Betalains: Properties, sources, applications, and stability - A review

International Journal of Food Science and Technology

Volumn 44, Issue 12, 2009, Pages 2365-2376

  Azeredo, Henriette M C ^a  

^a EMBRAPA AGROINDÚSTRIA TROPICAL   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Antioxidants; Beetroots; Betalains; Natural colourants; Pigments

Indexed keywords

EID: 70450205056     PISSN: 09505423     EISSN: 13652621     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2007.01668.x     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Ade-Omowaye, B.I.O., Angersbach, A., Taiwo, K.A. Knorr, D. (2001). Use of pulsed electric field pre-treatment to improve dehydration characteristics of plant based foods. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 12, 285 295.
2. Akita, T., Hina, Y. Nishi, T. (2000). Production of betacyanins by a cell suspension culture of table beet (Beta vulgaris L.). Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 64, 1807 1812.
3. Alard, D., Wray, V., Grotjahn, L., Reznik, H. Strack, D. (1985). Neobetanin: isolation and identification from Beta vulgaris. Phytochemistry, 24, 2383 2385.
4. Allegra, M., Furtmüller, P.G., Jantschko, W. et al. (2005). Mechanism of interaction of betanin and indicaxanthin with human myeloperoxidase and hypoclorous acid. Biochemical and Biophysycal Research Communications, 332, 837 844.
5. Altamirano, R.C., Drdák, M., Simon, P., Smelík, A. Simko, P. (1992). Stability of red beet pigment concentrate in maize starch. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 58, 595 596.
6. Altamirano, R.C., Drdák, M., Simon, P., Rajniakova, A., Karovicová, J. Preclík, L. (1993). Thermal degradation of betanine in various water alcohol model systems. Food Chemistry, 46, 73 75.
7. Attoe, E.L. von Elbe, J.H. (1981). Photochemical degradation of betanine and selected anthocyanins. Journal of Food Science, 46, 1934 1937.
8. Attoe, E.L. von Elbe, J.H. (1982). Degradation kinetics of betanine in solutions as influenced by oxygen. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 30, 708 712.
9. Attoe, E.L. von Elbe, J.H. (1984). Oxygen involvement in betanin degradation. Zeitschrift für Lebensmitteluntersuchung und - Forschung A, 179, 232 236.
10. Attoe, E.L. von Elbe, J.H. (1985). Oxygen involvement in betanine degradation: effect of antioxidants. Journal of Food Science, 50, 106 110.
11. Bayindirli, A., Yildiz, F. Özilgen, M. (1988). Modeling of sequential batch ultrafiltration of red beet extract. Journal of Food Science, 53, 1418 1422.
12. Bilyk, A. Howard, M. (1982). Reversibility of thermal degradation of betacyanins under the influence of isoascorbic acid. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 30, 906 908.
13. Butera, D., Tesoriere, L., Di Gaudio, F. et al. (2002). Antioxidant activities of Sicilian prickly pear (Opuntia ficus indica) fruit extracts and reducing properties of its betalains: betanin and indicaxanthin. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 6895 6901.
14. Cai, Y. Corke, H. (1999). Amaranthus betacyanin pigments applied in model food systems. Journal of Food Science, 64, 869 873.
15. Cai, Y. Corke, H. (2000). Production and properties of spray-dried Amaranthus betacyanin pigments. Journal of Food Science, 65, 1248 1252.
16. Cai, Y., Sun, M. Corke, H. (1998). Colourant properties and stability of Amaranthus betacyanin pigments. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 4491 4495.
17. Cai, Y., Sun, M. Corke, H. (2003). Antioxidant activity of betalains from plants of the Amaranthaceae. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 2288 2294.
18. Cai, Y.Z., Sun, M. Corke, H. (2005). Characterization and application of betalain pigments from plants of the Amaranthaceae. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 16, 370 376.
19. Castellar, M.R., Obón, J.M., Alacid, M. Fernández- López, J.A. (2003). Color properties and stability of betacyanins from Opuntia fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 2772 2776.
20. Castellar, M.R., Obón, J.M. Fernández-López, J.A. (2006). The isolation and properties of a concentrated red-purple betacyanin food colourant from Opuntia stricta fruits. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 86, 122 128.
21. Cerezal, M. P. Núñez, L. D. (1996). Characterización del colourante de remolacha roja (Beta vulgaris L.) em polvo. Alimentaria, 1, 91 94.
22. Cerezal, M. P., Pino, A. J. Salabarria, Y. (1994). Red beet (Beta vulgaris L.) colourant stability in the form of a concentrated liquor. Tecnología Alimentaria, 29, 7 16.
23. Chalermchat, Y., Dejmek, P. Fincan, M. (2004). Pulsed electric field treatment for solid-liquid extraction of red beetroot pigment: mathematical modelling of mass transfer. Journal of Food Engineering, 64, 229 236.
24. Codex Alimentarius Commission (2004). ALINORM 05/28/27 - Report of the Twenty-Second Session of the Codex Committee on Processed Fruits and Vegetables. Available at: http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/report/624/al28-27e.pdf (accessed 24/06/2006). Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
25. Cohen, E. Saguy, I. (1983). Effect of water activity and moisture content on the stability of beet powder pigments. Journal of Food Science, 48, 703 707.
26. Czapski, J. (1990). Heat stability of betacyanins in red beet juice and in betanin solutions. European Food Research and Technology, 191, 275 278.
27. Czyżowska, A., Klewicka, E. Libudzisz, Z. (2006). The influence of lactic acid fermentation process of red beet juice on the stability of biologically active colorants. European Food Research and Technology, 223, 110 116.
28. Delgado-Vargas, F., Jiménez, A.R. Paredes-López, O. (2000). Natural pigments: carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains - characteristics, biosynthesis, processing, and stability. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 40, 173 289.
29. Dörnenburg, H. Knorr, D. (1997). Challenges and opportunities of metabolite production from plant cell and tissue culture. Food Technology, 51, 47 54.
30. Downham, A. Collins, P. (2000). Colouring our foods in the last and next millennium. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 35, 5 22.
31. Drdák, M. Vallová, M. (1990). Kinetics of the thermal degradation of betanine. Die Nahrung, 34, 307 310.
32. Drdák, M., Altamirano, R.C., Rajniakova, A., Simko, P., Karovicova, J. Benkovska, D. (1992). Red beet pigment composition. Effects of fermentation by different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Journal of Food Science, 57, 935 936.
33. Drunkler, D.A., Fett, R. Bordignon-Luiz, M.T. (2006). Avaliação da estabilidade de betalaínas em extrato de beterraba (Beta vulgaris L.) com α-, β- e γ-ciclodextrinas. Boletim Centro de Pesquisa de Processamento de Alimentos, 24, 259 276.
34. Escribano, J., Pedreño, M.A., García-Carmona, F. Muñoz, R. (1998). Characterization of the antiradical activity of betalains from Beta vulgaris L. roots. Phytochemical Analysis, 9, 124 127.
35. Escribano, J., Gandía-Herrero, F., Caballero, N. Pedreño, M.A. (2002). Subcellular localization and isoenzyme pattern of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase in beet root (Beta vulgaris L). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 6123 6129.
36. Feugang, J.M., Konarski, P., Zou, D., Stintzing, F.C. Zou, C. (2006). Nutritional and medicinal use of cactus pear (Opuntia spp.) cladodes and fruits. Frontiers in Bioscience, 11, 2574 2589.
37. Fincan, M., De Vito, F. Dejmek, P. (2004). Pulsed electric field treatment for solid-liquid extraction of red beetroot pigment. Journal of Food Engineering, 64, 381 388.
38. Fletcher, A. (2006) Lycopene colorant achieves regulatory approval. Available at: http://www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?n=64939-lycored-lycopene- colour (accessed 25/08/2006).
39. Gaertner, V. Goldman, I.L. (2005). Pigment distribution and total dissolved solids of selected cycles of table beet from a recurrent selection program for increased pigment. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 130, 424 433.
40. García Barrera, F.A., Reynoso, C.R. González de Mejía, E. (1998). Estabilidad de las betalaínas extraídas del garambullo (Myrtillocactus geometrizans). Food Science and Technology International, 4, 115 120.
41. Gasztonyi, M.N., Daood, H., Hajos, M.T. Biacs, P. (2001). Comparison of red beet (Beta vulgaris var. conditiva) varieties on the basis of their pigment components. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81, 932 933.
42. Gentile, C., Tesoriere, L., Allegra, M., Livrea, M.A. D'Alessio, P. (2004). Antioxidant betalains from cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) inhibit endothelial ICAM-1 expression. Signal Transduction and Communication in Cancer Cells, 1028, 481 486.
43. Halvorsen, B.L., Holte, K., Myhrstad, M.C.W. et al. (2002). A systematic screening of total antioxidants in dietary plants. Journal of Nutrition, 132, 461 471.
44. Han, D., Kim, S.J. Kim, D.M. (1998). Repeated regeneration of degraded red beet juice pigments in the presence of antioxidants. Journal of Food Science, 63, 69 72.
45. Havlíková, L., Míková, K. Kyzlink, V. (1983). Heat stability of betacyanins. Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung, 177, 247 250.
46. Herbach, K.M., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2004a). Impact of thermal treatment on colour and pigment pattern of red beet (Beta vulgaris L.) preparations. Journal of Food Science, 69, C491 C498.
47. Herbach, K.M., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2004b). Thermal degradation of betacyanins in juices from purple pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus [Weber] Britton and Rose) monitored by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric analyses. European Food Research and Technology, 219, 377 385.
48. Herbach, K.M., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2005). Identification of heat-induced degradation products from purified betanin, phyllocactin and hylocerenin by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 19, 2603 2616.
49. Herbach, K.M., Rohe, M., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2006a). Structural and chromatic stability of purple pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus [Weber] Britton & Rose) betacyanins as affected by the juice matrix and selected additives. Food Reserach International, 39, 667 677.
50. Herbach, K.M., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2006b). Betalain stability and degradation - structural and chromatic aspects. Journal of Food Science, 71, R41 R50.
51. Herbach, K.M., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2006c). Stability and color changes of thermally treated betanin, phyllocactin, and hylocerenin solutions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54, 390 398.
52. Heuer, S., Richter, S., Metzger, J.W., Wray, V., Nimtz, M. Strack, D. (1994). Betacyanins from bracts of Bougainvillea glabra. Phytochemistry, 37, 761 767.
53. Hilpert, H., Siegfried, M.A. Dreiding, A.S. (1985). Total synthese von decarboxybetalainen durch photochemische ringöffnung von 3-(4-pyridyl)alanin. Helvetica Chimica Acta, 68, 1670 1678.
54. Huang, A.S. von Elbe, J.H. (1985). Kinetics of the degradation and regeneration of betanine. Journal of Food Science, 50, 1115 1120.
55. Huang, A.S. von Elbe, J.H. (1986). Stability comparison of two betacyanine pigments - amaranthine and betanine. Journal of Food Science, 51, 670 674.
56. Huang, A.S. von Elbe, J.H. (1987). Effect of pH on the degradation and regeneration of betanine. Journal of Food Science, 52, 1689 1693.
57. Jackman, R.L. Smith, J.L. (1996). Anthocyanins and betalains. In : Natural food colourants (edited by G.F. Hendry J.D. Houghton). pp. 244 309. London : Blackie Academic & Professional.
58. Jimenez-Aparicio, A. Gutierrez-Lopez, G. (1999). Production of food related colourants by culture of plant cells. The case of betalains. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 464, 195 210.
59. Kanner, J., Harel, S. Granit, R. (2001). Betalains - a new class of dietary cationized antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 49, 5178 5185.
60. Kapadia, G.J., Tokuda, H., Konoshima, T. Nishino, H. (1996). Chemoprevention of lung and skin cancer by Beta vulgaris (beet) root extract. Cancer Letters, 100, 211 214.
61. Kapadia, G.J., Azuine, M.A., Sridhar, R. et al. (2003). Chemoprevention of DMBA-induced UV-B promoted, NOR-1-induced TPA promoted skin carcinogenesis, and DEN-induced phenobarbital promoted liver tumors in mice by extract of beetroot. Pharmacological Research, 47, 141 148.
62. Kearsley, M.W. Katsaboxakis, K.Z. (1980). Stability and use of natural colours in foods. Journal of Food Technology, 15, 501 514.
63. Kugler, F., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2004). Identification of betalains from petioles of differently coloured Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla [L.] Alef. cv. Bright Lights) by high-performance liquid chromatography- electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52, 2975 2981.
64. Kujala, T., Loponen, J. Pihlaja, K. (2001). Betalains and phenolics in red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) peel extracts: extraction and characterization. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, 56c, 343 348.
65. Leathers, R.R., Davin, C. Zryd, J.P. (1992). Betalain producing cell cultures of Beta vulgaris L. Var. Bikores Monogerm (red beet). In vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology, 28, 39 45.
66. Lee, C.Y. Smith, N.L. (1979). Blanching effect on polyphenol oxidase activity in table beets. Journal of Food Science, 44, 82 86.
67. Lee, Y.N. Wiley, R.C. (1981). Betalaine yield from a continuous solid-liquid extraction system as influenced by raw product, post-harvest and processing variables. Journal of Food Science, 46, 421 424.
68. Lee, C.H., Wettasinghe, M., Bolling, B.W., Ji, L.L. Parkin, K.L. (2005). Betalains, phase-II enzyme-inducing components from red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extracts. Nutrition and Cancer, 53, 91 103.
69. Lee, Y.N., Wiley, R.C., Sheu, M.J. Schlimme, D.V. (1982). Purification and concentration of betalaines by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis. Journal of Food Science, 47, 465 471.
70. Lu, G., Edwards, C.G., Fellman, J.K., Mattinson, D.S. Navazio, J. (2003). Biosynthetic origin of geosmin in red beets (Beta vulgaris L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 1026 1029.
71. Mabry, T.J., Wyler, H., Parikh, I. Dreiding, A.S. (1967). The conversion of betanidin and betanin to neobetanidin derivatives. Tetrahedron, 23, 3111 3127.
72. Máriássyová, M. Šilhár, S. (2000). Conversion of betalains in the presence of antioxidants. Czech Journal of Food Sciences, 18, 220 221.
73. Martínez-Parra, J. Muñoz, R. (2001). Characterization of betacyanin oxidation catalyzed by a peroxidase from Beta vulgaris L. roots. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 49, 4064 4068.
74. Mizrahi, Y., Nerd, A. Nobel, P.S. (1997). Cacti as crops. Horticultural Reviews, 18, 291 320.
75. Moßhammer, M.R., Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2005). Colour studies on fruit juice blends from Opuntia and Hylocereus cacti and betalain-containing model solutions derived therefrom. Food Research International, 38, 975 981.
76. Nayak, C.A., Chethana, S., Rastogi, N.K. Raghavarao, K. (2006). Enhanced mass transfer during solid-liquid extraction of gamma-irradiated red beetroot. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 75, 173 178.
77. Netzel, M., Stintzing, F.C., Quaas, D. et al. (2005). Renal excretion of antioxidative constituents from red beet in humans. Food Research International, 38, 1051 1058.
78. Nilsson, T. (1970). Studies into the pigments in beetroot (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. rubra L.). Lantbrukhogskolans Annaler, 36, 179 219.
79. Ou, B., Huang, D., Hampsch-Woodill, M., Flanagan, J.A. Deemer, E.K. (2002). Analysis of antioxidant activities of common vegetables employing oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays: a comparative study. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 3122 3128.
80. Pasch, J.H. von Elbe, J.H. (1979). Betanine stability in buffered solutions containing organic acids, metal cations, antioxidants, or sequestrants. Journal of Food Science, 44, 72 74.
81. Pavlov, A., Kovatcheva, P., Georgiev, V., Koleva, I. Ilieva, M. (2002). Biosynthesis and radical scavenging activity of betalains during the cultivation of red beet (Beta vulgaris) hairy root cultures. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, 57c, 640 644.
82. Pedreño, M.A. Escribano, J. (2001). Correlation between antiradical activity and stability of betanine from Beta vulgaris L. roots under different pH, temperature and light conditions. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81, 627 631.
83. Piattelli, M. (1981). The betalains: structure, biosynthesis and chemical taxonomy. In : The biochemistry of plants - a comprehensive treatise (edited by E.E. Conn) Pp. 17. New York : Academic Press. Secondary Plant Products, v. 17.
84. Piattelli, M., Minale, L. Prota, G. (1964). Isolation, structure and absolute configuration of indicaxanthin. Tetrahedron, 20, 2325 2329.
85. Piattelli, M., Minale, L. Nicolaus, R.A. (1965). Pigments of centrospermae. V. Betaxanthins from Mirabilis jalapa L. Phytochemistry, 4, 817 823.
86. Pourrat, A., Lejeune, B., Grand, A. Pourrat, H. (1988). Betalains assay of fermented red beet root extract by high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Food Science, 53, 294 295.
87. Pszczola, D.E. (1998). Natural colours: pigments of imagination. Food Technology, 52, 70 76.
88. Rastogi, N.K., Eshtiaghi, M.N. Knorr, D. (1999). Accelerated mass transfer during osmotic dehydration of high intensity electrical field pulse pre-treated carrots. Journal of Food Science, 64, 1020 1023.
89. Real, S.E. Cerezal, M.P. (1995). Estudio de los parámetros de operación en la ultrafiltración del jugo de remolacha para colourante. La Alimentación Latinoamericana, 206, 34 40.
90. Reynoso, R., Garcia, F.A., Morales, D. Gonzalez de Mejia, E. (1997). Stability of betalain pigments from a cactacea fruit. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45, 2884 2889.
91. Saguy, I. (1979). Thermostability of red beet pigments (betanine and vulgaxanthin-I): influence of pH and temperature. Journal of Food Science, 44, 1554 1555.
92. Saguy, I., Kopelman, I.J. Mizrahi, S. (1978). Thermal kinetic degradation of betanin and betalamic acid. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 26, 360 362.
93. Saguy, I., Goldman, M., Bord, A. Cohen, E. (1984). Effect of oxygen retained on beet powder on the stability of betanine and vulgaxanthine-I. Journal of Food Science, 49, 99 101.
94. Sapers, G.M. Hornstein, J.S. (1979). Varietal differences in colorant properties and stability of red beet pigments. Journal of Food Science, 44, 1245 1248.
95. Savolainen, K. Kuusi, T. (1978). The stability properties of golden beet and red beet pigments: influence of pH, temperature, and some stabilizers. Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung, 166, 19 22.
96. Schliemann, W. Strack, D. (1998). Intramolecular stabilization of acylated betacyanins. Phytochemistry, 49, 585 588.
97. Schliemann, W., Kobayashi, N. Strack, D. (1999). The decisive step in betaxanthin biosynthesis is a spontaneous reaction. Plant Physiology, 119, 1217 1232.
98. Schwartz, S.J. von Elbe, J.H. (1983). Identification of betanin degradation products. European Food Research and Tecxhnology, 176, 448 453.
99. Serris, G.S. Biliaderis, C.G. (2001). Degradation kinetics of beetroot pigment encapsulated in polymeric matrices. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81, 691 700.
100. Shenoy, V.R. (1993). Anthocyanins - Prospective food colours. Current Science, 64, 575 579.
101. Shih, C.C. Wiley, R.C. (1981). Betacyanine and betaxanthine decolorizing enzymes in the beet (Beta vulgaris L.) root. Journal of Food Science, 47, 164 166.
102. Singer, J.W. von Elbe, J.H. (1980). Degradation rates of vulgaxanthine I. Journal of Food Science, 45, 489 491.
103. Sobkowska, E., Czapski, J. Kaczmarek, R. (1991). Red table beet pigment as food colorant. International Food Ingredients, 3, 24 28.
104. Stafford, H.A. (1994). Anthocyanins and betalains: evolution of the mutually exclusive pathways. Plant Science, 101, 91 98.
105. Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2004). Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalains in plants, food, and in human nutrition. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 15, 19 38.
106. Stintzing, F.C. Carle, R. (2006). Cactus fruits - more than colour. Fruit Processing, 16, 166 171.
107. Stintzing, F.C., Schieber, A. Carle, R. (2001). Phytochemical and nutritional significance of cactus pear. European Food Research and Technology, 212, 396 407.
108. Stintzing, F.C., Schieber, A. Carle, R. (2002a). Betacyanins in fruits from red-purple pitaya, Hylocereus polyrhizus (Weber) Britton & Rose. Food Chemistry, 77, 101 106.
109. Stintzing, F.C., Schieber, A. Carle, R. (2002b). Identification of betalains from yellow beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and cactus pear [Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.] by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 2302 2307.
110. Stintzing, F.C., Schieber, A. Carle, R. (2003). Evaluation of colour properties and chemical quality parameters of cactus juices. European Food Research and Technology, 216, 303 311.
111. Stintzing, F.C., Conrad, J., Klaiber, I., Beifuss, U. Carle, R. (2004). Structural investigations on betacyanin pigments by LC NMR and 2D NMR spectroscopy. Phytochemistry, 65, 415 422.
112. Stintzing, F.C., Herbach, K.M., Mosshammer, M.R. et al. (2005). Color, betalain pattern, and antioxidant properties of cactus pear (Opuntia spp.) clones. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 442 451.
113. 13C-NMR assignments of betaxanthins. Helvetica Chimica Acta, 89, 1008 1016.
114. Strack, D., Schmitt, D., Reznik, H., Boland, W., Grotjahn, L. Wray, V. (1987). Humilixanthin, a new betaxanthin from Rivina humilis. Phytochemistry, 26, 2285 2287.
115. Strack, D., Steglich, W. Wray, V. (1993). Betalains. In : Methods in Plant Biochemistry, v. 8 (edited by P.M. Dey, J.B. Harborne P.G. Waterman). pp. 421 450. Orlando : Academic Press.
116. Strack, D., Vogt, T. Schliemann, W. (2003). Recent advances in betalain research. Phytochemistry, 62, 247 269.
117. Tesoriere, l., Butera, D., D'Arpa, D. et al. (2003). Increased resistance to oxidation of betalain-enriched human low density lipoproteins. Free Radical Research, 37, 689 696.
118. Tesoriere, L., Allegra, M., Butera, D. Livrea, M.A. (2004a). Absorption, excretion, and distribution of dietary antioxidant betalains in LDLs: Potential health effects of betalains in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80, 941 945.
119. Tesoriere, L., Butera, D., Pintaudi, A.M., Allegra, M. Livrea, M.A. (2004b). Supplementation with cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) fruit decreases oxidative stress in healthy humans: a comparative study with vitamin C. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80, 391 395.
120. Tesoriere, L., Butera, L., Allegra, M., Fazzari, M. Livrea, M.A. (2005). Distribution of betalain pigments in red blood cells after consumption of cactus pear fruits and increased resistance of the cells to ex vivo induced oxidative hemolysis in humans. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 1266 1270.
121. Trezzini, G.F. Zr, J.P. (1991). Two betalains from Portucala grandiflora. Phytochemistry, 30, 1897 1899.
122. Vaillant, F., Perez, A., Davila, I., Dornier, M. Reynes, M. (2005). Colourant and antioxidant properties of red-purple pitahaya (Hylocereus sp.) Fruits, 60, 1 10.
123. Vinson, J.A., Hao, Y., Su, X. Zubik, L. (1998). Phenol antioxidant quantity and quality in foods: vegetables. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 3630 3634.
124. von Elbe, J.H. (1975). Stability of betalaines as food colors. Food Technology, 5, 42 44.
125. von Elbe, J.H. Attoe, E.L. (1985). Oxygen involvement in betanine degradation - Measurement of active oxygen species and oxidation-reduction potentials. Food Chemistry, 16, 49 67.
126. von Elbe, J.H., Maing, I. Amundson, C.H. (1974). Colour stability of betanin. Journal of Food Science, 39, 334 337.
127. Wasserman, B.P., Eiberger, L.L. Guilfoy, M.P. (1984). Effect of hydrogen peroxide and phenolic compounds on horseradish peroxidase-catalysed decolorization of betalain pigments. Journal of Food Science, 49, 536 538.
128. Wettasinghe, M., Bolling, B., Plhak, L., Xiao, H. Parkin, K. (2002). Phase II enzyme-inducing and antioxidant activities of beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extracts from phenotypes of different pigmentation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 6704 6707.
129. Wiley, R.C. Lee, Y.N. (1978). Recovery of betalaines from red beets by a diffusion-extraction procedure. Journal of Food Science, 43, 1056 1058.
130. Wu, L., Hsu, H.W., Chen, Y.C., Chiu, C.C., Lin, Y.I. Ho, J.A. (2006). Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of red pitaya. Food Chemistry, 95, 319 327.
131. Wybraniec, S. (2005). Formation of decarboxylated betacyanins in heated purified betacyanin fractions from red beet root (Beta vulgaris L.) monitored by LC-MS/MS. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 3483 3487.
132. Wybraniec, S. Mizrahi, Y. (2005). Generation of decarboxylated betacyanins in thermally treated purified fruit extract from purple pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) monitored by LC-MS/MS. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 6704 6712.
133. Wybraniec, S., Platzner, I., Geresh, S. et al. (2001). Betacyanins from vine cactus Hylocereus polyrhizus. Phytochemistry, 58, 1209 1212.
134. 13C NMR spectroscopic structural elucidation of new decarboxylated betacyanins. Tetrahedron Letters, 47, 1725 1728.
135. Wyler, H. Dreiding, A.S. (1984). Deuterierung von betanidin und indicaxanthin. (E/Z)-stereoisomerie in betalainen. Helvetica Chimica Acta, 67, 1793 1800.
136. Zou, D., Brewer, M., Garcia, F. et al. (2005). Cactus pear: a natural product in cancer chemoprevention. Nutrition Journal, 4, 25.