courten MP, Collier GR, Zimmet PZ, Alberti KG: Is leptin sensitivity the link between smoking cessation and weight gain? Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 21, 50-53 (1997).
380. Mantzoros CS, Liolios AD, Tritos NA et al.: Circulating insulin concentrations, smoking, and alcohol intake are important independent predictors of leptin in young healthy men. Obes. Res. 6, 179-186 (1998).
381. Donahue RP, Zimmet P, Bean JA et al.: Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and physical activity in relation to serum leptin levels in a multiethnic population: The Miami Community Health Study. Ann. Epidemiol. 9, 108-113 (1999).
382. Targher G, Zenari L, Faccini G, Falezza G, Muggeo M, Zoppini G: Serum leptin concentrations in young smokers with Type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 24, 793 (2001).
383. Tanaka M, Umezaki M, Natsuhara K et al.: No difference in serum leptin concentrations between urban-dwelling Austronesians and Non-Austronesians in Papua New Guinea. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 17, 696-703 (2005).
384. Reseland JE, Mundal HH, Hollung K et al.: Cigarette smoking may reduce plasma leptin concentration via catecholamines. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 73, 43-49 (2005).
385. Perkins KA, Broge M, Gerlach D et al.: Acute nicotine reinforcement, but not chronic tolerance, predicts withdrawal and relapse after quitting smoking. Health Psychol. 21, 332-339 (2002).
386. Eliasson B, Smith U: Leptin levels in smokers and long-term users of nicotine gum. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 29, 145-152 (1999).
387. Yoshinari M, Wakisaka M, Fujishima M: Serum leptin levels in smokers with Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 21, 516-517 (1998).
388. Nicklas BJ, Tomoyasu N, Muir J, Goldberg AP: Effects of cigarette smoking and its cessation on body weight and plasma leptin levels. Metabolism 48, 804-808 (1999).
389. Nystrom F, Ekman B, Osterlund M, Lindstrom T, Ohman KP, Arnqvist HJ: Serum leptin concentrations in a normal population and in GH deficiency: negative correlation with testosterone in men and effects of GH treatment. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 47, 191-198 (1997).
390. Elbatarny HS, Maurice DH: Leptin-mediated activation of human platelets: involvement of a leptin receptor and phosphodiesterase 3A-containing cellular signaling complex. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 289, E695-E702 (2005).
391. Wolk R, Berger P, Lennon RJ, Brilakis ES, Johnson BD, Somers VK: Plasma leptin and prognosis in patients with established coronary atherosclerosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44, 1819-1824 (2004).
392. Soderberg S, Ahren B, Stegmayr B et al.: Leptin is a risk marker for firstever hemorrhagic stroke in a population-based cohort. Stroke 30, 328-337 (1999).
393. Soderberg S, Ahren B, Jansson JH et al.: Leptin is associated with increased risk of myocardial infarction. J. Intern. Med. 246, 409-418 (1999).
394. Leyva F, Anker SD, Egerer K, Stevenson JC, Kox WJ, Coats AJ: Hyperleptinaemia in chronic heart failure. Relationships with insulin. Eur. Heart J. 19, 1547-1551 (1998).
395. Reilly MP, Iqbal N, Schutta M et al.: Plasma leptin levels are associated with coronary atherosclerosis in Type 2 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89, 3872-3878 (2004).
396. Iribarren C, Husson G, Go AS et al.: Plasma leptin levels and coronary artery calcification in older adults. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 92, 729-732 (2007).
397. Luo JD, Zhang GS, Chen MS: Leptin and cardiovascular diseases. Timely Top. Med. Cardiovasc. Dis. 9, E34 (2005).
398. Beltowski J, Jamroz-Wisniewska A, Widomska S: Adiponectin and its role in cardiovascular diseases. Cardiovasc. Hematol. Disord. Drug Targets 8, 7-46 (2008).
399. Abbasi F, Farin HM, Lamendola C et al.: The relationship between plasma adiponectin concentration and insulin resistance is altered in smokers. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 5002-5007 (2006).
400. Al-Daghri NM, Al-Attas OS, Hussain T, Sabico S, Bamakhramah A: Altered levels of adipocytokines in Type 2 diabetic cigarette smokers. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 83, E37-E39 (2009).
401. Otsuka F, Kojima S, Maruyoshi H et al.: Smoking cessation is associated with increased plasma adiponectin levels in men. J. Cardiol. 53, 219-225 (2009).
402. Efstathiou SP, Skeva II, Dimas C et al.: Smoking cessation increases serum adiponectin levels in an apparently healthy Greek population. Atherosclerosis 205(2), 632-636 (2009).
403. Koerner A, Kratzsch J, Kiess W: Adipocytokines: leptin - the classical, resistin - the controversical, adiponectin - the promising, and more to come. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 19, 525-546 (2005).
404. Frankel DS, Vasan RS, D'Agostino RB Sr et al.: Resistin, adiponectin, and risk of heart failure the Framingham offspring study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 53, 754-762 (2009).
405. Chen BH, Song Y, Ding EL et al.: Circulating levels of resistin and risk of Type 2 diabetes in men and women: results from two prospective cohorts. Diabetes Care 32, 329-334 (2009).
406. Pilz S, Weihrauch G, Seelhorst U et al.: Implications of resistin plasma levels in subjects undergoing coronary angiography. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 66, 380-386 (2007).
407. Shin HJ, Park S, Yoon SJ et al.: Association between serum resistin and carotid intima media thickness in hypertension patients. Int. J. Cardiol. 125, 79-84 (2008).
408. Ahn KS, Aggarwal BB: Transcription factor NF-κB: a sensor for smoke and stress signals. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1056, 218-233 (2005).
409. Weber C, Erl W: Modulation of vascular cell activation, function, and apoptosis: role of antioxidants and nuclear factor-κ B. Curr. Top. Cell. Regul. 36, 217-235 (2000).
410. Hajra L, Evans AI, Chen M, Hyduk SJ, Collins T, Cybulsky MI: The NF-κ B signal transduction pathway in aortic endothelial cells is primed for activation in regions predisposed to atherosclerotic lesion formation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 9052-9057 (2000).
411. Shen Y, Rattan V, Sultana C, Kalra VK: Cigarette smoke condensate-induced adhesion molecule expression and transendothelial migration of monocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 270, H1624 (1996).
412. Ueno H, Pradhan S, Schlessel D, Hirasawa H, Sumpio BE: Nicotine enhances human vascular endothelial cell expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 via protein kinase C, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, NF-κB, and AP-1. Cardiovasc. Toxicol. 6, 39-50 (2006).
413. Cirillo P, DE Rosa S, Pacileo M et al.: Nicotine induces tissue factor expression in cultured endothelial and smooth muscle cells. J. Thromb. Haemost. 4, 453-458 (2006).
414. Ryan S, Taylor CT, McNicholas WT: Predictors of elevated nuclear factor-κB-dependent genes in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 174, 824-830 (2006).
415. Cucina A, Corvino V, Sapienza P et al.: Nicotine regulates basic fibroblastic growth factor and transforming growth factor β1 production in endothelial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 257, 306-312 (1999).
416. Shevchenko AO, Shevchenko OP, Orlova OV, Tulikov MV: [Neoangiogenesis and coronary atherosclerosis: diagnostic value of a novel biochemical marker placenta growth factor in patients with ischemic heart disease]. Kardiologiia 46, 9-15 (2006).
417. Yamamoto Y, Kohara K, Tabara Y, Miki T: Association between carotid arterial remodeling and plasma concentration of circulating hepatocyte growth factor. J. Hypertens. 19, 1975-1979 (2001).
418. Yamasaki K, Aoki M, Makino H et al.: Effect of nifedipine on endothelial function in normotensive smokers: potential contribution of increase in circulating hepatocyte growth factor. J. Hum. Hypertens. 18, 701-705 (2004).
419. Juul A, Scheike T, Davidsen M, Gyllenborg J, Jorgensen T: Low serum insulin-like growth factor I is associated with increased risk of ischemic heart disease: a population-based case-control study. Circulation 106, 939-944 (2002).
420. Colao A, Spiezia S, Di SC et al.: Circulating insulin-like growth factor-I levels are correlated with the atherosclerotic profile in healthy subjects independently of age. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 28, 440-448 (2005).
421. Fischer F, Schulte H, Mohan S et al.: Associations of insulin-like growth factors, insulin-like growth factor binding proteins and acid-labile subunit with coronary heart disease. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 61, 595-602 (2004).
422. Gunes T, Koklu E, Yikilmaz A et al.: Influence of maternal smoking on neonatal aortic intimamedia thickness, serum IGF-I and IGFBP-3 levels. Eur. J. Pediatr. 166, 1039-1044 (2007).
423. Eaton CB, Gramling R, Parker DR, Roberts MB, Lu B, Ridker PM: Prospective association of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) with coronary heart disease mortality in southeastern New England. Atherosclerosis 200, 221-227 (2008).
424. Kimura K, Hashiguchi T, Deguchi T et al.: Serum VEGF - as a prognostic factor of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 194, 182-188 (2007).
425. Council C: Envirmental Tobacco Smoke - Measuring Exposures and Assessing Health Effects. National Academic Press, Washington DC, USA, 30-31 (1986).
426. Carty CS, Huribal M, Marsan BU, Ricotta JJ, Dryjski M: Nicotine and its metabolite cotinine are mitogenic for human vascular smooth muscle cells. J. Vasc. Surg. 25, 682-688 (1997).
427. Cucina A, Sapienza P, Corvino V et al.: Nicotine-induced smooth muscle cell proliferation is mediated through bFGF and TGF-β 1. Surgery 127, 316-322 (2000).
428. Knuutinen A, Kokkonen N, Risteli J et al.: Smoking affects collagen synthesis and extracellular matrix turnover in human skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 146, 588-594 (2002).
429. Prescott SM, McIntyre TM, Zimmerman GA, Stafforini DM: Sol Sherry lecture in thrombosis: molecular events in acute inflammation. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 22, 727-733 (2002).
430. Madsen H, Dyerberg J: Cigarette smoking and its effects on the platelet-vessel wall interaction. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 44, 203-206 (1984).
431. Fusegawa Y, Handa S: Platelet aggregation induced by ADP or epinephrine is enhanced in habitual smokers. Thromb. Res. 97, 287-295 (2000).
432. Gidding SS, Xie X, Liu K, Manolio T, Flack JM, Gardin JM: Cardiac function in smokers and nonsmokers: the CARDIA study. The Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 26, 211-216 (1995).
433. Morgado PB, Chen HC, Patel V, Herbert L, Kohner EM: The acute effect of smoking on retinal blood flow in subjects with and without diabetes. Ophthalmology 101, 1220-1226 (1994).
434. Meurrens K, Ruf S, Ross G, Schleef R, von Holt K, Schluter KD: Smoking accelerates the progression of hypertension-induced myocardial hypertrophy to heart failure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Cardiovasc. Res. 76, 311-322 (2007).
435. Muscat JE, Harris RE, Haley NJ, Wynder EL: Cigarette smoking and plasma cholesterol. Am. Heart J. 121, 141-147 (1991).
436. Tell GS, Polak JF, Ward BJ, Kittner SJ, Savage PJ, Robbins J: Relation of smoking with carotid artery wall thickness and stenosis in older adults. The Cardiovascular Health Study. The Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS) Collaborative Research Group. Circulation 90, 2905-2908 (1994).
437. Stefanadis C, Vlachopoulos C, Tsiamis E et al.: Unfavorable effects of passive smoking on aortic function in men. Ann. Intern. Med. 128, 426-434 (1998).
438. Caro CG, Lever MJ, Parker KH, Fish PJ: Effect of cigarette smoking on the pattern of arterial blood flow: possible insight into mechanisms underlying the development of arteriosclerosis. Lancet 2, 11-13 (1987).
439. Stefanadis C, Dernellis J, Toutouzas P: Mechanical properties of the aorta determined by the pressure-diameter relation. Pathol. Biol. (Paris) 47, 696-704 (1999).
440. Liang YL, Shiel LM, Teede H et al.: Effects of blood pressure, smoking, and their interaction on carotid artery structure and function. Hypertension 37, 6-11 (2001).
441. Auerbach O, Hammond EC, Garfinkel L: Smoking in relation to atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries. N. Engl. J. Med. 273, 775-779 (1965).
442. Kornowski R: Impact of smoking on coronary atherosclerosis and remodeling as determined by intravascular ultrasonic imaging. Am. J. Cardiol. 83, 443-435, A9 (1999).
443. Curfs DM, Knaapen AM, Pachen DM et al.: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons induce an inflammatory atherosclerotic plaque phenotype irrespective of their DNA binding properties. FASEB J. 19, 1290-1292 (2005).
444. Nakanishi K, Zhao ZQ, Vinten-Johansen J, Hudspeth DA, McGee DS, Hammon JW Jr: Blood cardioplegia enhanced with nitric oxide donor SPM-5185 counteracts postischemic endothelial and ventricular dysfunction. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 109, 1146-1154 (1995).
445. Uchimoto S, Tsumura K, Hayashi T et al.: Impact of cigarette smoking on the incidence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus in middleaged Japanese men: the Osaka Health Survey. Diabet. Med. 16, 951-955 (1999).
446. Persson PG, Carlsson S, Svanstrom L, Ostenson CG, Efendic S, Grill V: Cigarette smoking, oral moist snuff use and glucose intolerance. J. Intern. Med. 248, 103-110 (2000).
447. Patja K, Jousilahti P, Hu G, Valle T, Qiao Q, Tuomilehto J: Effects of smoking, obesity and physical activity on the risk of Type 2 diabetes in middle-aged Finnish men and women. J. Intern. Med. 258, 356-362 (2005).
448. Wang XL, Wang J, Wilcken DE: Interactive effect of the p53 gene and cigarette smoking on coronary artery disease. Cardiovasc. Res. 35, 250-255 (1997).
449. Ardissino D, Mannucci PM, Merlini PA et al.: Prothrombotic genetic risk factors in young survivors of myocardial infarction. Blood 94, 46-51 (1999).
450. Li YH, Chen JH, Tsai WC et al.: Synergistic effect of thrombomodulin promoter 33G/A polymorphism and smoking on the onset of acute myocardial infarction. Thromb. Haemost. 87, 86-91 (2002).
451. NIH: Definitions Working Group (2000). www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/00/ slides/3593S1-03-downing.ppt ■ Gives insight into the criteria for biomarkers as a risk factor and/or a surrogate end point.